APA, Four-Five Page Paper With A Strong Thesis (Not Including The Title And Reference Pages). The Description Is Below:

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec2… 1/501

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec2… 2/501

Organizational Behavior

13TH EDITION

Mary Uhl-Bien

University of Nebraska

John R. Schermerhorn, Jr.

Ohio University

Richard N. Osborn

Wayne State University

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec2… 3/501

VICE PRESIDENT & EXECUTIVE PUBLISHER George Hoffman

EXECUTIVE EDITOR Lisé Johnson

CONTENT EDITOR Jennifer Manias

EDITORIAL ASSISTANT Jacqueline Hughes

DIRECTOR OF MARKETING Amy Scholz

SENIOR MARKETING MANAGER Kelly Simmons

MARKETING ASSISTANT Juliette San Fillipo

DESIGN DIRECTOR Harry Nolan

SENIOR CONTENT MANAGER Dorothy Sinclair

SENIOR PRODUCTION EDITOR Erin Ault

SENIOR PRODUCT DESIGNER Allison Morris

MEDIA SPECIALIST Elena Santa Maria

SENIOR PHOTO EDITOR Mary Ann Price

PHOTO RESEARCHER Susan McLaughlin

SENIOR DESIGNER Thomas Nery

COVER PHOTO ©Philip and Karen Smith/Iconica/Getty Images

UMBRELLA ICON ©Monti26/Shutterstock

This book was typeset in 10/12 Kepler Std Light at Aptara®, Inc. and printed and bound by Quad Graphics/Versailles. The cover was printed by Quad Graphics/Versailles.

This book is printed on acid free paper. ∞

Founded in 1807, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. has been a valued source of knowledge and understanding for more than 200 years, helping people around the world meet their needs and ful�ill their aspirations. Our company is built on a foundation of principles that include responsibility to the communities we serve and where we live and work. In 2008, we launched a Corporate Citizenship Initiative, a global effort to address the environmental, social, economic, and ethical challenges we face in our business. Among the issues we are addressing are carbon impact, paper speci�ications and procurement, ethical conduct within our

business and among our vendors, and community and charitable support. For more information, please visit our website: www.wiley.com/go/citizenship (http://www.wiley.com/go/citizenship) .

Copyright ©2014, 2012, 2010, 2008, 2005, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except as permitted under

Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec2… 4/501

of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, website www.copyright.com (http://www.copyright.com) . Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the

Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030-5774, (201)748- 6011, fax (201)748-6008, website http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions

(http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions) .

Evaluation copies are provided to quali�ied academics and professionals for review purposes only, for use in their courses during the next academic year. These copies are licensed and may not be sold or

transferred to a third party. Upon completion of the review period, please return the evaluation copy to Wiley. Return instructions and a free of charge return shipping label are available at

www.wiley.com/go/returnlabel (http://www.wiley.com/go/returnlabel) . If you have chosen to adopt this textbook for use in your course, please accept this book as your complimentary desk copy. Outside of the

United States, please contact your local representative.

ISBN 13: 978-1-119-48964-1

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec2… 5/501

About the Authors

Dr. Mary Uhl-Bien

DR. MARY UHL-BIEN is the Howard Hawks Chair in Business Ethics and Leadership at the University of Nebraska. She earned her Ph.D. and M.B.A. in organizational behavior at the University of Cincinnati after completing an undergraduate degree with a focus in International Business and Spanish. She teaches organizational behavior, leadership, and ethics courses at the undergraduate and graduate (MBA and doctoral) levels, and has been heavily involved in executive education around the world. She has been a visiting professor/scholar at Queensland University of Technology (QUT) in Australia, Lund University in Sweden, Pablo de Olavide University in Seville, Spain, and the Universidade Nova de Lisboa/Catolica Portuguesa in Lisbon, Portugal.

Dr. Uhl-Bien’s research interests are in leadership, followership, and ethics. In addition to her conceptual work on complexity and relational leadership, some of the empirical projects she is currently involved in include investigations of “Leadership and Adaptability in the Healthcare Industry” (a $300,000 grant from Booz Allen Hamilton), “Adaptive Leadership and Innovation: A Focus on Idea Generation and Flow” (at a major �inancial institution in the U.S.), and “Social Constructions of Followership and Leading Up.” She has published in such journals as The Academy of Management Journal, the Journal of Applied Psychology, The Leadership Quarterly, the Journal of Management, and Human Relations. She won the Best Paper Award in The Leadership Quarterly in 2001 for her co-authored article on Complex Leadership. She has been on the editorial boards of The Academy of Management Journal, The Academy of Management Review, The Leadership Quarterly, Leadership, and The International Journal of Complexity in Leadership and Management, and is senior editor of the Leadership Horizons series (Information Age Publishers). Dr. Uhl- Bien has consulted with Disney, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, British Petroleum, and the General Accounting Of�ice, and served as the executive consultant for State Farm Insurance Co. from 1998–2004. She has been a Visiting Scholar in Spain, Portugal, and Sweden. Dr. Uhl-Bien has trained Russian businesspeople for the American Russian Center at the University of Alaska Anchorage from 1993–1996, worked on a USAID grant at the Magadan Pedagogical Institute in Magadan, Russia from 1995–1996, and participated in a Fulbright-Hays grant to Mexico during the summer of 2003.

Dr. John R. Schermerhorn, Jr.

DR. JOHN R. SCHERMERHORN JR. is the Charles G. O’Bleness Emeritus Professor of Management in the College of Business at Ohio University where he teaches undergraduate and MBA courses in management, organizational behavior, and Asian business. He earned a PhD degree in organizational behavior from Northwestern University, after receiving an MBA degree (with distinction) in management and international business from New York University, and a BS degree in business administration from the State University of New York at Buffalo.

Dr. Schermerhorn focuses his teaching and textbooks on bridging the gap between the theory and practice of management. He has won awards for teaching excellence at Tulane University, The University of Vermont, and Ohio University, where he was named a University Professor, the university’s leading

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec2… 6/501

campus-wide award for undergraduate teaching. He also received the excellence in leadership award for his service as Chair of the Management Education and Development Division of the Academy of Management.

Dr. Schermerhorn’s international experience adds a unique global dimension to his teaching and writing. He holds an honorary doctorate from the University of Pécs in Hungary, awarded for his international scholarly contributions to management research and education. He has also served as a Visiting Fulbright Professor at the University of Botswana, Visiting Professor of Management at the Chinese University of Hong Kong, on-site Coordinator of the Ohio University MBA and Executive MBA programs in Malaysia, and Kohei Miura Visiting Professor at the Chubu University of Japan. Presently he is Adjunct Professor at the National University of Ireland at Galway, a member of the graduate faculty at Bangkok University in Thailand, and Permanent Lecturer in the PhD program at the University of Pécs in Hungary.

An enthusiastic scholar, Dr. Schermerhorn is a member of the Academy of Management, where he served as chairperson of the Management Education and Development Division. Educators and students alike know him as author of Exploring Management (2014) and Management 12e (Wiley, 2013). His many books are available in Chinese, Dutch, French, Indonesian, Portuguese, Russian, and Spanish language editions. Dr. Schermerhorn has also published numerous articles in publications such as the Academy of Management Journal, Academy of Management Review, Academy of Management Executive, Organizational Dynamics, Journal of Management Education, and the Journal of Management Development.

Dr. Schermerhorn is a popular guest speaker at colleges and universities. His recent student and faculty workshop topics include innovations in business education, teaching the millennial generation, global perspectives in management, and textbook writing and scholarly manuscript development.

Dr. Richard N. Osborn

Dr. Richard N. Osborn is a Wayne State University Distinguished Professor, Professor of Management Emeritus, and former Board of Governors Faculty Fellow. He has received teaching awards at Southern Illinois University at Carbondale and Wayne State University, and he has also taught at Arizona State University, Monash University (Australia), Tulane University, University of Munich, and the University of Washington. He received a DBA from Kent State University after earning an MBA at Washington State University and a B.S. from Indiana University. With over 200 presentations and publications, he is a charter member of the Academy of Management Journals Hall of Fame. Dr. Osborn is a leading authority on international alliances in technology-intensive industries and is co-author of an organization theory text as well as Basic Organizational Behavior (John Wiley & Sons, 1995, 1998). He has served as editor of international strategy for the Journal of World Business and Special Issue Editor for The Academy of Management Journal. He serves or has served as a member of the editorial boards for The Academy of Management Journal, The Academy of Management Review, Journal of High Technology Management, The Journal of Management, Leadership Quarterly, and Technology Studies, among others. He is very active in the Academy of Management, having served as divisional program chair and president, as well as the Academy representative for the International Federation of Scholarly Associations of Management. Dr. Osborn’s research has been sponsored by the Department of Defense, Ford Motor Company, National Science Foundation, Nissan, and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission, among others. In addition to teaching, Dr. Osborn spent a number of years in private industry, including a position as a senior research scientist with the Battelle Memorial Institute in Seattle, where he worked on improving the safety of commercial nuclear power.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec2… 7/501

From the Authors

Global warming, economic uncertainty, poverty, discrimination, unemployment, illiteracy—these are among the many issues and problems we now face. But how often do we stop and accept responsibility for problem solving and positive action in an increasingly complex world? What we do today will have a lasting impact on future generations. And whether we are talking about families, communities, nations, or the organizations in which we work and volunteer, the core question remains: How can we join together to best serve society?

Look at the cover and think about people with goals and aspirations. Think about people working together and collaborating around the world. Think about how people can expand the positive impact of society’s institutions when their ideas and talents come together in supportive and nurturing work settings. And think about the delicate balances—between work and family, between individuals and teams, and between organizations and society—that must be mastered in the quest for future prosperity.

Yes, our students do have a lot to consider in the complex and ever-shifting world of today. But, we believe they are up to the challenge. And, we believe that courses in organizational behavior have strong roles to play in building their capabilities to make good judgments and move organizational performance forward in positive and responsible ways.

That message is a �itting place to begin Organizational Behavior, 13th Edition. Everyone wants to have a useful and satisfying job and career; everyone wants all the organizations of society—small and large businesses, hospitals, schools, governments, nonpro�its, and more—to perform well; everyone seeks a healthy and sustainable environment. In this context the lessons of our discipline are strong and applicable. Armed with an understanding of organizational behavior, great things are possible as people work, pursue careers, and contribute to society through positive personal and organizational accomplishments.

Organizational behavior is rich with insights for career and life skills. As educators, our job is to engage students and share with them the great power of knowledge, understanding, and inquiry that characterizes our discipline. What our students do with their talents will not only shape how organizations perform, but also fundamentally contribute to society and alter lives around the globe. Our job is to help them gain the understanding and con�idence to become leaders of tomorrow’s organizations.

MARY UHL-BIEN University of Nebraska

JOHN R. SCHERMERHORN, JR. Ohio University

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec2… 8/501

RICHARD N. OSBORN Wayne State University

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec2… 9/501

Part 1 Organizational Behavior Today

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 10/501

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 11/501

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 12/501

People make the difference

Juan Ocampo/NBAE/Getty

1 Introducing Organizational Behavior

The Key Point

People in all of their rich diversity are the basic building blocks of organizations. Everyone deserves to be respected at work and to be satis�ied with their jobs and accomplishments. The �ield of organizational behavior offers many insights into managing individuals and teams for high performance in today’s complex workplace.

What’s Inside

Bringing OB to LIFE

BUILDING SKILLS TO SUCCEED IN A COLLABORATION ECONOMY

Worth Considering . . . or Best Avoided?

TROUBLE BALANCING WORK AND HOME? HOME WORKING MAY BE THE ANSWER

Checking Ethics in OB

IS MANAGEMENT A PROFESSION?

Finding the Leader in You

MICHELLE GREENFIELD LEADS WITH A SUSTAINABILITY VISION

OB in Popular Culture

MORAL MANAGEMENT AND JOHN Q

Research Insight

WOMEN MIGHT MAKE BETTER LEADERS

Chapter at a Glance

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 13/501

What Is Organizational Behavior, and Why Is It Important?

How Do We Learn about Organizational Behavior?

What Is the Context of Organizational Behavior?

What Are the Challenges of Management in Organizations?

What Are the Challenges of Leadership in Organizations?

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 14/501

1.1 Introducing Organizational Behavior LEARNING ROADMAP

WHAT IS ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec1#sec2)

IMPORTANCE OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec1#sec3)

What Is Organizational Behavior? What Is Organizational Behavior? If you pause to consider the vast effects of our recent economic and social turmoil, there shouldn’t be any doubt that organizations and their members face huge challenges. Talk to friends and follow the news headlines. Preferred jobs are still hard to come by for new college graduates, and unemployment remains high, especially for candidates without strong career skills. Those with jobs often struggle to support a desired lifestyle while balancing con�licting demands of work and family responsibilities. Like it or not, this is your world. It’s the one you’ll have to master for both career and personal success.

In this challenging era, the body of knowledge we call organizational behavior offers many insights of great value. Organizational behavior (OB) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo285) is the study of human behavior in organizations. It is an academic discipline devoted to understanding individuals, teams, interpersonal processes, and organizational dynamics. Learning about OB can help you build solid job skills and expand your potential for career success in the dynamic, shifting, and complex workplaces of today . . . and tomorrow.

Organizational behavior is the study of human behavior in organizations.

Importance of Organizational Behavior Think OB and great jobs! Think OB and career success! Think OB and overall life satisfaction! Don’t think —OB and another course completed for my degree!

The real importance of OB boils down to how it helps you develop the skills needed for a successful career in our ever-changing world. This is a time in which the normal complexities of human behavior in organizations are ramped up by an environment of constant change and the growing in�luence of social technology. Take the OB relevance test. How prepared are you to excel in jobs with fashion-forward titles like these?1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c01-note1)

Relationship champion • Logistics ringmaster • Innovation game changer • Collaboration pioneer • Market trends virtuoso

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 15/501

If you can describe in your own words what these job holders would be doing, you’re already moving in the right direction. You’re starting to get a real sense of what it takes to succeed in this emerging new workplace and why it pays to learn what OB can teach us about human behavior in organizations.

Behind each of the prior job titles is a common foundation that comes to life as “networking,” “connecting,” “ideating,” “collaborating,” “helping,” “linking,” “supporting,” “seeking,” and “performing.” These and other similar behaviors drive what can be called a smart workforce (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo409) , one in which you must be prepared to excel.2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c01-note2) Smart workforces are communities of action whose members tackle constantly shifting projects while sharing knowledge and skills to solve real and often complex problems. Smart workforces are built through connections activated by relational skills and social technologies and used to forge a powerful collective brain that keeps growing and adapting over time.

Members of a smart workforce work in shifting communities of action in which knowledge and skills are shared to solve real and complex problems.

This text helps you bridge the gap between OB as a body of knowledge and OB as a pathway to career and life success. Our book is about people, everyday people like you and like us, who work and pursue careers in today’s demanding settings. It’s about people who seek ful�illment in their lives and jobs in a variety of ways and in uncertain times. It’s about the challenges of leadership, ethics, globalization, technology, diversity, work-life balance, and many social issues. And it is about how our complex ever-changing environment requires people and organizations to continuously adapt and improve in the quest for promising futures.

BRINGING OB TO LIFE

“Collaboration leaders help make the people-to-people connections that give life to collaborative organizations.”

Building Skills to Succeed in a Collaboration Economy

Every time you log onto Facebook or LinkedIn, join a multiplayer online game, or check Yelp for advice on a good restaurant, you are part of a fast-moving technology-driven, and very social world. But, are you taking the skills honed in these everyday experiences and developing them for career success in a new “collaboration economy?” It’s a setting where work gets done, customers get served, and ideas and information get shared 24/7.

Dean Sally Blount of Northwestern’s Kellogg School says that success is earned in our collaboration economy by “people and companies who connect and collaborate more effectively.” Jacob Morgan, author of The Collaborative Organization (McGraw-Hill, 2012), says that there is a great opportunity for “collaboration leaders” who value and respect others as the most important assets of organizations.

Collaboration leaders aren’t �igureheads with formal titles. They are everyday leaders who are exceptionally good at teamwork, information sharing, giving and receiving feedback, providing peer support, and recognizing the contributions of others. In other words, collaboration leaders help make the people-to-people connections that give life to collaborative organizations. They bring social technology together with face-to-face interactions to harness the powers of knowledge, creativity, and teamwork.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 16/501

© Anatolii Babii/Alamy Limited

The collaboration economy presents a pretty stiff career test. It calls for “hard” technology skills and real job expertise to be combined with “soft” people skills and a genuine personal presence. But that’s the great opportunity of your course in organizational behavior—a chance to learn more about yourself and how people work together in organizations. The question is this: Are you ready to jump in and let OB help build your skills for success in a collaboration economy?

There is no doubt that success with our life and career goals requires ongoing learning and continuous attention to new trends, practices, and opportunities. The following changes in what people expect and value in terms of human behavior in organizations are of special interest in the study of OB.3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c01-note3)

Trends with human behavior in organizations

Importance of connections and networks. Work is increasingly being done through personal connections and networks. In this environment, building effective relationships face to face and online is a must-have career skill.

Commitment to ethical behavior. Highly publicized scandals involving unethical and illegal practices prompt concerns for ethical behavior in the workplace; growing intolerance for breaches of public faith by organizations and those who run them are drawing new attention to business ethics.

Broader views of leadership. New pressures and demands mean organizations can no longer rely on just managers for leadership. Leadership is valued from all members, found at all levels, and �lows in all directions—not just top-down.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 17/501

Emphasis on human capital and teamwork. Success is earned through knowledge, experience, and commitments to people as valuable human assets; work is increasingly team based with a focus on peer contributions.

Demise of command-and-control. Traditional hierarchical structures and practices are being replaced by shared leadership, �lexible structures, and participatory work settings that engage human and social capital.

In�luence of information technology. As new technologies—including social media—penetrate the workplace, implications for work arrangements, organizational systems and processes, and individual behavior are continuously evolving.

Respect for new workforce expectations. The new generation is less tolerant of hierarchy, more high tech, and less concerned about status. Balance of work and nonwork responsibilities is a top-priority value.

Changing concept of careers. New economy jobs require special skill sets and a continuous development. More people now work as independent contractors and freelancers who shift among employers rather than hold full-time jobs.

Concern for sustainability. Issues of sustainability are top priorities. Decision making and goal setting increasingly give attention to the environment, climate justice, and preservation of resources for future generations.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 18/501

1.2 Organizational Behavior as a Science LEARNING ROADMAP

SCIENTIFIC FOUNDATIONS OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec4#sec5)

HOW WE LEARN ABOUT ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec4#sec6)

How do we �ind out what a new generation of graduates really wants and needs from work and in careers? How do we learn how to integrate multigenerational workforces around common goals and high performance expectations? How do we gain solid insights into how these and other important issues of human behavior play out in day-to-day organizational practice? The answer is found in one word: science.

Scienti�ic Foundations of Organizational Behavior More than a century ago, consultants and scholars were already giving attention to the systematic study of management and organizational practices. Although the early focus was on physical working conditions, principles of administration, and industrial engineering, interest soon broadened to include the human factor. This led to research dealing with individual attitudes, group dynamics, and the relationships between managers and workers. Organizational behavior then emerged as a scholarly discipline devoted to scienti�ic understanding of individuals and groups in organizations, and of the performance implications of organizational processes, systems, and structures.4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c01-note4)

Interdisciplinary Body of Knowledge Organizational behavior is an interdisciplinary body of knowledge with strong ties to the behavioral sciences—psychology, sociology, and anthropology—as well as to allied social sciences such as economics and political science. What makes OB unique is its desire to integrate the diverse insights of these other disciplines and apply them to real-world organizational problems and opportunities. The ultimate goal of OB is to improve the performance of people, groups, and organizations, and to improve the quality of work life overall.

Use of Scienti�ic Methods The �ield of organizational behavior uses scienti�ic methods to develop and empirically test generalizations about behavior in organizations. OB scholars often propose and test models (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo256) —simpli�ied views of reality that attempt to identify major factors and forces underlying real-world phenomena. These models link independent variables (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo181) —presumed causes—with dependent variables (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo84) —outcomes of practical value and interest. For example, the following model describes one of the �indings of OB research: Job satisfaction (independent variable) in�luences, absenteeism (dependent variable). The “+” and “−” signs indicate that as job satisfaction increases absenteeism is expected to go down, and as job satisfaction decreases, absenteeism should go up.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 19/501

Models are simpli�ied views of reality that attempt to explain real-world phenomena.

Independent variables are presumed causes that in�luence dependent variables.

Dependent variables are outcomes of practical value and interest that are in�luenced by independent variables.

As you look at the above model, you might ask what dependent variables other than absenteeism are also important to study in OB—perhaps things like task performance, ethical behavior, work stress, incivility, team cohesion, and leadership effectiveness. Think also about job satisfaction as a dependent variable in its own right. What independent variables do you believe might explain whether satisfaction will be high or low for someone doing a service job, such as an airline �light attendant, or a managerial job, such as a school principal?

Figure 1.1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec4#r�ig1-1) describes methods commonly used by OB researchers to study models and the relationships among variables. These research methods are based on scienti�ic thinking. This means (1) the process of data collection is controlled and systematic, (2) proposed explanations are carefully tested, and (3) only explanations that can be rigorously veri�ied are accepted.

FIGURE 1.1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec4#�ig1-1) Common scienti�ic research methods in organizational behavior.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 20/501

Something to Read—The Shift: The Future of Work Is Already Here

As professor of management at the London Business School, Lynda Gratton worries that students fail to understand the nature, pace, and complexity of forces shaping the future of work. Her book, The Shift (HarperBusiness UK, 2011) describes �ive key forces: technology (helpful but time consuming), globalization (workers from everywhere compete for the same jobs), demography (more people, less space), society (traditional communities under threat), and energy resources (too few and shrinking). So “What’s the worker to do?” she asks. Her answer is that we can default and accept a bleak future, or craft for ourselves a bright one. To work on the bright side we have to shift from “shallow generalist to serial master” of things; from “isolated competitor to innovative connector” in vast networks; and from “voracious consumer to impassioned producer” more focused on creating things than buying them.

Eamonn McCabe/Camera Press/Redux Pictures

Focus on Application The science of organizational behavior focuses on applications that can make a real difference in how organizations and people in them perform. Some examples of the many practical research questions addressed by the discipline of OB and reviewed in this book are:

What causes unethical and socially irresponsible behavior by people in organizations? • How should rewards such as pay raises be allocated? • How can jobs be designed for both job satisfaction and high performance? • What are the ingredients of successful teamwork? • How can a manager deal with resistance to change? • Should leaders make decisions by individual, consultative, or group methods? • How can win–win outcomes be achieved in negotiations?

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 21/501

Contingency Thinking Rather than assuming that there is one best or universal answer to questions such as those just posed, OB recognizes that behavior and practices must be tailored to �it the exact nature of each situation—this is called contingency thinking (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo61) . In fact, one of the most accepted conclusions of scienti�ic research to date is that there is no single best way to handle people and the situations that develop as they work together in organizations.

Contingency thinking seeks ways to meet the needs of different management situations.

Stated a bit differently, contingency thinking recognizes that cookie-cutter solutions cannot be universally applied to solve organizational problems. Responses must be crafted to best �it the circumstances and people involved. As you might expect, this is where solid scienti�ic �indings in organizational behavior become very helpful. Many examples are provided in the “Research Insight” feature found in each chapter.

Quest for Evidence An essential responsibility of any science is to create and test models that offer evidence-based foundations for decision making and action. A book by scholars Jeffrey Pfeffer and Robert Sutton de�ines evidence-based management (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo124) as making decisions on “hard facts”—that is, about what really works, rather than on “dangerous half-truths”—what sounds good but lacks empirical substantiation.5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c01-note5) One of the ways evidence-based thinking manifests itself in OB is through a contingency approach in which researchers identify how different situations can best be understood and handled.

Evidence-based management uses hard facts and empirical evidence to make decisions.

Research Insight

Women Might Make Better Leaders

No one doubts there are good and bad leaders of both genders. But research by Alice Eagley and her colleagues at Northwestern University suggests that women are often perceived as more likely than men to use leadership styles that result in high performance by followers.

In a meta-analysis that statistically compared the results of forty-�ive research studies dealing with male and female leadership styles, Eagley and her team concluded that women are frequently described as leading by inspiring, exciting, mentoring, and stimulating creativity. They point out that these behaviors have “transformational” qualities that build stronger organizations through innovation and teamwork. Women also score higher on rewarding positive performance, while men score higher in punishing and correcting mistakes.

Eagley and her colleagues explain the �indings in part by the fact that followers are more accepting of a transformational style when the leader is female, and that the style comes more naturally to women because of its emphasis on nurturing. They also suggest that because women may have to work harder than men to succeed, their leadership skills get tough tests and end up being better developed.

Possible Leadership Strengths of Women

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 22/501

Transformational

Good at mentoring

Very inspiring

Encourage creativity

Show excitement about goals

Reward positive performance

Do the Research What do you think: Is this study on track? Conduct an interview study of people working for female and male managers. Ask this question: Do women lead differently from men? Organize the responses, and prepare an analysis that answers your research question. Although not scienti�ic, your study could prove quite insightful.

Source: Alice H. Eagley, Mary C. Johannesen-Smith, and Marloes I. van Engen, “Transformational, Transactional and Laissez-Faire Leadership: A Meta-Analysis of Women and Men,” Psychological Bulletin 24.4 (2003), pp. 569–591.

Cross-Cultural Awareness In a time of complex globalization, it’s important for everyone, from managers and employees to government leaders, to understand how OB theories and concepts apply in different countries.6 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c01-note6) Although it is relatively easy to conclude that what works in one culture may not work as well in another, it is far more dif�icult to describe how speci�ic cultural differences can affect such things as ethical behavior, motivation, job satisfaction, leadership style, and negotiating tendencies. OB is now rich with empirically based insights into cross-cultural issues.

Learning about Organizational Behavior Today’s knowledge-based world and smart workforces place a great premium on learning. Only the learners, so to speak, will be able to keep the pace and succeed in a connected, high-tech, global, and constantly changing environment. But just what are we talking about here?

Think of learning (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo233) as an enduring change of behavior that results from experience. Think also of lifelong learning (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo236) as a process of learning continuously from day-to-day experiences. When it comes to learning about OB, this book and your course are starting points and launch platforms to make your experiences more meaningful. There also is a rich and ever-expanding pool of learning experiences available in the work events and activities, conversations with colleagues and friends, counseling and advice provided by mentors, success models, training seminars and workshops, and other daily opportunities that consume your time. What is learned from all such experiences—now and in the future—will in many ways be the key to your personal and career success. The “Bringing OB to Life” feature helps you make these connections between OB and our everyday experiences.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 23/501

Learning is an enduring change in behavior that results from experience.

Lifelong learning is continuous learning from everyday experiences.

FIGURE 1.2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec4#�ig1-2) Experiential learning in an OB course.

Figure 1.2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec4#r�ig1-2) shows how the content and activities of the typical OB course �it together in an experiential learning cycle.7 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c01-note7) The learning sequence begins with initial experience and subsequent re�lection. It grows as theory building takes place to try to explain what has happened. Theory is then tested in behavior. Textbooks, readings, class discussions, and other course assignments and activities should help you practice the phases of the learning cycle.

Notice that Figure 1.2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec4#r�ig1-2) assigns to you a substantial responsibility for learning. Along with your instructor, our author team can offer examples, cases, and exercises to provide you with initial experience. We can even stimulate your re�lection and theory building by presenting concepts and discussing their research and practical implications. Sooner or later, however, you must become an active participant in the process; you and only you can do the work required to take full advantage of the learning cycle.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 24/501

At the end of this book you’ll �ind the rich and useful OB Skills Workbook. It provides a variety of active learning opportunities that can help you better understand the practical applications of OB concepts, models, and theories. The workbook contains cases for analysis, team and experiential exercises, and a portfolio of self-assessments that includes the popular Kouzes and Posner “Student Leadership Practices Inventory.”

Finally, don’t forget that opportunities to learn more about OB and yourself abound in everyday living. Every team project, part-time work experience, student co-curricular activity, or visit to the store is rich in learning potential. Even our leisure pastimes from sports to social interactions to television, movies, and online games offer learning insights—if we tune in. The “OB in Popular Culture” feature in each chapter is a reminder to keep your learning dialed in all the time.

OB IN POPULAR CULTURE

Moral Management and John Q

Moral managers try to act with ethical principles while immoral managers make decisions primarily on self-interest. To be sure, many decisions in organizations are quite complicated, and their ethical components may be hard to sort out.

The �ilm John Q depicts the story of a desperate father’s attempt to save his dying child. John Archibald (Denzel Washington) learns that his son, Mike, needs a heart transplant and he does not have suf�icient insurance coverage. He decides to take the heart surgeon hostage in the hospital’s emergency room. During a lull, the hostages and medical staff discuss how managed care insurance practices and hospital policies result in treatment decisions that are not always in the best interests of the patient. One hostage questions these practices in light of the medical profession’s Hippocratic Oath.

When Mike’s (Daniel Smith) condition worsens, John decides to commit suicide so that a heart will be available. The heart surgeon initially balks for ethical reasons, then agrees to do the surgery. In the end, the sacri�ice is not necessary. The hospital gets word that a donor heart is available and on its way.

This movie is worth watching as a study in organizational behavior. It illustrates that ethical lines can sometimes be blurry. What’s “right” or “wrong” isn’t always clear or agreed upon. If an insurance company refuses to pay for preventive health screening, should the doctor order it? If someone can’t pay, should doctors and hospitals still provide medical care? Should a doctor adhere to hospital policies if they jeopardize the health of a patient?

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 25/501

New Line Cinema/Photofest

Get to Know Yourself Better Take Assessment 5, Personal Values, in the OB Skills Workbook. The values we hold in�luence our ethical views. This is a good time to check yours by taking the assessment and asking yourself these questions: What did I learn about my values? Are they balanced? Do the results suggest anything about how I might approach situations with ethical components? Can the emphasis I place on certain values create pressures to act unethically?

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 26/501

1.3 The Context of Organizational Behavior LEARNING ROADMAP

ORGANIZATIONS AND THE EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec7#sec8)

THE INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT OF ORGANIZATIONS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec7#sec9)

DIVERSITY AND MULTICULTURALISM IN ORGANIZATIONS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec7#sec10)

Organizations and the External Environment In order to understand the complex forces that in�luence human behavior in organizations, we need to begin with the nature of the “organization” itself. Simply stated, an organization (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo300) is a collection of people working together in a division of labor to achieve a common purpose. This de�inition describes everything from clubs, voluntary organizations, and religious bodies to entities such as small and large businesses, schools, hospitals, and government agencies.

An organization is a collection of people working together to achieve a common purpose.

FIGURE 1.3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec7#�ig1-3) Organizations are open systems that create value while interacting with their environments.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 27/501

Figure 1.3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec7#r�ig1-3) shows that organizations are dynamic open systems (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo279) . They obtain resource inputs from the environment and transform them into �inished goods or services that are returned to the environment as product outputs. If everything works right, suppliers value the organization and continue to provide needed resources, employees infuse work activities with their energies and intellects, and customers and clients value the organization’s outputs enough to create a continuing demand for them.

Open systems transform human and material resource inputs into �inished goods and services.

Organizations are also complex adaptive systems (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo48) . Because the environments they interact with are constantly evolving and changing, organizations must adapt to survive. And in a world that is increasingly complicated—socially, politically, and economically—this process of adaptation is never ending. Organizations today are embedded in environments whose components are so highly interconnected that changes in one have consequences—sometimes unpredictable and even uncontrollable—for other parts. A recent IBM Global Chief Executive Of�icer Study identi�ies this rise of complexity as the biggest challenge facing world leaders today. One CEO says: “The time available to capture, interpret and act on information is getting shorter and shorter.”8 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c01-note8)

Complex adaptive systems interact and adapt with their environments to survive.

It can be useful to describe and analyze the external environments of organizations in terms of stakeholders (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo425) —people, groups, and institutions that are affected by and thus have an interest or stake in an organization’s performance. Key stakeholders from an OB perspective include an organization’s customers, owners, employees, suppliers, regulators, and local communities, as well as future generations.

Stakeholders are people and groups with an interest or stake in the performance of the organization.

Although an organization should ideally operate in ways that best serve all stakeholders, the realities are that con�licting interests add to the complexity faced by decision makers. Consider possibilities such as these. Customers want value pricing and high-quality products, owners want pro�its and returns on investments. Employees want secure jobs with good pay and bene�its, suppliers want reliable contracts and on-time payments. Regulators want compliance with laws, local communities want good organizational citizenship and community support. Present generations want the bene�its of available natural resources, future generations want preserved and protected for long-term sustainability.

The Internal Environment of Organizations The internal environment of organizations also creates an important context for human behavior. Think about it. Do you act differently when you are with your friends, at school, or at work? In many cases the answer is probably “yes,” and the question then becomes “Why?” The answer is that the context is

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 28/501

different. To understand behavior in any setting, we must always ask how contextual factors in�luence it and in what ways. And, we must also consider how we or other people are affecting the context. The question in this respect is: How do our behaviors contribute to what is happening to us and around us, and in both positive and negative ways?

One of the strongest contextual in�luences on human behavior is organizational culture (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo292) —the shared beliefs and values that in�luence the behavior of organizational members. Former eBay CEO Meg Whitman calls it the “character” of the organization. She says organization culture is “the set of values and principles by which you run a company” and becomes the “moral center” that helps every member understand what is right and wrong in terms of personal behavior.9 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c01- note9)

Organizational culture is a shared set of beliefs and values within an organization.

Organizational cultures in�luence the way we feel and act as members. In more authoritarian and hierarchical cultures, people are hesitant to make decisions and take action on their own. So, they withhold initiative and wait for approval. In competitive cultures, people can be extremely aggressive in the quest for rewards. Still other cultures are known for their emphasis on speed and agility in dealing with markets and environments, and in generating new ideas and innovations.

There is also something called organizational climate (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo289) —the shared perceptions among members regarding what the organization is like in terms of management policies and practices. You have probably noticed that relations among managers and employees are relaxed and communication is free-�lowing in some climates. But in others, managers act distant and communication is restricted.

Organizational climate represents shared perceptions of members regarding what the organization is like in terms of management policies and practices.

Just how an organization’s culture and climate affect members depends on something called “�it”—the match of internal environment and individual characteristics. People who �ind a good �it tend to experience con�idence and satisfaction. Those with a bad �it may be prone to withdraw, experience stress, and even become angry and aggressive due to dissatisfaction. The sidebar suggests possible �it preferences for today’s graduates.

Diversity and Multiculturalism in Organizations People are an important aspect of the internal environment of any organization. Consultant R. Roosevelt Thomas makes the point that positive organizational cultures tap the talents, ideas, and creative potential of all members.10 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c01-note10) This focuses attention on workforce diversity (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo481) , the presence of individual differences based on gender, race and ethnicity, age, able-bodiedness, and sexual orientation.11 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c01-note11) It also highlights multiculturalism (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo264) as an attribute of

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 29/501

organizations that emphasize pluralism, and genuine respect for diversity and individual differences.12 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c01-note12) And in respect to Thomas’s point again, organizations bene�it when the variety of ideas and perspectives of a diverse workforce help them deal with complexity through innovation and adaptability.

Workforce diversity describes how people differ on attributes such as age, race, ethnicity, gender, physical ability, and sexual orientation.

Multiculturalism refers to pluralism and respect for diversity in the workplace.

Today’s Grads Take Values to Work

They’re called “Generation F,” short for the Facebook Generation. Management scholar and consultant Gary Hamel says they are bringing new expectations to the workplace.

All ideas deserve a hearing.

Contributions overrule credentials.

Authority is earned, not given.

Leaders are chosen, not assigned.

Power comes from information sharing.

Wisdom lies within the crowd.

Teams are self organizing.

Community grows from shared decision making.

Recognition and joy count along with money as motivators.

Rabble rousing is embraced, not discouraged.

Demographic trends driving workforce diversity in American society are well recognized. There are more women working than ever before. They earn 60 percent of college degrees and �ill a bit more than half of managerial jobs.13 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c01-note13) The proportion of African Americans, Hispanics, and Asians in the population is now above 43 percent and increasing. By the year 2060, six out of every 10 Americans will be a person of color, and close to 30 percent of the population overall will be Hispanic.14 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c01-note14)

A key issue in any organization is inclusion (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo179) —the degree to which the culture embraces diversity and is open to anyone who can perform a job, regardless of their diversity

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 30/501

attributes.15 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c01-note15) In practice, however, valuing diversity must still be considered a work in progress. Women still earn only about 75 cents per dollar earned by men; female CEOs earn 85 cents per dollar earned by males. At Fortune 500 companies women hold only 15 CEO jobs and 6.2 percent of top-paying positions; women of color hold only 1.7 percent of corporate of�icer positions and 1 percent of top-paying jobs.16 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c01-note16) Indeed, when Ursula Burns was named CEO of Xerox, she became the �irst African-American woman to head a Fortune 500 �irm.17 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c01-note17)

Inclusion is the degree to which an organization’s culture respects and values diversity.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 31/501

1.4 Management and Organizational Behavior LEARNING ROADMAP

EFFECTIVE MANAGERS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec11#sec12)

THE MANAGEMENT PROCESS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec11#sec13)

ESSENTIAL MANAGERIAL SKILLS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec11#sec14)

ETHICAL MANAGEMENT (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec11#sec15)

Effective Managers A manager (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo249) is someone whose job it is to directly support the work efforts of others. Being a manager is a unique challenge with responsibilities that link closely with the �ield of organizational behavior. At the heart of the matter, managers help other people get important things done in timely, high-quality, and personally satisfying ways. And in the workplaces of today, this is accomplished more through “helping” and “supporting” than through traditional notions of “directing” and “controlling.” You’ll �ind that the word manager is increasingly being replaced in conversations by such terms as coordinator, coach, or team leader.

A manager is a person who supports the work efforts of other people.

Technology Makes Crowdsourcing Grades Easy, But Is It a Step Too Far?

As colleges and universities face �inancial and political pressures to increase “productivity” in academic programs, online course offerings are proliferating. Instructors are experimenting with new ways to deliver and grade online content.

One innovation is to take grading away from the instructor and give it to the “crowd.” An assignment is graded by averaging scores assigned by the online students reading each other’s work.

It’s an attractive option since productivity goes up as instructors can easily handle more student enrollments. But critics view it as an unfortunate change in the instructor’s role. Professor Adam Falk of Williams College asks if the educational outcome is the “equivalent of a highly trained professor providing thoughtful evaluation and detailed response?”

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 32/501

© Chris Schmidt/iStockphoto

Whatever the label used, someone who is an effective manager (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo101) helps other people achieve both high performance and job satisfaction. This de�inition focuses attention on two key outcomes, or dependent variables, that are important in OB. The �irst is task performance (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo447) . Think of this as the quality and quantity of the work produced or the services provided by an individual, team or work unit, or organization as a whole. The second is job satisfaction (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo217) . It indicates how people feel about their work and the work setting.

An effective manager helps others achieve high levels of both performance and satisfaction.

Task performance is the quantity and quality of work produced.

Job satisfaction is a positive feeling about one’s work and work setting.

OB is quite clear that managers and team leaders should be held accountable for both task performance and job satisfaction. Performance pretty much speaks for itself. Satisfaction might give you some pause for thought. But just as a valuable machine should not be allowed to break down for lack of proper maintenance, the talents and enthusiasm of an organization’s workforce should never be lost or compromised for lack of proper care. In this sense, taking care of job satisfaction today can be considered an investment in tomorrow’s performance potential.

The Management Process Anyone serving as a manager or team leader faces a challenging and complicated job. The nature of managerial work is often described and taught through the four functions shown in Figure 1.4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec11#r�ig1-4) —planning, organizing, leading, and controlling. These functions make up the management process (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo246) and involve the following responsibilities.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 33/501

The management process involves ful�illing the four responsibilities of planning, organizing, leading, and controlling.

Four functions of management

Planning (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo324) De�ining goals, setting speci�ic performance objectives, and identifying the actions needed to achieve them.

Planning sets objectives and identi�ies the actions needed to achieve them.

Organizing (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo301) Creating work structures and systems, and arranging resources to accomplish goals and objectives.

Organizing divides up tasks and arranges resources to accomplish them.

Leading (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo231) Instilling enthusiasm by communicating with others, motivating them to work hard, and maintaining good interpersonal relations.

Leading creates enthusiasm to work hard to accomplish tasks successfully.

Controlling (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo65) Ensuring that things go well by monitoring performance and taking corrective action as necessary.

Controlling monitors performance and takes any needed corrective action.

In what has become a classic study, Henry Mintzberg described how managers enact the management process in a busy, hectic, and challenging work context where they are move among many tasks and face many interruptions.18 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c01-note18) He went on to point out that the four management functions are ful�illed more simultaneously than step-by-step. They are also accomplished while a manager acts out the set of ten managerial roles shown in Figure 1.5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec11#r�ig1-5) .

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 34/501

FIGURE 1.4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec11#�ig1-4) The management process of planning, organizing, leading, and controlling.

FIGURE 1.5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec11#�ig1-5) Mintzberg’s ten roles of effective managers.

A manager’s interpersonal roles involve working directly with other people, hosting and attending of�icial ceremonies (�igurehead), creating enthusiasm and serving people’s needs (leader), and maintaining contacts with important people and groups (liaison). The informational roles involve managers exchanging information with other people, seeking relevant information (monitor), sharing it with insiders (disseminator), and sharing it with outsiders (spokesperson). A manager’s decisional roles involve making decisions that affect other people, seeking problems to solve and opportunities to explore (entrepreneur), helping to resolve con�licts (disturbance handler), allocating resources to various uses (resource allocator), and negotiating with other parties (negotiator).

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 35/501

Essential Managerial Skills We all need skills to do well in work and life. It’s no different for managers and team leaders—it takes skill to perform well. Formally stated, a skill (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo407) is an ability to translate knowledge into action that results in a desired performance. Robert Katz divides the essential managerial skills into three categories: technical, human, and conceptual.19 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c01-note19)

A skill is an ability to turn knowledge into effective action.

Technical Skills A technical skill (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo453) is an ability to perform specialized tasks using knowledge or expertise gained from education or experience. A good example is skill in using the latest communication and information technologies. In the high-tech workplaces of today, technical pro�iciency in database management, spreadsheet analysis, presentation software, video chats and conferencing, and social media is often a hiring prerequisite. It’s also helpful to think “skills” in respect to your college major. Recruiters today don’t just want to know that you are a marketing or �inance or MIS major with high grades. They want to know what skills in the major you are going to bring with you to the job.

Technical skill is an ability to perform specialized tasks.

Human Skills Central to all aspects of managerial work and team leadership are human skills (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo172) , or the ability to work well with other people. They show up as a spirit of trust, enthusiasm, and genuine involvement in interpersonal relationships. A person with good human skills will have a high degree of self-awareness and a capacity for understanding or empathizing with the feelings of others. People with this skill are able to interact well with others, engage in persuasive communications, and deal successfully with disagreements and con�licts.

Human skills comprise the ability to work well with other people.

A manager or team leader’s human skills should contain a strong base of emotional intelligence (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo109) (EI). As de�ined by Daniel Goleman, EI is the ability to understand and manage emotions well, both personally and in relationships with others.20 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c01-note20) The building blocks for emotional intelligence are:

Emotional intelligence is the ability to manage oneself and one’s relationships effectively.

WORTH CONSIDERING . . . OR BEST AVOIDED?

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 36/501

Trouble Balancing Work and Home? Home Working May Be the Answer

A group of Stanford University researchers wondered if allowing work to be done at home was really worth it to employers. Seeking real facts upon which to base a conclusion, they set up a �ield experiment using call center workers at a large Chinese travel agency.

Using odd or even birth dates, 255 volunteers were randomly assigned to “at home” or “in the of�ice” work shifts for 9 months. Their performance was monitored and an overall evaluation made at the end of the research period. Results showed that telecommuters were online for more minutes, took more calls per hour, and were less likely to quit. They also reported more positive moods and greater job satisfaction than did the of�ice workers. working at home also resulted in fewer break times while on shift and fewer days of sick leave.

When productivity gains, reduced training and hiring costs, and of�ice rentals were tallied, the company calculated it saved $2,000 for every $3,000 spent on telecommuter salaries. And when the experiment was over and workers were given the chance to switch groups if they wished, those that ended up in the telecommuter group became even more productive.

© Blend Images/iStockphoto

Do the Analysis

What’s your take? Do the �indings make sense in terms of your impressions and experience? Does this study suggest that everyone should be given the option to work from home at least part of the time? What

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 37/501

conditions might you set on the types of jobs and job holders that qualify for work from home? Is the evidence from this study good enough to make real-world decisions about the use of telecommuting?

Core building blocks of emotional intelligence

Self-awareness—ability to understand your own moods and emotions

Self-regulation—ability to think before acting and to control bad impulses

Motivation—ability to work hard and persevere

Empathy—ability to understand the emotions of others

Social skill—ability to gain rapport with others and build good relationships

Human skills in emotional intelligence and interpersonal relationships are essential to success in each of the managerial activities and roles previously discussed. If you don’t have the human skills you can’t connect with other people in a positive way. Managers and team leaders need these skills to develop, maintain, and work well with a wide variety of people, both inside and outside the organization.21 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c01-note21) These include task networks of speci�ic job-related contacts, career networks of career guidance and opportunity resources, and social networks of trustworthy friends and peers.22 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c01-note22) It can be said in this sense that strong human skills are the pathways to obtain social capital (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo411) in the form of relationships and networks that can be called upon as needed to get work done through other people.

Social capital is a capacity to get things done due to relationships with other people.

Conceptual Skills In addition to technical and human skills, managers should be able to view the organization or situation as a whole so that problems are always solved for the bene�it of everyone concerned. This capacity to think analytically and solve complex and sometimes ambiguous problems is a conceptual skill (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo51) . It involves the ability to see and understand how systems work and how their parts are interrelated, including human dynamics. Conceptual skill is used to identify problems and opportunities, gather and interpret relevant information, and make good problem-solving decisions.

Conceptual skill is the ability to analyze and solve complex problems.

One �inal point about Katz’s model of essential managerial skills is worth thinking about. He suggests that the relative importance of these skills varies across the different levels of management. Technical skills are considered more important at entry levels, where supervisors and team leaders must deal with job- speci�ic problems. Senior executives require more conceptual skills as they face more complex problems and deal with strategic issues related to organizational mission and �itness. Human skills, which are strongly grounded in the foundations of organizational behavior, are consistently important across all managerial levels.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 38/501

Ethical Management Having managerial and leadership skills is one thing; using them correctly to get things done in organizations is quite another. And when it comes to ethics and morality, scholar Archie B. Carroll draws a distinction between immoral managers, amoral managers, and moral managers.23 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c01-note23)

The immoral manager (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo174) essentially chooses to behave unethically. She or he doesn’t subscribe to any ethical principles, making decisions and acting to gain best personal advantage. Perhaps the best examples are disgraced executives such as Bernard Madoff, whose unethical acts made national and world headlines. The amoral manager (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo13) , by contrast, acts unethically at times but does so unintentionally. This manager fails to consider the ethics of a decision or behavior. Unintentional ethical lapses that we all must guard against include prejudice from unconscious stereotypes and attitudes, showing bias based on in-group favoritism, and claiming too much personal credit for performance accomplishments.24 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c01- note24) The moral manager (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo259) incorporates ethical principles and goals into his or her personal behavior. Ethical behavior is a goal, a standard, and even a matter of routine; ethical reasoning is part of every decision, not just an occasional afterthought.

An immoral manager chooses to behave unethically.

An amoral manager fails to consider the ethics of a decision or behavior.

A moral manager makes ethical behavior a personal goal.

CHECKING ETHICS IN OB

Is Management a Profession?

Does it surprise you that a Harvard Business Review article claims managers are losing the public trust? To help change things for the better, the authors call for business schools to address management as a “profession” that is governed by codes of conduct that “forge an implicit social contract with society.” One response to their call is MBA Oath, a nonpro�it organization. Its goal is to create a community of graduating MBA students from any university that voluntarily sign an oath that pledges them to “create value responsibly and ethically.” So far over 250 schools are represented in the community. A student signing the MBA Oath accepts statements such as these:

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 39/501

Jin Lee/Bloomberg/Getty Images, Inc.

“I will manage my enterprise with loyalty and care, and will not advance my personal interests at the expense of my enterprise or society.”

“I will refrain from corruption, unfair competition, or business practices harmful to society.”

“I will protect the human rights and dignity of all people affected by my enterprise, and I will oppose discrimination and exploitation.”

Make Ethics Personal What is your position on the MBA Oath? Would you take it, and sincerely try to live up to it in day-to-day practice? How about the whole concept of management being a profession like medicine and law? Can professionalizing management really make a difference in terms of ethical accountability and everyday managerial behavior?

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 40/501

FIGURE 1.6 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec11#�ig1-6) Moral leadership, ethics mindfulness, and the virtuous shift.

Source: Developed from Terry Thomas, John R. Schermerhorn Jr., and John W. Dinehart, “Strategic Leadership of Ethical Behavior in Business,” Academy of Management Executive 18 (May 2004), pp. 56–66.]

Carroll believes that the majority of managers tend to act amorally. If this is true, and because we also know immoral managers are around, it is very important to understand personal responsibilities for everyday ethical behavior and leadership. All organization members can and should be ethical leaders. This includes always acting as ethical role models and being willing to take stands in the face of unethical behavior by those above, below, and around them.

A review article by Terry Thomas and his colleagues describes how the “ethics center of gravity” shown in Figure 1.6 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec11#r�ig1-6) can be moved positively through moral leadership or negatively through amoral leadership.25 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c01-note25) In this view, a moral manager or moral leader always sets an ethics example, communicates ethics values, and champions ethics mindfulness (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo121) . This is de�ined as an “enriched awareness” that causes one to behave with an ethical consciousness from one decision or behavioral event to another.

Ethics mindfulness is an enriched awareness that causes one to consistently behave with ethical consciousness.

Moral managers and moral leaders contribute to the “virtuous shift” shown in Figure 1.6 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec11#r�ig1-6) . They help create an organizational culture in which people encourage one another to act ethically as a matter of routine. One of the themes of this book, as re�lected in the “Ethics in OB” feature in each chapter, is that ethics is the responsibility of everyone in the organization.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 41/501

1.5 Leadership and Organizational Behavior LEARNING ROADMAP

THE LEADERSHIP PROCESS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec16#sec17)

EFFECTIVE LEADERS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec16#sec18)

EFFECTIVE FOLLOWERS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec16#sec19)

The Leadership Process The job of a manager or team leader has never been more demanding than it is in today’s dynamic and hypercompetitive work environments. But the fact is, not all managers are good leaders. And even if they were, the challenges facing organizations are too complex for managers alone to resolve. Organizations today require leadership at all levels, not just from those holding the formal titles.

FIGURE 1.7 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec16#�ig1-7) The leadership process.

Leadership occurs when leaders and followers work together to advance change that bene�its the mission and vision of the organization. Leadership is a process (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo341) , not just the leader’s behavior. As shown in Figure 1.7 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec16#r�ig1-7) , it requires leaders and followers to partner in jointly producing leadership outcomes. Effective following is an essential—perhaps the most important part—of the leadership process (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo230) . Without followers there can be no leaders.

The leadership process involves leaders and followers jointly producing leadership outcomes.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 42/501

Interestingly, leadership doesn’t always have to be intentional. Sometimes others follow because they see leadership potential in someone, or they like what a person says and how they say it. This means that leadership is not only downward in�luence, it also involves in�luencing upward and side to side. You can be a leader by convincing higher management to adopt new practices suggested from your level. You can be a leader among your peers by becoming the person people turn to for advice, support, or direction. And, remember the notion of the manager as “coach” and “coordinator”? Every time you act in ways that �it these descriptions, there’s no doubt you’re being a leader.

Effective Leaders Effective leaders contribute to the leadership process by using their in�luence to advance positive outcomes. Leaders are those who are willing to proactively envision new ways of doing things and take initiative in promoting needed changes in organizations. Organizations are full of leaders, managers and non-managers alike. These are people who get listened to by their peers, their bosses, and people below and higher up in the organization.

Leaders know that competence and reputation, being an effective communicator, and developing relationships and in�luence are vital to their success. Therefore they work to develop these skills. Effective leaders, for example, frame communication in ways that others will listen. Framing (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo146) in this setting means tailoring communication in ways to encourage certain interpretations and discourage others. An effective leader recognizes that focusing on organizational interest (e.g., “We can increase productivity if we give people more time to rest and rejuvenate”) will be a more effective frame than focusing on self-interest (e.g., “We’ve been working too hard and want time off”).

Framing means tailoring communication in ways to encourage certain interpretations and discourage others.

Effective leaders also know how to build relationships. They do what they can to be trustworthy, reliable, and respectful in not sharing or spreading information inappropriately. They understand that relationships are developed through social exchange (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo413) , so they manage exchange processes and reciprocity to build partnerships and networks. They help others out when needed because they know that the law of reciprocity (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo225) will invoke a sense of obligation by the other to return the favor (“if I do something for you, you will do something for me later if I need it”). This helps them build networks and relationships that serve as a key source of leadership in�luence.

Social exchange means that people build human relationships and trust through exchanges of favors based on reciprocity.

The law of reciprocity states that if someone does something for someone else it will invoke a sense of obligation to return the favor.

Leaders succeed when people follow them not because they have to, but because they want to. They are followed because others see the value of their ideas and suggestions. This positive in�luence emerges from leaders’ competence, persuasiveness, and human skills. Managers and team leaders, by virtue of their

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 43/501

positions of authority, have the opportunity to act as leaders. But they don’t always do so, or do so successfully. The “Finding the Leader in You” feature in each chapter is designed to provide role models and get you thinking about developing your leadership potential.

FINDING THE LEADER IN YOU Michelle Green�ield Leads with a Sustainability Vision

When she was named as a recipient of the Ohio Department of Development’s Keys to Success Award, Michelle Green�ield said, “It’s exciting. It’s kind of nice to be recognized as a good business owner. The goal is not to have the award, the goal is to have a good business and do well.” She and her husband, Geoff, certainly do have a good business; it’s called Third Sun Solar Wind and Power, Ltd.

The Green�ields began by building a rural home that used no electricity in rural Athens County, Ohio. Solar power was the replacement, and they have yet to pay an electric utility bill. As friends became interested, they helped others get into solar power, and the business kept growing from there. It has been ranked by Inc. magazine as thirty-second among the fastest-growing energy businesses in the United States. Third Sun is the largest provider of solar energy systems in the Midwest and has experienced a 390 percent growth in 3 years. Quite a story for an idea that began with a sustainable home!

Soon after its birth, Third Sun moved into a business incubator dedicated to helping local �irms grow and prosper. Michelle says that they lived very frugally in their rural home, and this helped them start the business on a low budget. They have also bene�ited from tapping the local workforce in a university town and from having MBA students work with their �irm in consulting capacities.

As their company grew, Geoff focused on technical issues while Michelle spent most of her time on the business and managerial ones. She’s now the CEO and primarily concerned with strategic issues as the �irm grows. “I do a lot of marketing,” she says, “I do speaking engagements . . . I serve on the Board of Directors of Green Energy Ohio.”

Christian Baird Photography

What’s the Lesson Here?

Michelle Green�ield is proud of her accomplishments and says, “I think it’s nice to be able to point out that there are women in the �ield that also have enough brains to be successful.” She also points out that the name Third Sun was chosen to represent a “third son” for the couple, one requiring lots of nurturing in order to help it grow big and strong. Michelle’s leadership combines

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 44/501

entrepreneurship with vision to help save our planet. Could more people, even you, follow her path?

Effective Followers Effective followers are those who work with leaders to produce positive outcomes. They support leaders by being willing to collaborate and defer when needed, rather than working against leaders or trying to undermine their power. At the same time, effective followers are not blindly obedient or subservient and passive. You are being an effective follower when you assume responsibility for telling leaders information they need to know, and not avoiding responsibility for passing along the “bad” news as well as the “good” news.

The best followers do not have to be micromanaged. They take responsibility for their own attitudes and behaviors and view themselves as partners with leaders in the leadership process. They help the manager by avoiding engaging in upward delegation (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo469) , or passing their problems on to managers and burdening them with even more work. The best followers bring solutions along with problems. Overall, they try to identify things that could cause problems for leaders and then work to seek solutions before the problems escalate into big issues.

Upward delegation means passing problems or responsibilities upward in the hierarchy in ways that burden managers with more work.

Organizations today are undergoing major transitions. They require successful leadership at all levels, and the need for more effective followership is on the rise. Followers today cannot get away with shrugging off responsibility or passing along blame as they might have in the past. They are expected to question and challenge leaders when needed, and to bring new ideas and creativity to their work. But to do so effectively they must act with respect, and keep the higher purpose in mind—the focus is on working with leaders in ways that advance the mission and purpose of the organization. And when leaders and followers partner effectively together, the result is a more meaningful, engaging and ful�illing work experience.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 45/501

1 Study Guide

Key Questions and Answers What is organizational behavior, and why is it important?

Organizational behavior (OB) is the study of human behavior in organizations, focusing on individuals, teams, interpersonal processes, and organizational dynamics.

OB is a body of knowledge with real applications to everyday living and careers, particularly in respect to a smart workforce where connections and collaboration are the keys to success.

Trends and issues of interest in OB include ethical behavior, the importance of human capital, an emphasis on teams, the growing in�luence of information technology, new workforce expectations, changing notions of careers, and concerns for sustainability.

OB is an applied discipline developed through scienti�ic methods and taking a contingency perspective that there is no single best way to handle people and the situations that develop as they work together in organizations.

How do we learn about organizational behavior?

Learning is an enduring change in behavior that results from experience.

Lifelong learning about organizational behavior requires a commitment to continuous learning from one’s work and everyday experiences.

Most organizational behavior courses use a variety of instructional methods—self-assessments, experiential exercises, team projects, and case studies—to take advantage of the experiential learning cycle.

What is the context of organizational behavior?

An organization is a collection of people working together in a division of labor for a common purpose.

Organizations are open and adaptive systems that change over time while interacting with their environments to obtain resource and transform them into useful products and services.

Key stakeholders in the external environments of organizations include customers, owners, suppliers, regulators, local communities, employees, and future generations.

The organizational culture is the internal “personality” of the organization, including the beliefs and values that are shared by members.

Positive organizational cultures place a high value on workforce diversity and multiculturalism, emphasizing respect and inclusiveness for all members.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 46/501

What are the challenges of management in organizations?

Effective managers directly support and help others reach high levels of both performance and job satisfaction; they are increasingly expected to act more like “coaches” and “facilitators” than like “bosses” and “controllers.”

The four functions of management are planning—to set directions; organizing—to assemble resources and systems; leading—to create workforce enthusiasm; and controlling—to ensure desired results.

Managers use a combination of essential technical, human, and conceptual skills while working in networks of people to ful�ill a variety of interpersonal, informational, and decisional roles.

What are the challenges of leadership in organizations?

Effective leaders are individuals who successfully use in�luence to create change that bene�its the mission and vision of the team or organization.

Not all managers are good leaders that attract followers because their ideas or suggestions are valued and others choose to go along or align with them.

Essential leadership skills include building competence and reputation, being an effective communicator, and developing relationships and in�luence.

Essential followership skills involve being supportive of leaders, not delegating upward, and proactively anticipating problems or issues that could disrupt the team or the leader’s ability to meet organizational goals.

Terms to Know Amoral manager (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec11#key1)

Complex adaptive systems (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec7#key2)

Conceptual skill (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec11#key3)

Contingency thinking (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec4#key4)

Controlling (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec11#key5)

Dependent variables (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec4#key6)

Effective manager (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec11#key7)

Emotional intelligence (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec11#key8)

Ethics mindfulness (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec11#key9)

Evidence-based management (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec4#key10)

Framing (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec16#key11)

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 47/501

Human skills (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec11#key12)

Immoral manager (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec11#key13)

Inclusion (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec7#key14)

Independent variables (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec4#key15)

Job satisfaction (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec11#key16)

Law of Reciprocity (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec16#key17)

Leadership process (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec16#key18)

Leading (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec11#key19)

Learning (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec4#key20)

Lifelong learning (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec4#key21)

Management process (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec11#key22)

Manager (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec11#key23)

Models (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec4#key24)

Moral manager (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec11#key25)

Multiculturalism (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec7#key26)

Open systems (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec7#key27)

Organization (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec7#key28)

Organizational behavior (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec1#key29)

Organizational climate (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec7#key30)

Organizational culture (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec7#key31)

Organizing (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec11#key32)

Planning (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec11#key33)

Skill (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec11#key34)

Smart workforce (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec1#key35)

Social capital (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec11#key36)

Social exchange (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec16#key37)

Stakeholders (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec7#key38)

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 48/501

Task performance (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec11#key39)

Technical skill (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec11#key40)

Upward delegation (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec16#key41)

Workforce diversity (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec7#key42)

Self-Test 1 Multiple Choice

1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c01str1) . Which of the following issues would be most central to the �ield of organizational behavior (OB)?

a. (a) How to improve advertising for a new product.

b. (b) How to increase job satisfaction and performance among members of a team.

c. (c) Making plans for a new strategy for organizational growth.

d. (d) Designing a new management information system.

2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c01str2) . What is the best description of the context for organizational behavior today?

a. (a) Command-and-control is in.

b. (b) The new generation is similar to the old.

c. (c) Empowerment is out.

d. (d) Work–life balance concerns are in.

3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c01str3) . The term workforce diversity typically refers to differences in race, age, gender, ethnicity, and ____________ among people at work.

a. (a) social status

b. (b) personal wealth

c. (c) able-bodiedness

d. (d) political preference

4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c01str4) . Which statement about OB is most correct?

a. (a) OB seeks “one-best-way” solutions to management problems.

b. (b) OB is a unique science that has little relationship to other scienti�ic disciplines.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 49/501

c. (c) OB is focused on using social science knowledge for practical applications.

d. (d) OB is so modern that it has no historical roots.

5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c01str5) . In the open- systems view of organizations, such things as technology, information, and money are considered ____________.

a. (a) transformation elements

b. (b) feedback

c. (c) inputs

d. (d) outputs

6 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c01str6) . If the organization culture represents the character of an organization in terms of shared values, the ____________ represents the shared perceptions of members about day-to-day management practices.

a. (a) value chain

b. (b) organization climate

c. (c) transformation process

d. (d) organization strategy

7 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c01str7) . Which of the following is not a good match of organizational stakeholder and the interests they often hold important?

a. (a) customers—high-quality products

b. (b) owners—returns on investments

c. (c) future generations—value pricing

d. (d) regulators—compliance with laws

8 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c01str8) . Which word best describes an organizational culture that embraces multiculturalism and in which workforce diversity is highly valued?

a. (a) inclusion

b. (b) effectiveness

c. (c) dynamism

d. (d) predictability

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 50/501

9 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c01str9) . The management function of ____________ is concerned with creating enthusiasm for hard work among organizational members.

a. (a) planning

b. (b) motivating

c. (c) controlling

d. (d) leading

10 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c01str10) . In the management process, ____________ is concerned with measuring performance results and taking action to improve future performance.

a. (a) transforming

b. (b) organizing

c. (c) leading

d. (d) controlling

11 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c01str11) . Among Mintzberg’s ten managerial roles, acting as a �igurehead and liaison are examples of ____________ roles.

a. (a) interpersonal

b. (b) informational

c. (c) decisional

d. (d) conceptual

12 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c01str12) . When a manager moves upward in responsibility, Katz suggests ____________ skills decrease in importance and ____________ skills increase in importance.

a. (a) human, conceptual

b. (b) conceptual, emotional

c. (c) technical, conceptual

d. (d) emotional, human

13 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c01str13) . A person with high emotional intelligence would be strong in ____________, the ability to think before acting and to control disruptive impulses.

a. (a) motivation

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 51/501

b. (b) perseverance

c. (c) self-regulation

d. (d) empathy

14 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c01str14) . When a person’s human skills are so good that he or she has relationships with other people who can be con�idently asked for help and assistance at work, these skills have created ____________ social capital for the individual.

a. (a) analytical capacity

b. (b) ethics mindfulness

c. (c) social capital

d. (d) multiculturalism

15 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c01str15) . Class discussions, “debriefs,” and individual papers based on case studies, team projects, and in-class activities are all ways an instructor tries to engage students in which part of the experiential learning cycle?

a. (a) initial experience

b. (b) re�lection

c. (c) theory building

d. (d) experimentation

Short Response

16 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c01str16) . What are the key characteristics of OB as a scienti�ic discipline?

17 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c01str17) . What does “valuing diversity” mean in the workplace?

18 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c01str18) . What does “self-regulation” mean in the context of emotional intelligence?

19 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c01str19) . When is a manager an effective leader?

Applications Essay

20 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c01str20) . Carla, a college junior, is participating in a special “elementary education outreach” project in her local community. Along with other students from the business school, she is going to spend the day with fourth- and �ifth-grade students and introduce them to the opportunities of going to college. One of her tasks is to lead a class discussion of the question “How is the world of work

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 52/501

changing today?” Help Carla out by creating an outline of the major points she should discuss with the students.

Steps to Further Learning 1 Top Choices from The OB Skills Workbook

These learning activities from The OB Skills Workbook found at the back of the book are suggested for Chapter 1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/ch1#ch1) .

Case for Critical Thinking Team and Experiential Exercises

Self-Assessment Portfolio

Trader Joe’s

Leadership Training Dilemma

My Best Manager

My Best Job

Graf�iti Needs Assessment

Learning Styles

Student Leadership Practices Inventory

Managerial Assumptions

21st-Century Manager

Turbulence Tolerance Test

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 53/501

Part 2 Individual Behavior and Performance

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 54/501

Appreciation opens doors to opportunity

Radius Images/Corbis

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 55/501

2 Diversity, Personality, and Values

The Key Point

An understanding of organizational behavior begins with the individual. People vary in their personalities, traits, values, and individual characteristics. These individual differences in�luence how we behave and work together in organizations.

What’s Inside?

Bringing OB to LIFE

TAKING STEPS TO CURB BIAS IN PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT

Worth Considering ...or Best Avoided?

WOULD YOU PLEASE MOVE OVER? WE’RE MAKING ROOM FOR GENERATION Y

Checking Ethics in OB

PERSONALITY TESTING

Finding the Leader in you

STEPHEN HAWKING INSPIRES AND SOARS DESPITE DISABILITY

OB in Popular Culture

AMBITION AND THE SOCIAL NETWORK

Research Insight

TWIN STUDIES: NATURE OR NURTURE?

Chapter at a Glance

Why Are Individual Differences and Diversity Important?

What Is Personality?

How Are Personality and Stress Related?

What Are Values, and How Do They Vary Across Cultural?

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 56/501

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 57/501

2.1 Individual Differences and Diversity LEARNING ROADMAP

SELF CONCEPT, SELF-AWARENESS, AND AWARENESS OF OTHERS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec21#sec22)

VALUING-OR NOT VALUING-DIVERSITY (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec21#sec24)

DIVERSITY ISSUES IN THE WORKPLACE (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec21#sec25)

DIVERSITY AND SOCIAL IDENTITY (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec21#sec26)

People are complex. You approach a situation one way, and someone else may approach it quite differently. These differences among people can make it dif�icult to predict and understand individual behavior in relationships, teams, and organizations. They also contribute to what makes the study of organizational behavior so fascinating. The term individual differences (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo183) refers to the ways in which people are similar and dissimilar in personal characteristics.

Individual differences are the ways in which people are similar and dissimilar in personal characteristics.

The mix of individual differences in organizations creates workforce diversity. Some of these differences are easily observable and often demographic. They represent surface-level diversity (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo442) based on quite visible physical attributes such as ethnicity, race, sex, age, and abilities. Other individual differences—such as personalities, values, and attitudes—are more psychologically innate and less immediately visible. They represent deep-level diversity (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo81) that may take time and effort to understand.1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02- note1)

Surface-level diversity involves individual differences in visible attributes such as race, sex, age, and physical abilities.

Deep-level diversity involves individual differences in attributes such as personality and values.

Regardless of the level, diversity issues are of great interest in OB. Women, for example, now lead global companies such as PepsiCo, Xerox, IBM, and Kraft. But they still hold only 3 percent of top jobs in American �irms.2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02-note2) Why have so few

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 58/501

women so far made it to the top?3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02-note3) Society is becoming more diverse in its racial and ethnic makeup. But a research study found that résumés of people with white-sounding �irst names—such as Brett—received 50 percent more responses from potential employers than those with black-sounding �irst names—such as Kareem.4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02-note4) How can these results be explained given that the résumés were created equal?

Self-Concept, Self-Awareness, and Awareness of Others To best understand and deal well with individual differences and diversity, it only makes sense that it’s important to have a strong sense of self. The self-concept (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo390) is the view individuals have of themselves as physical, social, and spiritual or moral beings.5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02-note5) It is a way of recognizing oneself as a distinct human being. Two factors that increase awareness of individual differences—our own and others —are self-awareness and awareness of others. Self-awareness (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo389) means being aware of our own behaviors, preferences, styles, biases, personalities, and so on. Awareness of others (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo21) means being aware of these same things in others.

Self-concept is the view individuals have of themselves as physical, social, spiritual, or moral beings.

Self-awareness means being aware of one’s own behaviors, preferences, styles, biases, personalities, and so on.

Awareness of others is being aware of the behaviors, preferences, styles, biases, and personalities of others.

A person’s self concept shows up in self-esteem (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo393) , a belief about one’s own worth based on an overall self-evaluation.6 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02- note6) People high in self-esteem see themselves as capable, worthwhile, and acceptable; they tend to have few doubts about themselves. People who are low in self-esteem are full of self-doubt and are often afraid to act because of it. Someone’s self-concept is also displayed in self-ef�icacy (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo392) , sometimes called the effectance motive, which is a more speci�ic version of self-esteem. It is an individual’s belief about the likelihood of successfully completing a speci�ic task. You could have high self-esteem and yet have a feeling of low self-ef�icacy about performing a certain task, such as public speaking.

Self-esteem is a belief about one’s own worth based on an overall self-evaluation.

Self-ef�icacy is an individual’s belief about the likelihood of successfully completing a speci�ic task.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 59/501

What determines the development of the self? How, for example, can we explain prejudice (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo330) in the form of negative, irrational, and superior opinions and attitudes toward persons who are different from ourselves? Perhaps you have heard someone say “She acts like her mother,” or “Bobby is the way he is because of the way he was raised.” These two comments illustrate the nature/nurture controversy: Are we the way we are because of heredity—genetic endowment, or because of environment—the cultural places and situations in which we have been raised and live? It is most likely that these two forces act in combination, with heredity setting the limits and environment determining how a person develops within them.7 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02-note7)

Prejudice is the display of negative, irrational, and superior opinions and attitudes toward persons who are different from ourselves.

Research Insight

Twin Studies: Nature or Nurture?

There is a long-standing question in individual differences psychology: How much of who we are is determined by nature and how much by nurture? Research �indings are beginning to provide fascinating insights into this question by investigating samples of twins. Before you read on, take a guess at the following: In thinking about leadership, how much of leadership capacity do you think is determined by nature and how much by nurture?

This question is being investigated in a research program by Rich Arvey and colleagues. In a recent study, he and his researchers used a sample of 178 fraternal and 214 identical female twins to see if they could generalize their �indings that 30 percent of the variance in leadership role occupancy among the male twins could be accounted for by genetic factors. Their sample came from the Minnesota Twin Registry—a registry of twins born in the state between 1936 and 1951 who had been reared together during childhood. Surveys were sent to the female twins with measures assessing their history of holding leadership roles (i.e., leadership role occupancy) and an assessment of developmental life experiences, including family and work experiences.

The results supported the pattern shown in the male sample—32 percent of the variance in the women’s leadership role occupancy was associated with hereditability. Family experience and work experience were also related to leadership role occupancy although, not surprisingly, experiences at work are more important than family experiences in shaping women’s leadership development. The �indings are important because they indicate that developmental experiences can help both men and women move into leadership roles.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 60/501

Do the Research How close was your guess? Do these �indings correspond with what you see in your own families (e.g., with brothers and sisters or with parents and children)? How would you test the question of nature versus nurture?

Source: R. Arvey, Z. Zhang, B. Avolio, and R. Krueger, “Developmental and Genetic Determinants of Leadership Role Occupancy among Women,” Journal of Applied Psychology 92.3 (2007), pp. 693–706.

Valuing-or Not Valuing-Diversity The U.S. population is not just getting bigger; it is more racially and ethnically diverse, and it is getting older. The U.S. Census Bureau predicts that the country will become a true plurality by 2060, with no one ethnic or racial group being in the majority. Hispanics are now the fastest growing community and by 2060 will constitute one-third of the population. America is also growing demographically older; by 2050 one in �ive people will be aged 65-plus.8 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02-note8) What do these and other such demographic trends mean for everyday living, for our personal relationships, for the way we work?

More and more organizations are embracing policies and practices to value diversity in their workforces as a way to increase competitiveness, build talent, expand organizational capabilities, and enhance access to diverse customers.9 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02-note9) Individual differences are fast becoming valued for the strengths that diversity can bring to a workforce.10 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02-note10) If you need creativity, for example, do you turn to people who think like you or to people who can help you think differently? Moreover, when you need to understand something you have never encountered before, such as another culture or an emerging market, do you turn to people who are the same as you or would you want access to co-workers familiar with those cultures?

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 61/501

The �lip side of valuing diversity is outright discrimination (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo87) against women and minorities in the workplace. It occurs when minority members are unfairly treated and denied the full bene�its of organizational membership. An example is when a manager fabricates reasons not to interview a minority job candidate, or refuses to promote a working mother on the belief that “she has too many parenting responsibilities to do a good job at this level.” Such thinking underlies a form of discrimination called the glass ceiling effect (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo154) , an invisible barrier or “ceiling” that prevents women and minorities from rising above a certain level of organizational responsibility.11 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02-note11)

Discrimination actively denies minority members the full bene�its of organizational membership.

The glass ceiling effect is an invisible barrier limiting career advancement of women and minorities.

Diversity Issues in the Workplace Race and Ethnicity The value of heterogeneous perspectives within teams and organizations can be gained from multicultural workforces with a rich mix of racial and ethnic diversity. And Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo456) protects individuals against employment discrimination on the basis of race and ethnicity, as well as national origin, sex, and religion. It applies to employers with 15 or more employees, including state and local governments.

Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 protects individuals against employment discrimination on the basis of race and color, as well as national origin, sex, and religion.

According to Title VII, equal employment opportunity cannot be denied any person because of his/her racial group or perceived racial group, his/her race-linked characteristics (e.g., hair texture, color, facial features), or because of his/her marriage to or association with someone of a particular race or color. It also prohibits employment decisions based on stereotypes and assumptions about abilities, traits, or the performance of individuals of certain racial groups. But, as noted earlier in the research showing prejudice in job searches against person’s with black-sounding �irst names, it’s still an imperfect world.12 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02-note12)

Gender Women are bringing not just task expertise but valuable interpersonal skills and styles to the workplace, such as listening and collaborative skills, and abilities to multitask and synthesize alternative viewpoints effectively and quickly. Research shows that companies with a higher percentage of female board directors and corporate of�icers, on average, �inancially outperform companies with the lowest percentages by signi�icant margins.13 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02-note13) The presence of women leaders is also bene�icial because they encourage more women in the pipeline and act as role models and mentors for younger women. Moreover, the presence of women leaders sends important signals that an organization has a broad and deep talent pool, and offers an inclusive workplace.

Despite these bene�its to organizations and anti-discrimination protections afforded them under Title VII of the U.S. Civil Rights Act of 1964, women have not penetrated the highest level of organizational

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 62/501

leadership to the extent we would expect. Even worse, many are still abandoning corporate careers just as they are positioned to attain higher-level responsibilities. The term leaking pipeline (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo232) was coined by Professor Lynda Gratton and colleagues of the London Business School to describe this phenomenon.14 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02-note14) In one study of 61 organizations operating in 12 European countries, they found that the number of women decreases the more senior the roles become.

The leaking pipeline describes how women drop out of careers before reaching the top levels of organizations.

The nonpro�it research organization Catalyst reports that women consistently identify gender stereotypes as a signi�icant barrier to advancement and cause for the leaking pipeline.15 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02-note15) They describe a “think-leader-think- male” mind-set in which men are largely seen as leaders by default because of stereotypically masculine “take charge” skills such as in�luencing superiors and problem solving. Women, by contrast are stereotyped for “caretaking skills” such as supporting and encouraging others. This creates what is called a leadership double bind for women. If they conform to the stereotype they are seen as weak, and if they go against the stereotype they are breaking norms of femininity. As some describe it, female leaders are “damned if they do, doomed if they don’t.”16 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02- note16) Organizations can help address these stereotypes by creating workplaces that are more meaningful and satisfying to successful women, such as cultures that are less command-and-control and status-based. As Catalyst reports, “Ultimately, it is not women’s leadership styles that need to change but the structures and perceptions that must keep up with today’s changing times.”17 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02-note17)

The leadership double bind describes how women are seen as weak in leadership if they conform to the feminine stereotype and also weak if they go against it.

BRINGING OB TO LIFE

“If you have several pair of shoes available, you’re much more likely to be able to compare different attributes of the shoes.”

Taking Steps to Curb Bias in Performance Assessment

Try as we might, bias has a way of creeping into performance assessments and other human resource management decisions. But Harvard scholars Iris Bohnet, Alexandra van Geen, and Max H. Bazerman may have found a way to minimize or eliminate such implicit discrimination. The key, they say, is to make sure evaluators compare candidates directly rather than one by one.

This advice comes from research that asked 100 participants to act as candidates for a new job. They performed a variety of math and verbal tasks chosen by the researchers because of the common gender stereotype that “females are believed to be worse at math tasks and better at verbal tasks than males.” Another 554 study participants then acted as evaluators to select candidates for a second round of testing.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 63/501

They were given test results and gender for each candidate. Some evaluators were asked to evaluate the candidates one at a time while others directly compared male and female candidates.

Gender stereotypes in�luenced the one-by-one evaluations, with female candidates more often chosen for further verbal testing and male candidates for further math testing. When male and female candidates were evaluated together, however, gender stereotypes largely disappeared.

Bohnet et al. summarize the research by noting that “if you look at one pair of shoes, it’s hard to evaluate the quality of those shoes. You will be much more likely to go with stereotypes or heuristics or rules of thumb about shoes. But if you have several pair of shoes available, you’re much more likely to be able to compare different attributes of the shoes.”

Jon Feingersh Photography/SuperStock/Corbis

Has this OB research put its �inger on a simple way to remove bias from human resource decisions? Is it time to stop assessing candidates one at a time and instead compare them to one another directly?

Sexual Orientation The �irst U.S. corporation to add sexual orientation to its nondiscrimination policy did so 30 years ago. That company was AT&T and its chairman, John DeButts, said that his company would “respect the human rights of our employees.”18 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02-note18) Although employment discrimination based on sexual orientation or gender identity is not yet protected by federal legislation, such legislation has been proposed to Congress (the Employment Non-Discrimination Act), and individuals are protected

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 64/501

from sexual harassment bullying at work and school.19 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02-note19) Also, many states now have executive orders protecting the rights of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender workers.20 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02-note20)

Regardless of weak and incomplete legislative support, the workplace is beginning to improve for gay Americans. Harris polling shows that 78 percent of heterosexual adults in the United States agree that how an employee performs at his or her job should be the standard for judging an employee, not one’s sexual orientation, while 62 percent agree that all employees are entitled to equal bene�its on the job, such as health insurance for partners or spouses.21 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02-note21)

Age Age or generational diversity is affecting the workplace like never before. Population demographics and economic trends have created a workforce where Millennials, Gen Xers, and Baby Boomers have to work and get along together. Nonetheless, there are points of con�lict based on age stereotypes. Baby Boomers may view Millennials as feeling a sense of entitlement and not being hard working due to the way they dress and their interest in �lexible hours. Millennials may view Baby Boomers and Gen Xers as more concerned about the hours they work than what they produce.22 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02-note22)

WORTH CONSIDERING ...OR BEST AVOIDED?

Would You Please Move Over? We’re Making Room for Generation Y

Employers �ind a lot to like in the skills Generation Y members—the Millennials—bring to the workplace. No problem with technology—they’re always on the cusp of things. No problem with collaboration— they’ve grown up with teamwork and social media. No problem either with motivation—they’re task oriented and career focused.

But Gen Ys also need special handling. They can be spoiled and self-centered, quick to complain when their bosses don’t communicate enough, when their skills aren’t fully tapped, and when work rules and bureaucracy get too restrictive. They’re also impatient for new assignments and promotions, and �lexible work arrangements. And when they don’t get them they’re quick to move on. Loyalty to a single-employer career isn’t part of their DNA.

Some employers go to great lengths to keep their Gen Ys happy, even to the point where “older” employers feel a bit put upon. The online book service Chegg cut middle management positions to make room for younger employees to advance. CEO Dan Rosensweig said, “If they don’t feel like they’re making a contribution to a company overall quickly, they don’t stay.” Software �irm Aprimo guarantees Gen Ys promotion and a raise in a year if they perform up to expectations. When some of the older workers balked at this special treatment, President Bob Boehnlein said, “I had to strong-arm a little bit.”

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 65/501

Barry Austin/Moodboard/Corbis

Do the Analysis

Do Gen Ys deserve special treatment? And when they get it, should it come at the expense of their more senior co-workers? Just how do you blend the needs and interests of a new generation of workers with others who have been around awhile—perhaps quite awhile? Who gains and who loses when the new generation pushes employers to rethink the nature of the employment contract?

The generational mix in organizations provides an excellent example of how diversity can deliver bene�its. For example, Millennials seem to embrace gender equality and sexual, cultural, and racial diversity more than any previous generation, and they bring these values to work. Millennials also have an appreciation for community and collaboration. They can help create a more relaxed workplace that reduces some of the problems that come from too much focus on status and hierarchy. At the same time, Boomers and Gen Xers bring a wealth of experience, dedication, and commitment that contribute to productivity, and a sense of professionalism that is bene�iting their younger counterparts.23 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02-note23)

Ability In recent years the “disability rights movement” has been working to bring attention and support to the needs of disabled workers.24 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02-note24) Estimates indicate that over 50 million Americans have one or more physical or mental disabilities, and studies show these workers do their jobs as well as, or better than, nondisabled workers. Despite this, nearly three-quarters of severely disabled persons are reported to be unemployed, and almost 80 percent of those with disabilities say they want to work.25 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02-note25)

FINDING THE LEADER IN YOU Stephen Hawking Inspires and Soars Despite Disability

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 66/501

Stephen Hawking cannot speak and does not have use of his motor skills, but he doesn’t let that stop him. Renowned for his work in theoretical physics, Hawking has been an in�luential voice in rede�ining the way we see black holes and the origin of the universe. He is perhaps most recognized for his book A Brief History of Time, in which he works to translate Einstein’s general theory of relatively and quantum theory for a general audience.

Hawking was diagnosed with ALS, or Lou Gehrig’s disease, a few years after his twenty-�irst birthday. Over time, ALS has gradually crippled his body, �irst making him dependent on a wheelchair and private nurse, and then requiring 24/7 nursing care. He uses a voice synthesizer devised by a colleague that allows him to type rather than having to check letters off a card.

Despite his disability, Hawking has maintained an extensive program of travel, public lectures, and television appearances—even defying gravity by experiencing weightlessness on a zero-gravity �light for two hours over the Atlantic. His accomplishments and ability to live a full life, with three children and three grandchildren, have inspired people around the world. As Hawking says, “I’m sure my disability has a bearing on why I’m well known. People are fascinated by the contrast between my very limited physical powers, and the vast nature of the universe I deal with. I’m the archetype of a disabled genius, or should I say a physically challenged genius, to be politically correct. At least I’m obviously physically challenged. Whether I’m a genius is more open to doubt.”

Menahem KahanaAFP/GettyImages/NewsCom

What’s the Lesson Here?

How do you respond to individual differences in the workplace? Are you understanding of the strengths and limitations of others? What about your own limitations and challenges? Do you work to overcome them, or do you let them bring you down?

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 67/501

The passage of the Americans with Disabilities Act (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo12) (ADA) in 1990 has been a signi�icant catalyst in advancing their efforts. The focus of the ADA is to eliminate employers’ practices that treat people with disabilities unnecessarily different. The ADA has helped to generate a more inclusive climate in which organizations are reaching out more to people with disabilities. The most visible changes from the ADA have been in issues of universal design (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo466) —the practice of designing products, buildings, public spaces, and programs to be usable by the greatest number of people. You may see this in your own college or university’s actions to make their campus and classrooms more accessible.26 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02-note26)

The Americans with Disabilities Act is a federal civil rights statute that protects the rights of people with disabilities.

Universal design is the practice of designing products, buildings, public spaces, and programs to be usable by the greatest number of people.

The disability rights movement is working passionately to advance a rede�inition of what it means to be disabled in U.S. society. The goal is to overcome the stigmas attached to disability. A stigma (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo431) is a phenomenon whereby an individual with an attribute that is deeply discredited by his or her society is rejected as a result of the attribute. Because of stigmas, many are reluctant to seek coverage under the ADA because they do not want to experience discrimination in the form of stigmas.

A stigma is a phenomenon whereby an individual is rejected as a result of an attribute that is deeply discredited by his or her society.

Diversity and Social Identity Although in the past many organizations addressed the issue of diversity from the standpoint of compliance with legal mandates, the focus is now on policies and practices of inclusion.27 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02-note27) This new focus represents a shift in thinking about how organizations can create inclusive cultures for everyone.28 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02-note28)

The move from compliance to inclusion occurred primarily because employers began to learn that although they were able to recruit diverse individuals, they were not able to retain them. In work settings where upper ranks of organizations continued to be mostly composed of white males, dif�icult questions started to be asked and answered: Do employees in all groups and categories feel comfortable and welcomed in the organization? Do they feel included, and do they experience the environment as inclusive?29 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02-note29)

Questions like those just posed are the focus of social identity theory (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo415) as developed by social psychologists Henri Tajfel and John Turner in their quest to understand the psychological basis of discrimination.30 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02-note30) According to the

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 68/501

theory, individuals have not one but multiple “personal selves.” Which self is activated depends on the group with which the person identi�ies. The mere act of identifying, or “categorizing,” oneself as a member of a group will generate favoritism toward that group, and this favoritism is displayed in the form of “in- group” enhancement. This in-group favoritism occurs at the expense of the out-group. In terms of diversity, social identity theory suggests that simply having diversity in groups makes that identity salient in peoples’ minds. Individuals engage these identities and experience feelings of in-group membership (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo178) and out-group membership (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo302) .

Social identity theory is a theory developed to understand the psychological basis of discrimination.

A feeling of in-group membership exists when individuals sense they are part of a group and experience favorable status and a sense of belonging.

A feeling of out-group membership exists when individuals sense they are not part of a group and experience discomfort and low belongingness.

The implications of social identity theory are straightforward. When organizations have strong identities formed around in-group and out-group categorizations based on diversity, this will work against a feeling of inclusion. Such in-group and out-group categorizations can be subtle but powerful, and they may be most noticeable to those in the “out-group” category. Organizations may not intend to create discriminatory environments, but when only a few members of a group are present, this may evoke a strong out-group identity. They may end up feeling uncomfortable and less a part of the organization. Managers and organizations try to deal with all this by creating work cultures and environments that welcome and embrace inclusion. The concept of valuing diversity emphasizes an appreciation of differences while creating a workplace where everyone feels valued and accepted.31 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02-note31)

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 69/501

2.2 Personality LEARNING ROADMAP

BIG FIVE PERSONALITY TRAITS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec27#sec28)

SOCIAL TRAITS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec27#sec29)

PERSONAL CONCEPTION TRAITS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec27#sec30)

The term personality (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo320) encompasses the overall combination of characteristics that capture the unique nature of a person as that person reacts to and interacts with others. It combines a set of physical and mental characteristics that re�lect how a person looks, thinks, acts, and feels. Think of yourself, and of your family and friends. A key part of how you interact with others depends on your own and their personalities, doesn’t it? If you have a friend who has a sensitive personality, do you interact with that person differently than you do with a friend or family member who likes to joke around?

Personality is the overall combination of characteristics that capture the unique nature of a person as that person reacts to and interacts with others.

Sometimes attempts are made to measure personality with questionnaires or special tests. Frequently, personality can be inferred from behavior alone. Either way, personality is an important individual characteristic to understand. It helps us identify predictable interplays between people’s individual differences and their tendencies to behave in certain ways.

Big Five Personality Traits Numerous lists of personality traits (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo321) —enduring characteristics describing an individual’s behavior—have been developed, and used in OB research. A key starting point is to consider the personality dimensions known as the “Big Five Model”:32 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02-note32)

Personality traits are enduring characteristics describing an individual’s behavior.

Big Five Personality Dimensions

Extraversion—the degree to which someone is outgoing, sociable, and assertive. An extravert is comfortable and con�ident in interpersonal relationships; an introvert is more withdrawn and reserved.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 70/501

Agreeableness—the degree to which someone is good-natured, cooperative, and trusting. An agreeable person gets along well with others; a disagreeable person is a source of con�lict and discomfort for others.

Conscientiousness—the degree to which someone is responsible, dependable, and careful. A conscientious person focuses on what can be accomplished and meets commitments; a person who lacks conscientiousness is careless, often trying to do too much and failing, or doing little.

Emotional stability—the degree to which someone is relaxed, secure, and un-worried. A person who is emotionally stable is calm and con�ident; a person lacking in emotional stability is anxious, nervous, and tense.

Openness to experience—the degree to which someone is curious, open to new ideas, and imaginative. An open person is broad-minded, receptive to new things, and comfortable with change; a person who lacks openness is narrow-minded, has few interests, and is resistant to change.

Attractiveness Good for Men But Bad for Women When Job Hunting

Physical attractiveness is often considered a pathway to advancement and career success. The better looking among us, the reasoning goes, tend to fare better. But researchers from Ben Gurion University and Ariel University Centre in Israel faced unusual results when they tackled “attractiveness” in a study of employment practices. They sent similar résumés with and without photos of the job applicants to prospective employers. These photos of the male and female applicants were rated for attractiveness. Findings showed that attractive males were better off sending photos with their résumés, but attractive females were not. The hiring bias against attractive women in the study was explained as jealousy on the part of human resource staffers who are mostly female.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 71/501

StockLite/Shutterstock

A considerable body of literature links the personality dimensions of the Big Five model with behavior at work and in life overall. For example, conscientiousness is a good predictor of job performance for most occupations, and extraversion is often associated with success in management and sales. Indications are that extraverts tend to be happier than introverts in their lives overall, that conscientious people tend to be less risky, and that those more open to experience are more creative.33 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02-note33)

You can easily spot the Big Five personality traits in people with whom you work, study, and socialize. But don’t forget that they also apply to you. Others form impressions of your personality, and respond to it, just as you do in response to theirs. Managers often use these and other personality judgments when making job assignments, building teams, and otherwise engaging in the daily social give-and-take of work.

Social Traits Social traits (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo419) are surface-level traits that re�lect the way a person appears to others when interacting in various social settings. A person’s problem-solving style (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo336) , based on the work of noted psychologist Carl Jung, is a good example. It re�lects the way someone goes about gathering and evaluating information in solving problems and making decisions. Problem-solving styles are most frequently measured by the typically 100-item Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), which asks individuals how they usually act or feel in speci�ic situations. The MBTI is often used by organizations to improve self- awareness of participants in management development programs.34 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02-note34)

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 72/501

Social traits re�lect how a person appears to others in social settings.

Problem-solving style is how we gather and evaluate information when solving problems.

The �irst component in Jung’s typology, information gathering, involves getting and organizing data for use. Styles of information gathering vary from sensation to intuitive. Sensation-type individuals prefer routine and order and emphasize well-de�ined details in gathering information; they would rather work with known facts than look for possibilities. By contrast, intuitive-type individuals prefer the “big picture.” They like solving new problems, dislike routine, and would rather look for possibilities than work with facts.

OB IN POPULAR CULTURE

Ambition and The Social Network

Sony’s movie The Social Network is based on Facebook’s story and especially the role of visionary and controversial founder Mark Zuckerberg (played by Jesse Eisenberg). Although Zuckerberg calls the �ilm pure “�iction,” it raises ethical questions about his actions while developing the initial Web site, re�ining it, and eventually turning it into a global company valued at over $50 billion. Two former Harvard classmates, Cameron and Tyler Winklevoss, sued him, claiming the original idea was theirs. Another early collaborator and co-founder, Eduardo Saverin, was initially left out of the new �irm’s �inancial gains.

In its reaction to the �ilm, Entertainment Weekly asks, “Why did Zuckerberg betray these people? Or, in fact, did he really?”

Columbia Pictures/Photofest

One thing that cannot be denied is Zuckerberg’s ambition, the desire to succeed and reach for high goals. He’s the youngest self-made billionaire in business history. As the movie shows, ambition is one of those

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 73/501

personality traits that can certainly have a big impact on individual behavior—both for the good and for the bad.

Get to Know Yourself Better Watch The Social Network and discuss with your friends and classmates how different personalities and talents played out in creating the Facebook revolution. What can you learn that might help you deal with the ethics and intricacies of human behavior in work situations? Then take “Assessment 19: Your Personality Type” in the OB Skills Workbook. Personality is a good starting point for exploring your preferences and gaining a better understanding of who you are. How dif�icult would it be for someone else to understand you? Spend a few minutes looking at that. After you score the assessment, sit down with your roommate or a close friend and discuss the results. Is what you discovered consistent with how they see you?

The second component of problem solving, evaluation, involves making judgments about how to deal with information once it has been collected. Styles of information evaluation vary from an emphasis on feeling to an emphasis on thinking. Feeling-type individuals are oriented toward conformity and try to accommodate themselves to other people. They try to avoid problems that may result in disagreements. Thinking-type individuals use reason and intellect to deal with problems and downplay emotions.

When the two dimensions of information gathering and evaluation are combined, four basic problem- solving styles can be identi�ied. As shown in Figure 2.1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec27#r�ig2-1) , people can be classi�ied into combinations of sensation–feeling (SF), intuitive–feeling (IF), sensation–thinking (ST), and intuitive– thinking (IT).

Research indicates that there is a �it between the styles of individuals and the kinds of decisions they prefer. For example, STs (sensation–thinkers) prefer analytical strategies—those that emphasize detail and method. IFs (intuitive–feelers) prefer intuitive strategies—those that emphasize an overall pattern and �it. Not surprisingly, mixed styles (sensation–feelers or intuitive–thinkers) select both analytical and intuitive strategies. Other �indings also indicate that thinkers tend to have higher motivation than do feelers, and that individuals who emphasize sensations tend to have higher job satisfaction than do intuitives. These and other �indings suggest a number of basic differences among different problem- solving styles, emphasizing the importance of �itting such styles with a task’s information processing and evaluation requirements.35 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02-note35)

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 74/501

FIGURE 2.1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec27#�ig2-1) Four problem-solving styles of the Jungian typology.

Personal Conception Traits What are known as personal conception traits (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo318) represent various ways people think about their social and physical setting, their major beliefs, and personal orientations toward a range of issues. Personal conception traits often discussed in the work context include locus of control, proactive personality, authoritarianism/dogmatism, Machiavellianism, and self-monitoring.

Personal conception traits show up as personal beliefs and orientations toward settings and issues.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 75/501

Locus of Control The extent to which a person feels able to control his or her own life is known as locus of control (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo238) .36 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02-note36) People have personal conceptions about whether events are controlled primarily by themselves, which indicates an internal orientation, or by outside forces, such as their social and physical environment, which indicates an external orientation. Internals, or persons with an internal locus of control, believe that they control their own fate or destiny. In contrast, externals, or persons with an external locus of control, believe that much of what happens to them is beyond their control and is determined by environmental forces (such as fate).

Locus of control is the extent a person feels able to control his or her own life and is concerned with a person’s internal-external orientation.

In general, externals are more extraverted in their interpersonal relationships and are more oriented toward the world around them. Internals tend to be more introverted and are more oriented toward their own feelings and ideas. Figure 2.2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec27#r�ig2-2) suggests that internals tend to do better on tasks requiring complex information processing and learning as well as initiative.

Proactive Personality Some people in organizations are passive recipients when faced with constraints, whereas others take direct and intentional action to change their circumstances. The disposition that identi�ies whether or not individuals act to in�luence their environments is known as proactive personality (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo334) . Individuals with high proactive personalities identify opportunities and act on them, show initiative, take action, and persevere until meaningful change occurs. Those low in proactivity are the opposite. They fail to identify —let alone seize—opportunities to change things. They tend to be passive and reactive, preferring to adapt to circumstances rather than change them.37 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02-note37)

A proactive personality is the disposition that identi�ies whether or not individuals act to in�luence their environments.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 76/501

FIGURE 2.2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec27#�ig2-2) Ways in which internal locus of control differs from external locus of control.

In the ever more demanding world of work, many employers are seeking individuals with more proactive qualities—individuals willing to take initiative and engage in proactive problem solving. Research supports this, showing that proactive personality is positively related to job performance, creativity, leadership, and career success. Other studies have shown that proactive personality is related to team effectiveness and entrepreneurship. Moreover, when organizations try to make positive and innovative change, these changes have more positive effects for proactive individuals—they are more involved and more receptive to change. This research is showing that proactive personality is an important and desirable element in today’s work environment.

Authoritarianism/Dogmatism Both authoritarianism and dogmatism as personal conception traits deal with the rigidity of someone’s beliefs. A person high in authoritarianism (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo17) tends to adhere rigidly to conventional values and to obey recognized authority. This person is concerned with toughness and power and opposes the use of subjective feelings. Highly authoritarian individuals present a special

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 77/501

problem because they can be so eager to comply with directives from authority �igures that they end up willing to behave unethically.38 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02-note38)

Authoritarianism is a tendency to adhere rigidly to conventional values and to obey recognized authority.

An individual high in dogmatism (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo96) sees the world as a threatening place. This person regards legitimate authority as absolute, and accepts or rejects others according to how much they agree with accepted authority. Superiors who possess these latter traits tend to be rigid and closed. At the same time, dogmatic subordinates tend to want certainty imposed on them.

Dogmatism leads a person to see the world as a threatening place and to regard authority as absolute.

CHECKING ETHICS IN OB

Personality Testing

Dear [your name goes here]:

I am very pleased to invite you to a second round of screening interviews with XYZ Corporation. Your on- campus session with our representative went very well, and we would like to consider you further for a full-time position. Please contact me to arrange a visit date. We will need a full day. The schedule will include several meetings with executives and your potential team members, as well as a round of personality tests.

Thank you again for your interest in XYZ Corp. I look forward to meeting you during the next step in our recruiting process.

Sincerely,

/signed/

Human Resource Director

Getting a letter like this is great news: a nice con�irmation of your hard work and performance in college. You obviously made a good �irst impression. But have you thought about this “personality test” thing? What do you know about them and how they are used for employment screening?

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 78/501

Tek Image/Photo Researchers, Inc.

The U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission says that personality tests can’t have an adverse impact on members of protected groups. And, a report in the Wall Street Journal advises that lawsuits can result when employers use personality tests that weren’t speci�ically designed for hiring decisions. Some people might even consider their use an invasion of privacy.

Make the Decision What are the ethical issues of personality testing? When might the use of personality tests be considered an invasion of privacy? When might their use be considered unethical? Now go back to the situation just described: Will you take the tests at XYZ? Will you ask any questions about the tests when you contact the human resources director? Is the fact that XYZ uses personality tests a positive or a negative in terms of your likely �it with the �irm?

Machiavellianism The very name of the sixteenth-century author Niccolo Machiavelli often evokes visions of someone who acts with guile, deceit, and opportunism. Machiavelli earned his place in history by writing The Prince, a nobleman’s guide to the acquisition and use of power.39 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02-note39) The subject of Machiavelli’s book is manipulation as the basic means of gaining and keeping control of others. From its pages emerges the personality pro�ile of Machiavellianism (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo242) —the practice of viewing and manipulating others purely for personal gain.

Machiavellianism causes someone to view and manipulate others purely for personal gain.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 79/501

Persons high in Machiavellianism approach situations logically and thoughtfully, and are even capable of lying to achieve personal goals.40 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02-note40) They are rarely swayed by loyalty, friendships, past promises, or the opinions of others, and they are skilled at in�luencing others. They can also be expected to take control and try to exploit loosely structured environmental situations but will perform in a perfunctory, even detached, manner in highly structured situations. Where the situation permits, they might be expected to do or say whatever it takes to get their way. Those low in Machiavellianism, by contrast, tend to be more strongly guided by ethical considerations and are less likely to lie, cheat, or get away with lying or cheating.

Self-Monitoring Self-monitoring (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo397) re�lects a person’s ability to adjust his or her behavior to external, situational (environmental) factors.41 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02-note41) High self-monitors are sensitive to external cues and tend to behave differently in different situations. High self-monitors can present a very different appearance from their true self. In contrast, low self-monitors, are less able to disguise their behaviors—“What you see is what you get.” There is also evidence that high self-monitors are closely attuned to the behavior of others and conform more readily than do low self-monitors.42 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02-note42) Thus, they appear �lexible and may be especially good at adjusting their behavior to �it different kinds of situations and the people in them.

Self-monitoring is a person’s ability to adjust his or her behavior to external situational (environmental) factors.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 80/501

2.3 Personality and Stress LEARNING ROADMAP

TYPE A ORIENTATION AND STRESS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec31#sec32)

WORK AND LIFE STRESSORS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec31#sec33)

OUTCOMES OF STRESS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec31#sec34)

APPROACHES TO MANAGING STRESS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec31#sec35)

An individual’s personality can also be described in terms of emotional adjustment traits (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo106) that indicate how one handles emotional distress or displays unacceptable acts, such as impatience, irritability, or aggression.43 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02-note43) Among these, a personality with Type A orientation (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo462) is characterized by impatience, desire for achievement, and perfectionism. In contrast, those with a Type B orientation (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo463) are characterized as more easygoing and less competitive in relation to daily events.44 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02-note44) Type A people tend to work fast and to be abrupt, uncomfortable, irritable, and aggressive. Such tendencies may show up as “obsessive” behavior. When carried to the extreme, it may lead to greater concerns for details than for results, resistance to change, and overzealous attempts to exert control. In contrast, Type B people tend to be much more laid back and patient in their relationships with others.

Emotional adjustment traits are traits related to how much an individual experiences emotional distress or displays unacceptable acts.

Persons with Type A orientations tend to be impatient, achievement oriented, and competitive.

Persons with Type B orientations tend to be easygoing and less competitive.

Type A Orientation and Stress In one survey of college graduates, 31 percent reported working over 50 hours per week, 60 percent rushed meals and 34 percent ate lunches “on the run,” and 47 percent of those under 35 and 28 percent of those over 35 had feelings of job burnout. A study by the Society for Human Resources Management found that 70 percent of those surveyed worked over and above scheduled hours, including putting in extra time on the weekends; over 50 percent said that the pressure to do the extra work was “self-imposed.”45 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02-note45)

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 81/501

The situations just described all evidence the presence of stress (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo436) as a state of internal tension experienced by individuals who perceive themselves as facing extraordinary demands, constraints, or opportunities.46 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02-note46) If you look back to the discussion of Type A and Type B personalities, the fact is that Type As often bring stress upon themselves. They may even do this in situations others may �ind relatively stress free. You can spot Type A personality tendencies in yourself and others through the following patterns of behavior:

Stress is a state of tension in response to extraordinary demands, constraints, or opportunities.

Type A Behaviors

Always moving, walking, and eating rapidly

Acting impatient, hurrying others, put off by waiting

Doing, or trying to do, several things at once

Feeling guilty when relaxing

Hurrying or interrupting the speech of others47 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02-note47)

Work and Life Stressors Not all stress that we experience is personality driven. Any variety of things can cause stress for individuals. Some stressors can be traced directly to what people experience in the workplace, whereas others derive from life situations and nonwork factors.

Work Stressors There is no doubt that work can be stressful and job demands can sometimes disrupt one’s work–life balance. Work stressors can arise from excessively high or low task demands, role con�licts or ambiguities, poor interpersonal relations, career progress that is either too slow or too fast, and more. The following is a list of common stressors:

Common Work Stressors

Task demands—being asked to do too much or being asked to do too little

Role ambiguities—not knowing what one is expected to do or how work performance is evaluated

Role con�licts—feeling unable to satisfy multiple, possibly con�licting, performance expectations

Ethical dilemmas—being asked to do things that violate the law or personal values

Interpersonal problems—experiencing bad relationships or working with others with whom one does not get along

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 82/501

Career developments—moving too fast and feeling stretched; moving too slowly and feeling stuck on a plateau

Physical setting—being bothered by noise, lack of privacy, pollution, or other unpleasant working conditions

Life Stressors Life stressors such as family events (e.g., the birth of a new child), economic dif�iculties (e.g., loss of income by a spouse), and personal affairs (e.g., a separation or divorce) can all be extremely stressful. That pretty much goes without saying. But it’s also true that people can easily suffer from spillover effects that result when forces in their personal lives spill over to affect them at work or when forces at work spill over to affect their personal lives. Because it is often dif�icult to completely separate work and nonwork lives, especially in this age of smart devices that keep us continually in touch with work and personal affairs, life stressors and spillover effects are highly signi�icant.

Outcomes of Stress The stress we experience at work or in personal affairs isn’t always negative. Scholars talk about two types of stress.48 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02-note48) The �irst is eustress (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo123) —constructive stress that results in positive outcomes. It occurs when moderate—not extreme—stress levels prompt things like increased work effort, greater creativity, and more diligence. You may know such stress as the tension that causes you to study hard before exams, pay attention in class, and complete assignments on time. The second type of stress is distress (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo90) —destructive stress that turns out to be dysfunctional for both the individual. Key symptoms of individuals suffering distress are changes from regular attendance to absenteeism, from punctuality to tardiness, from diligent work to careless work, from a positive attitude to a negative attitude, from openness to change to resistance to change, or from cooperation to hostility.

Eustress is constructive stress that results in positive outcomes for the individual.

Distress is destructive stress that is dysfunctional for the individual.

Learning to Power Down: Vacation Habits Vary Around the World

“Most years I leave my vacation days on the table”—so says a bank marketing manager. Sound farfetched? Not necessarily; perhaps a bit extreme but still indicative of a pattern. A global survey of vacation habits �inds that Americans on the average take fewer vacation days than they are allowed: an average of 12 out of 14. They leave anywhere from 2 to 11 days unused. This contrasts with French and Spanish workers who take all of their allocated 30 days, whereas the Japanese take only 4 of 10. One worker says, “It’s almost not worth the stress of having double the work when you get back.” Some employers are trying to curb tendencies to “work too much” as a way of helping people “do better work.” The consulting �irm KPMG uses a wellness scorecard to track and counsel workers who skip vacations and work excessive overtime.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 83/501

Photomorphic/Robert Churchill

One possible outcome of extended distress, for example, is the job burnout (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo211) that shows up as loss of interest in and satisfaction with a job due to stressful working conditions. Someone who is “burned out” feels emotionally and physically exhausted, and is less able to deal positively with work responsibilities and opportunities. More extreme reactions to distress include bullying of co-workers and even workplace violence. It is also clear that too much stress can overload and break down a person’s physical and mental systems, resulting in absenteeism, turnover, errors, accidents, dissatisfaction, reduced performance, unethical behavior, and even illness.49 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02-note49)

Job burnout is a loss of interest in or satisfaction with a job due to stressful working conditions.

Approaches to Managing Stress Coping Mechanisms Along with rising sensitivities to stress in the workplace, interest is also growing in how to manage, or cope, with distress. Coping (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo67) is a response or reaction to distress that has occurred or is threatened. It involves cognitive and behavioral efforts to master, reduce, or tolerate the demands created by the stressful situation.

Coping is a response or reaction to distress that has occurred or is threatened.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 84/501

There are two major types of coping mechanisms. Problem-focused coping (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo335) strategies try to manage the problem that is causing the distress. Indicators of this type of coping are comments like “I’ll get the person responsible to change his or her mind,” “I’ll make a new plan of action and follow it,” and “I’m going to stand my ground and �ight for what I need.” Emotion-focused coping (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo105) strategies try to regulate the emotions drawn forth by stress. Indicators of this type of coping include comments like “I’ll look for the silver lining, try to look on the bright side of things,” “I’ll accept the sympathy and understanding offered by others,” and “I’ll just try to forget the whole thing.”50 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02-note50)

Problem-focused coping mechanisms manage the problem that is causing the distress.

Emotion-focused coping are mechanisms that regulate emotions or distress.

People with different personalities tend to cope with stress in different ways. In respect to the Big Five, emotional stability has been found linked with increased use of hostile reaction, escapism/fantasy, self- blame, withdrawal, wishful thinking, passivity, and indecisiveness. People high in extraversion and optimism tend to show rational action, positive thinking, substitution, and restraint. And individuals high in openness to experience are likely to use humor in dealing with stress.

Achievement-Striving, and Learning to Say “No”

Persons high in achievement-striving can be overwhelmed by opportunities. They may end up over committed and less successful in the long run. A key element of managing stress is learning to say “No.”51 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02-note51)

When to Say No

Focus on what matters most—focus on your priorities.

Weigh the yes-to-stress ratio—how much added stress will this cause? Is it worth it?

Take guilt out of the equation—guilt is in�lated due to feeling of self-importance—it’s okay to say no.

Sleep on it—discipline yourself to not automatically say yes; what will it cost you?

How to Say No

Just say no—or “I’m sorry but I can’t. . . .”

Be brief—state your reason and avoid elaborations or justi�ications—“I’m swamped.”

Be honest—don’t fabricate reasons; the truth is always best and people do understand.

Be respectful—”I am honored to be asked but I can’t do it.”

Be ready to repeat—stick to it if they ask again; just hit the replay button, don’t give in.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 85/501

Stress Prevention Stress prevention is the best �irst-line strategy in the battle against stress. It involves taking action to present stress from reaching destructive levels. Work and life stressors must be recognized before one can take action to prevent their occurrence or to minimize their adverse impacts. Persons with Type A personalities, for example, may exercise self-discipline, whereas supervisors of Type A employees may try to model a lower-key, more relaxed approach to work. Family problems may be partially relieved by a change of work schedule; simply knowing that your supervisor understands your situation may also help to reduce the anxiety caused by pressing family concerns.

Personal Wellness To keep stress from reaching a destructive point, special techniques of stress management can be implemented. This process begins with the recognition of stress symptoms and continues with actions to maintain a positive performance edge. The term wellness is increasingly used these days. Personal wellness (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo319) involves the pursuit of one’s job and career goals with the support of a personal health promotion program. The concept recognizes individual responsibility to enhance and maintain wellness through a disciplined approach to physical and mental health. It requires attention to such factors as smoking, weight management, diet, alcohol use, and physical �itness.

Personal wellness involves the pursuit of one’s job and career goals with the support of a personal health promotion program.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 86/501

2.4 Values LEARNING ROADMAP

SOURCES OF VALUES (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec36#sec37)

PERSONAL VALUES (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec36#sec38)

CULTURAL VALUES (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec36#sec39)

Values (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo474) are broad preferences concerning appropriate courses of action or outcomes. They re�lect a person’s sense of right and wrong or what “ought” to be.52 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02-note52) Statements like “Equal rights for all” and “People should be treated with respect and dignity” are indicators of values. And we recognize that values tend to in�luence attitudes and behavior.

Values are broad preferences concerning appropriate courses of action or outcomes.

Sources of Values Parents, friends, teachers, siblings, education, experience, and external reference groups are all possible in�luences on individual values. Our values develop as a product of the learning and experience we encounter in the cultural setting in which we live, as learning and experiences differ from one person to another. Value differences result. Such differences are likely to be deep seated and dif�icult (though not impossible) to change. Many have their roots in early childhood and the way a person has been raised.53 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02-note53)

Personal Values

The noted psychologist Milton Rokeach classi�ied values into two broad categories.54 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02-note54) Terminal values (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo455) re�lect a person’s preferences concerning the “ends” to be achieved; they are the goals an individual would like to achieve during his or her lifetime. Instrumental values (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo194) re�lect the “means” for achieving desired ends. They represent how you might go about achieving your important goals. Rokeach identi�ies the eighteen terminal values and eighteen instrumental values shown in Figure 2.3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec36#r�ig2-3) . Take a look at the list. Then ask this: What are my top �ive values, and what do they say about me and how I relate or work with others?

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 87/501

Terminal values re�lect a person’s preferences concerning the “ends” to be achieved.

Instrumental values re�lect a person’s beliefs about the means to achieve desired ends.

Bruce Meglino and colleagues discuss the importance of value congruence between leaders and followers.55 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02-note55) It occurs when individuals express positive feelings upon encountering others who exhibit values similar to their own. When values differ, or are incongruent, con�licts over such things as goals and the means to achieve them may result. Research �inds that satisfaction with a leader is greater when there is congruence among the four values of achievement, helping, honesty, and fairness.56 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02-note56)

Megilino Values Schema

Achievement—getting things done and working hard to accomplish dif�icult things in life

Helping and concern for others—being concerned for other people and with helping others

Honesty—telling the truth and doing what you feel is right

Fairness—being impartial and doing what is fair for all concerned

FIGURE 2.3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec36#�ig2-3) Terminal and Instrumental Values in the Rokeach value survey.

Cultural Values

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 88/501

Values can also be discussed for their presence at the level of national or societal culture. In this sense, culture (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo77) can be de�ined as the learned, shared way of doing things in a particular society. It is the way, for example, in which its members eat, dress, greet and treat one another, teach their children, solve everyday problems, and so on.57 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02-note57) Geert Hofstede, a Dutch scholar and consultant, refers to culture as the “software of the mind,” making the analogy that the mind’s “hardware” is universal among human beings.58 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02-note58) But the software of culture takes many different forms. We are not born with a culture; we are born into a society that teaches us its culture. And because culture is shared among people, it helps to de�ine the boundaries between different groups and affect how their members relate to one another.

Culture is the learned and shared way of thinking and acting among a group of people or society.

Cultures are known to vary in their underlying patterns of values, and these differences are important in OB. The way people think about such matters as achievement, wealth and material gain, risk, and change, for example, may in�luence how they approach work and their relationships with organizations. Increasingly now you will hear the term cultural quotient (CQ) used to describe someone’s ability to work effectively across cultures. And it’s a point well worth considering in terms of personal growth and professional development.

Cultural quotient, or CQ, describes someone’s ability to work effectively across cultures.

One framework for understanding how value differences across national cultures was developed by the cross-cultural psychologist Hofstede. His framework is shown in Figure 2.4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec36#r�ig2-4) and includes these �ive dimensions of national culture:

Power distance (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo328) is the willingness of a culture to accept status and power differences among its members. It re�lects the degree to which people are likely to respect hierarchy and rank in organizations. Indonesia is considered a high-power-distance culture, whereas Sweden is considered a relatively low-power-distance culture.

Power distance is a culture’s acceptance of the status and power differences among its members.

Uncertainty avoidance (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo465) is a cultural tendency toward discomfort with risk and ambiguity. It re�lects the degree to which people are likely to prefer structured versus unstructured organizational situations. France is considered a high-uncertainty-avoidance culture, whereas Hong Kong is considered a low-uncertainty- avoidance culture.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 89/501

Uncertainty avoidance is the cultural tendency to be uncomfortable with uncertainty and risk in everyday life.

FIGURE 2.4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec36#�ig2-4) Sample country clusters on Hofstede’s �ive dimensions of national values.

Individualism–collectivism (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo184) is the tendency of a culture to emphasize either individual or group interests. It re�lects the degree to which people are likely to prefer working as individuals or working together in groups. The United States is a highly individualistic culture, whereas Mexico is a more collectivist one.

Individualism–collectivism is the tendency of members of a culture to emphasize individual self-interests or group relationships.

Masculinity–femininity (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo250) is the tendency of a culture to value stereotypical masculine or feminine traits. It re�lects the degree to which organizations emphasize competition and assertiveness versus interpersonal sensitivity and concerns for relationships. Japan is considered a very masculine culture, whereas Thailand is considered a more feminine culture.

Masculinity–femininity is the degree to which a society values assertiveness or relationships.

Long-term/short-term orientation (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo239) is the tendency of a culture to emphasize values associated with the future, such as thrift and persistence, or values that focus largely on the present. It re�lects the degree to which people and organizations adopt

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 90/501

long-term or short-term performance horizons. South Korea is high on long-term orientation, whereas the United States is a more short-term-oriented country.59 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02-note59)

Long-term/short-term orientation is the degree to which a culture emphasizes long-term or short-term thinking.

The �irst four dimensions in Hofstede’s framework were identi�ied in an extensive study of thousands of employees of a multinational corporation operating in more than forty countries.60 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02-note60) The �ifth dimension, long-term/short- term orientation, was added from research using the Chinese Values Survey conducted by cross-cultural psychologist Michael Bond and his colleagues.61 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02-note61) Their research suggested the cultural importance of a value they called Confucian dynamism, with its emphasis on persistence, the ordering of relationships, thrift, sense of shame, personal steadiness, reciprocity, protection of “face,” and respect for tradition.62 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02-note62)

When using the Hofstede framework, it is important to remember that the �ive cultural value dimensions are interrelated, not independent.63 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02-note63) National cultures may best be understood in terms of cluster maps or collages that combine multiple dimensions. For example, high power distance and collectivism are often found together, as are low power distance and individualism. Whereas high collectivism may lead us to expect a work team in Indonesia to operate by consensus, the high power distance may cause the consensus to be heavily in�luenced by the desires of a formal leader. A similar team operating in more individualist and low-power-distance Great Britain or America might make decisions with more open debate, including expressions of disagreement with a leader’s stated preferences.

Hofstede also warns against falling prey to the ecological fallacy (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo99) . This is acting with the mistaken assumption that a generalized cultural value, such as individualism in American culture or masculinity in Japanese culture, applies equally to all members of the culture.64 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02-note64) And, �inally, this model is just one starting point for developing cross-cultural awareness of values and value differences, and other frameworks of interest are available.65 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c02-note65)

Ecological fallacy is acting with the mistaken assumption that a generalized cultural value applies equally to all members of the culture.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 91/501

2 Study Guide

Key Questions and Answers Why are individual differences and diversity important?

The study of individual differences attempts to identify where behavioral tendencies are similar and where they are different to more accurately predict how and why people behave as they do.

Self-concept is the view individuals have of themselves as physical, social, and spiritual or moral beings. It is a way of recognizing oneself as a distinct human being.

Both self-awareness (being aware of our own behaviors, preferences, styles, biases, and personalities) and awareness of others (being aware of these same things in others) are important capabilities if we are to best understand individual differences and diversity.

The nature/nurture controversy addresses whether we are the way we are because of heredity or because of the environments in which we have been raised and live.

There are many types of diversity, but the most commonly discussed in the workplace are racial/ethnic, gender, age, disability, and sexual orientation.

In recent years there has been a shift from a focus on diversity to a focus on inclusion. This represents a need to emphasize not only recruitment but retention.

Social identity theory suggests that many forms of discrimination are subtle but powerful, and may occur in subconscious psychological processes that individuals of out-groups perceive in the workplace.

Organizations can value diversity by promoting cultures of inclusion that implement policies and practices to help create a more equitable and opportunity-based environment for all.

What is personality?

Personality captures the overall pro�ile, or combination of characteristics, that represents the unique nature of an individual as that individual interacts with others.

Personality is determined by both heredity and environment; across all personality characteristics, the mix of heredity and environment is about 50–50. The Big Five personality traits are extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability, and openness to experience.

A useful personality framework consists of social traits, personal conception traits, emotional adjustment traits, and personality dynamics, where each category represents one or more personality dimensions.

How are personality and stress related?

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 92/501

Stress emerges when people experience tensions caused by extraordinary demands, constraints, or opportunities in their jobs.

Personal stressors derive from personality type, needs, and values; they can in�luence how stressful different situations become for different people.

Work stressors arise from such things as excessive task demands, interpersonal problems, unclear roles, ethical dilemmas, and career disappointments.

Nonwork stress can spill over to affect people at work; nonwork stressors may be traced to family situations, economic dif�iculties, and personal problems.

Stress can be managed by prevention—such as making adjustments in work and nonwork factors; it can also be dealt with through coping mechanisms and personal wellness—taking steps to maintain a healthy body and mind capable of better withstanding stressful situations.

What are values, and how do they vary across cultures?

Values are broad preferences concerning courses of action or outcomes.

Rokeach identi�ies terminal values (preferences concerning ends) and instrumental values (preferences concerning means); Meglino and his associates classify values into achievement, helping and concern for others, honesty, and fairness.

Hofstede’s �ive dimensions of national culture values are power distance, individualism– collectivism, uncertainty avoidance, masculinity–femininity, and long-term/short-term orientation.

Culture is the learned and shared way of doing things in a society; it represents deeply ingrained in�luences on the way people from different societies think, behave, and solve problems.

Terms to Know Americans with Disabilities Act (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec21#key1)

Authoritarianism (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec27#key2)

Awareness of others (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec21#key3)

Coping (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec31#key4)

Culture (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec36#key5)

Cultural quotient (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec36#key6)

Deep-level diversity (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec21#key7)

Discrimination (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec21#key8)

Distress (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec31#key9)

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 93/501

Dogmatism (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec27#key10)

Ecological fallacy (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec36#key11)

Emotion-focused coping (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec31#key12)

Emotional adjustment traits (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec31#key13)

Eustress (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec31#key14)

Glass ceiling effect (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec21#key15)

In-group membership (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec21#key16)

Individual differences (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec21#key17)

Individualism–collectivism (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec36#key18)

Instrumental values (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec36#key19)

Job burnout (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec31#key20)

Leaking pipeline (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec21#key21)

Leadership double bind (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec21#key22)

Locus of control (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec27#key23)

Long-term/short-term orientation (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec36#key24)

Machiavellianism (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec27#key25)

Masculinity–femininity (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec36#key26)

Out-group membership (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec21#key27)

Personal conception traits (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec27#key28)

Personal wellness (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec31#key29)

Personality (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec27#key30)

Personality traits (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec27#key31)

Power distance (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec36#key32)

Prejudice (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec21#key33)

Proactive personality (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec27#key34)

Problem-focused coping (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec31#key35)

Problem-solving style (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec27#key36)

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 94/501

Self-awareness (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec21#key37)

Self-concept (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec21#key38)

Self-ef�icacy (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec21#key39)

Self-esteem (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec21#key40)

Self-monitoring (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec27#key41)

Social identity theory (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec21#key42)

Social traits (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec27#key43)

Stigma (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec21#key44)

Stress (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec31#key45)

Surface-level diversity (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec21#key46)

Terminal values (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec36#key47)

Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec21#key48)

Type A orientation (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec31#key49)

Type B orientation (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec31#key50)

Uncertainty avoidance (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec36#key51)

Universal design (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec21#key52)

Values (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec36#key53)

Self-Test 2 Multiple Choice

1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c02str1) . Individual differences are important because they ____________.

a. (a) mean we have to be different

b. (b) reduce the importance of individuality

c. (c) show that some cultural groups are superior to others

d. (d) help us more accurately predict how and why people act as they do

2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c02str2) . Self-awareness is ____________ awareness of others.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 95/501

a. (a) more important than

b. (b) less important than

c. (c) as important as

d. (d) not at all related to

3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c02str3) . Self-ef�icacy is a form of ____________.

a. (a) self-awareness

b. (b) self-esteem

c. (c) nurture

d. (d) agreeableness

4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c02str4) . Personality encompasses ____________.

a. (a) the overall combination of characteristics that capture the unique nature of a person

b. (b) only the nurture components of self

c. (c) only the nature components of self

d. (d) how self-aware someone is

5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c02str5) . People who are high in internal locus of control ____________.

a. (a) believe what happens to them is determined by environmental forces such as fate

b. (b) believe that they control their own fate or destiny

c. (c) are highly extraverted

d. (d) do worse on tasks requiring learning and initiative

6 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c02str6) . Proactive personality is ____________ in today’s work environments.

a. (a) punished

b. (b) missing

c. (c) becoming more important

d. (d) losing importance

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 96/501

7 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c02str7) . People who would follow unethical orders without question would likely be high in ____________.

a. (a) internal locus of control

b. (b) Machiavellianism

c. (c) proactive personality and extraversion

d. (d) authoritarianism and dogmatism

8 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c02str8) . Managers who are hard-driving, detail-oriented, have high performance standards, and thrive on routine could be characterized as ____________.

a. (a) Type B

b. (b) Type A

c. (c) high self-monitors

d. (d) low Machs

9 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c02str9) . Eustress is ____________ stress, while distress is ____________ stress.

a. (a) constructive, destructive

b. (b) destructive, constructive

c. (c) negative, positive

d. (d) the most common, the most relevant

10 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c02str10) . Coping involves both ____________ and ____________ elements.

a. (a) cognitive, intellectual

b. (b) promotion, prevention

c. (c) problem-focused, emotion-focused

d. (d) cultural, psychological

11 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c02str11) . When it comes to values, ____________.

a. (a) instrumental values are more important than terminal values

b. (b) value congruence is what seems to be most important for satisfaction

c. (c) it is rare that people hold similar values

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 97/501

d. (d) most cultures share the same values

12 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c02str12) . Culture is ____________.

a. (a) a person’s major beliefs and personal orientation concerning a range of issues

b. (b) the way a person gathers and evaluates information

c. (c) the way someone appears to others when interacting in social settings

d. (d) the learned, shared way of doing things in a particular society

13 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c02str13) . The demographic makeup of the workforce ____________.

a. (a) has been relatively stable

b. (b) is not related to managerial practices

c. (c) has experienced dramatic changes in recent decades

d. (d) is becoming less of an issue for management.

14 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c02str14) . Companies that ____________ experience the greatest bene�its of workforce diversity.

a. (a) have learned to employ people because of their differences

b. (b) have learned to employ people in spite of their differences

c. (c) have not worried about people’s differences

d. (d) have implemented diversity programs based only on af�irmative action

15 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c02str15) . The experience in which simply having various diversity groups makes that group category salient in people’s minds is an example of ____________.

a. (a) stigma

b. (b) leaking pipeline

c. (c) inclusion

d. (d) social identity theory

Short Response

16 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c02str16) . What are individual differences, and why are they important to organizational behavior?

17 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c02str17) . What is more in�luential in determining personality: nature or nurture?

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 98/501

18 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c02str18) . What values were identi�ied by Meglino and associates, and how do they relate to workplace behavior?

19 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c02str19) . With respect to diversity and inclusion, what do we know about environments that are most conducive to valuing and supporting diversity?

Applications Essay

20 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c02str20) . Your boss has noticed that stress levels have been increasing in your work unit and has asked you to assess the problem and propose a plan of action for addressing it. What steps would you take to meet this request? What would be the �irst thing you would do, what factors would you take into consideration in conducting your assessment, and what plan of action do you think would be most promising?

Steps to Further Learning 2 Top Choices from The OB Skills Workbook

These learning activities from The OB Skills Workbook found at the back of the book are suggested for Chapter 2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/ch2#ch2) .

Case for Critical Thinking

Team and Experiential Exercises

Self-Assessment Portfolio

Diversity Leads the Way

What Do You Value in Work?

Prejudice in Our Lives

How We View Differences

Alligator River Story

Expatriate Assignments

Turbulence Tolerance Test Global Readiness Index

Personal Values

Time Management Pro�ile

Personality Type

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 99/501

3 Perception, Attribution, and Learning

The Key Point

It can be a shock when people view the same thing and come to different conclusions. But this is reality—people often perceive and respond to situations in different ways. The better we understand perception and attribution and their effects on how people behave and learn, the better we can be at dealing with events, people, and relationships.

What’s Inside?

Bringing OB to LIFE

RAISING EXPECTATIONS AND GETTING BETTER FEEDBACK

Worth Considering . . . or Best Avoided?

NOT ENOUGH WOMEN ON BOARD? EUROPE TURNS TO QUOTAS

Checking Ethics in OB

WORKERS REPORT VIEWS ON ETHICAL WORKPLACE CONDUCT

Finding the Leader in You

RICHARD BRANSON LEADS WITH PERSONALITY AND POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT

OB in Popular Culture

POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT AND BIG BANG THEORY

Research Insight

INTERACTIONAL JUSTICE PERCEPTIONS AFFECT INTENT TO LEAVE

Chapter at a Glance

What Is Perception, and Why Is It Important?

What Are the Common Perceptual Distortions?

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 100/501

What Is the Link Between Perception, Attribution, and Social Learning?

What Is Involved in Learning by Reinforcement?

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 101/501

3.1 The Perception Process LEARNING ROADMAP

FACTORS INFLUENCING PERCEPTION (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec41#sec42)

INFORMATION PROCESSING AND THE PERCEPTION PROCESS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec41#sec43)

PERCEPTION, IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT, AND SOCIAL MEDIA (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec41#sec44)

Perception (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo313) is the process by which people select, organize, interpret, retrieve, and respond to information from the world around them.1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c03-note1) It is a way of forming impressions about ourselves, other people, and daily life experiences. It also serves as a screen or �ilter through which information passes before it has an effect on people. Because perceptions are in�luenced by many factors, different people may perceive the same situation quite differently. Since people behave according to their perceptions, the consequences of these differences can be great in terms of what happens next.

Perception is the process through which people receive and interpret information from the environment.

Consider the example shown in Figure 3.1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec41#r�ig3-1) . It shows substantial differences in how performance-review discussions are perceived by managers and members of their work teams. The managers here may end up not giving much attention to things like career development, performance goals, and supervisory support since they perceive that these issues were adequately addressed at performance-review time. However, the team members may end up frustrated and unsatis�ied because they perceive that less attention was given and they want more.

Factors In�luencing Perception We can think of perception as a bubble that surrounds us and in�luences signi�icantly the way we receive, interpret, and process information received from our environments. As the perception process varies, so too can things like decisions made and actions taken. When someone does things that we don’t understand or in ways that we don’t understand or that surprise us, the reason may well be due to the fact that their perceptions in the situation differed from ours or what we would normally expect. The many factors in�luencing perception include characteristics of the perceiver, the setting, and the perceived.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 102/501

FIGURE 3.1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec41#�ig3-1) Contrasting perceptions between managers and subordinates regarding performance appraisal interviews.

Characteristics of the Perceiver A person’s past experiences, needs or motives, personality, values, and attitudes may all in�luence the perceptual process. Someone with a strong need for achievement need tends to perceive a situation in terms of that need. If doing well in class is perceived as a way to help meet your achievement need, for example, you will tend to emphasize that aspect when choosing classes to take. In the same way, a person with a negative attitude toward younger workers may react poorly when asked to work for a young, newly hired but very competent team leader.

Characteristics of the Setting The physical, social, and organizational context can in�luence the perception process. A teammate perceived by peers as temperamental may well be tolerated on the team. But take that person and make them the team leader and the same temperamental behavior may be perceived as bullying or intimidating.

Characteristics of the Perceived Characteristics of the perceived person, object, or event are also important in the perception process. We talk about them in terms of contrast, intensity, �igure–ground separation, size, motion, and repetition or novelty. In respect to contrast, for example, one iPad among six Android tablets or one man among six women will be perceived differently than one of six iPad computers or one of six men. In respect to intensity, a bright red sports car stands out from a group of gray sedans;

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 103/501

whispering or shouting stands out from ordinary conversation. This links with a concept known as �igure– ground separation. Look, for example, at the margin illustration. What do you see, faces or a vase? It depends on which image is perceived as the background and which as the �igure or object of our attention.

In the matter of size, very small or very large objects or people tend to be perceived differently. In terms of motion, moving objects and people are perceived differently than stationary ones. In addition, repetition or frequency can also in�luence perceptions. Television advertisers well know that the more they put something in front of us the more likely we are to give it attention. Finally, the novelty of a situation affects its perception. A college student who enters class with streaks of hair dyed purple may be perceived quite differently by an instructor than others with a more common hair color.

Information Processing and the Perception Process The ways we process information during the perception process affect how we respond to experiences through feelings, thoughts, and actions taken. The four stages of this information processing are attention and selection, organization, interpretation, and retrieval. A good understanding of these stages can help us manage our own perceptions better, as well as both understand and in�luence the perceptions of others.

Attention and Selection Our senses are constantly bombarded with so much information that if we don’t screen it, we quickly become incapacitated with information overload. We tend to deal with this through selective screening (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo388) that lets in only a tiny portion of all the information available.

Selective screening allows only a portion of available information to enter our perceptions.

Some of the selective screening that we do comes from controlled processing: consciously deciding what information to pay attention to and what to ignore. Think, for example, about the last time you were at a noisy restaurant and screened out all the sounds but those of the person with whom you were talking. Some screening also takes place without conscious awareness. We often drive cars without thinking about the process; we’re aware of things like traf�ic lights and other cars, but we don’t pay conscious attention to

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 104/501

them. This selectivity of attention and automatic information processing works well most of the time. But if a nonroutine event occurs, such as an animal darting in front of your vehicle, you may have an accident unless you quickly shift to controlled processing.

BRINGING OB TO LIFE

“If you want your friends to experience something as better than it truly is, go for it and exaggerate. But don’t exaggerate by too much.”

Raising Expectations and Getting Better Feedback

Wine tasting test: Does a glass of wine taste better if you have never heard of the vintage or if you have previously read a positive review of it? As you might expect, it will most often be the one that you taste after reading the positive review. The reason traces to a common OB understanding of perception and expectations. We basically end up perceiving things—the glass of wine, a test drive of a new BMW, or a new teammate—as we expect them to be.

Does this mean that before your next big presentation to the class or to an executive team you should prepare the audience by announcing ahead of time “You’re going to like this one”? Well, perhaps—but some caution is in order. Raising expectations can be overplayed with the result that disappointment sets in. Think of a movie or restaurant recommendation you might have made to a friend. You raved about it and just couldn’t wait for him to have the same experience. Instead, he reports, “It was okay but not great. I was hoping for better.” What happened is that the high bar of excellence set in your expectations created a situation ripe for a letdown.

Dan Ariely, professor of psychology and behavioral economics, advises that we have to be careful in communicating expectations. If we overhype something because we’re hoping for positive feedback, we may end up getting a negative review. His rule of thumb is to go ahead and send out the high expectations, but don’t overexaggerate too much. You have to stay in a range where reality can deliver the results. He suggests shooting for about a 20 percent stretch of positive expectations. That’s a comfortable target for pulling the perceiver’s feedback in a positive direction.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 105/501

MarkSwallow/iStockphoto

This notion of raising expectations for positive feedback is an interesting one to test in everyday experience. Why not try it? See how well you can manage expectations of friends and teammates. Maybe this is a skill that could serve you well in many life and work situations.

Organization Even when selective screening takes place in the attention stage, it’s still necessary for us to organize information ef�iciently. This is done to some extent through schemas (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo384) . These are cognitive frameworks that represent organized knowledge developed through experience about a concept or stimulus.2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c03-note2) The schemas most commonly used are script schemas, person schemas, and person-in-situation schemas.

Schemas are cognitive frameworks that represent organized knowledge developed through experience about people, objects, or events.

A script schema is a knowledge framework that describes the appropriate sequence of events in a given situation.3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c03-note3) For example, an experienced team leader might use a script schema to think about the appropriate steps involved in running a meeting. A self schema contains information about a person’s own appearance, behavior, and personality. For instance, people with decisiveness schemas tend to perceive themselves in terms of that aspect, especially in circumstances calling for leadership.

Research Insight

Interactional Justice Perceptions Affect Intent to Leave

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 106/501

Research reported by Merideth Ferguson, Neta Moye, and Ray Friedman links perceptions of interactional justice during recruitment interviews with effects on long-term employment relationships. Focusing on issues of fairness in the workplace, a substantial literature on organizational justice shows that people respond to perceived fair and unfair treatments in positive and negative ways, with the links between perceived injustice and negative behaviors being particularly strong.

This research examined fairness perceptions regarding negotiations taking place during the recruitment process and how these perceptions affected later intentions to leave. Two hypotheses were tested. First, it was hypothesized that perceived use of negotiation pressure by recruiters would have a negative impact on perceived interactional justice by job applicants. Second, it was hypothesized that perceived interactional injustice during recruiting negotiations would have a positive long-term impact on later intentions to leave by the newly hired employees.

Two studies were conducted. The �irst study asked a sample of sixty-eight university alumni of a business program about their retrospective perceptions of interactional justice during job negotiations and their current intentions to leave. The second study asked a sample of recent MBA graduates to report perceptions of interactional justice during their job negotiations; they were asked six months later to report on their intentions to leave the new employer. Results from both studies offered con�irmation for the two hypotheses.

In conclusion, Ferguson et al. state that “the sense of injustice one feels during a negotiation affects an employee’s turnover intentions with the hiring organization . . . negotiations in the recruitment process can set the tone for the future employment relationship.” They recommend future research to examine how negotiating tactics like slow responses, dishonesty, disrespect, and lack of concessions in�luence justice perceptions and later intent to leave. They also suggest that perceived injustice in recruiting when jobs are plentiful may lead to applicants making alternative job choices, whereas such injustice when jobs are scarce may result in employees accepting the jobs but harboring intent to leave when the opportunity permits.

Do the Research What is your experience with interactional justice in the recruiting process? Can you design a study to gather the experiences of your cohorts, friends, and others on campus? How can your study pinpoint the impact of tactics such as setting a tight time limit on a job offer?

Source: Merideth Ferguson, Neta Moye, and Ray Friedman, “The Lingering Effects of the Recruitment Experience on the Long-Term Employment Relationship,” Negotiation and Con�lict Management Research 1 (2008), pp. 246–262.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 107/501

Person schemas sort people into categories—types or groups, in terms of similar perceived features. They include prototypes (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo348) which are pre-set bundles of features expected to be characteristic of people in certain categories or roles. An example might be the prototype of a “good teammate” as someone who is intelligent, dependable, and hard-working. Once formed, person schemas are stored in long-term memory and retrieved only when needed for a comparison of how well a person matches the schema’s features.4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c03-note4)

A prototype is a bundle of features expected to be characteristic of people in certain categories or roles.

Interpretation Once your attention has been drawn to certain stimuli and you have grouped or organized this information, the next step is to uncover the reasons behind the actions. Even if your attention is called to the same information and you organize it in the same way your friend does, you may still interpret it differently or make different assumptions about what you have perceived. As a team leader, for example, you might interpret compliments from a team member as due to his being eager and enthusiastic about a task; your friend might interpret the team member’s behavior as an attempt at insincere �lattery.

Retrieval Each stage of the perception process becomes part of memory. This information stored in our memory must be retrieved if it is to be used. But all of us at times have trouble retrieving stored information. Memory decays, so that only some of the information may be retrieved. Schemas can make it dif�icult for people to remember things not included in them. If you hold the prototype of a “good worker” as someone showing lots of effort, punctuality, intelligence, articulateness, and decisiveness, you may emphasize these traits and overlook others when evaluating the performance of a team member whom you generally consider good.

Perception, Impression Management, and Social Media Richard Branson, CEO of the Virgin Group, is one of the richest and most famous executives in the world. He may also be the ultimate master of impression management (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo177) , the systematic attempt to behave in ways that will create and maintain desired impressions in the eyes of others.5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c03-note5) One of Branson’s early business accomplishments was the successful start-up of Virgin Airlines, now a global competitor to the legacy airlines. In a memoir, the former head of British Airways, Lord King, said, “If Richard Branson had worn a shirt and tie instead of a goatee and jumper, I would not have underestimated him.”6 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c03-note6)

Impression management is the systematic attempt to in�luence how others perceive us.

How to Build Your Personal Brand Through Impression Management in Social Networks

Don’t let your social media presence get out of control. Impression management counts online as well as face to face, and here are some things to help you make it work for you.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 108/501

Ask: How do I want to be viewed? What are my goals in this forum?

Ask: What am I communicating, or about to communicate, to my “public” audience?

Ask: Before I post this item, is it something that I want my family, loved ones, or a potential employer to see?

Do: Choose a respectable username.

Do: Pro�ile yourself only as you really would like to be known to others; keep everything consistent.

Do: View your online persona as a “brand” that you are going to wear for a long time; make sure your persona and desired brand are a “�it” and not a “mis�it.”

Do: Post and participate in an online forum only in ways that meet your goals for your personal brand; don’t do anything that might damage it.

Don’t you wonder if creating a casual impression was part of Branson’s business strategy? Whether intended or not, the chances are he’s used this persona to very good advantage in other business dealings as well. It’s an example of how much our impressions can count, both positive and negative, in how others perceive us. And it’s not a new lesson; we’ve all heard it before. Who hasn’t been told when heading off to a job interview “Don’t forget to make a good �irst impression”?

The fact is that we already practice a lot of impression management as a matter of routine in everyday life. Impression management is taking place when we dress, talk, act, and surround ourselves with what reinforces a desirable self-image and helps to convey that image to other persons. When well done, that can help us to advance in jobs and careers, form relationships with people we admire, and even create pathways to group memberships. We manage impressions by such activities as associating with the “right” people, “dressing up” and “dressing down” at the right times, making eye contact when introduced to someone, doing favors to gain approval, �lattering others to impress them, taking credit for a favorable event and apologizing for a negative one, and agreeing with the opinions of others.7 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c03-note7)

One of the most powerful forces in impression management today might be the one least recognized— how we communicate our presence in the online world of social media. It might even be the case that this short message deserves to go viral: User beware! The brand you are building through social media may last a lifetime. For tips to remember, check the sidebar on “How to Build Your Personal Brand Through Impression Management in Social Networks.”

It’s no secret that more and more employers are intensely scouring the Web to learn what they can about job candidates. What they are gathering are impressions left in the trails of the candidates’ past social media journeys. One bad photo, one bad nickname, or one bad comment sends the wrong impression and can kill a great job opportunity. We are creating impressions of ourselves whenever we are active in the online world. The problem is that those impressions may be fun in social space but harmful in professional space. There’s a lot to learn about impression management and social media. At a minimum it pays to keep the two social media spaces—the social and the professional—separated with a good �irewall between them.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 109/501

3.2 Common Perceptual Distortions LEARNING ROADMAP

STEREOTYPES (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec45#sec46)

HALO EFFECTS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec45#sec47)

SELECTIVE PERCEPTION (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec45#sec48)

PROJECTION (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec45#sec49)

CONTRAST EFFECTS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec45#sec50)

SELF-FULFILLING PROPHECIES (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec45#sec51)

Given the complexity of the information streaming toward us from various environments, we use various means of simplifying and organizing our perceptions. However, these simpli�ications can cause inaccuracies in our impressions and in the perception process more generally. Common perceptual distortions trace to the use of stereotypes, halo effects, selective perception, projection, contrast effects, and self-ful�illing prophecies.

Stereotypes One of the most common simplifying devices in perception is the stereotype (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo429) . It occurs when we identify someone with a group or category, and then use the attributes perceived to be associated with the group or category to describe the individual. Although this makes matters easier for us by reducing the need to deal with unique individual characteristics, it is an oversimpli�ication. Because stereotypes obscure individual differences, we can easily end up missing the real individual. For managers this means not accurately understanding the needs, preferences, and abilities of others in the workplace.

A stereotype assigns attributes commonly associated with a group to an individual.

Some of the most common stereotypes, at work and in life in general, relate to such factors as gender, age, race, and physical ability. Why are so few top executives in industry African Americans or Hispanics? Legitimate questions can be asked about racial and ethnic stereotypes and about the slow progress of minority managers into America’s corporate mainstream.8 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c03-note8) Why is it that women constitute only a small percentage of American managers sent abroad to work on international business assignments? A Catalyst study of opportunities for women in global business points to gender stereotypes that place women at a disadvantage compared to men for these types of opportunities. The tendency is to assume women lack the ability and/or willingness to work abroad.9 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c03-note9) Gender stereotypes may cause even

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 110/501

everyday behavior to be misconstrued. For example, consider “He’s talking with co-workers” (Interpretation: He’s discussing a new deal) and “She’s talking with co-workers” (Interpretation: She’s gossiping).10 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c03-note10)

Ability stereotypes and age stereotypes also exist in the workplace. Physically or mentally challenged candidates may be overlooked by a recruiter even though they possess skills that are perfect for the job. A talented older worker may not be promoted because a manager assumes older workers are cautious and tend to avoid risk.11 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c03-note11) Yet a Conference Board survey of workers age 50 and older reports that 72 percent felt they could take on additional responsibilities, and two-thirds were interested in further training and development.12 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c03-note12) Then there’s the �lip side: Can a young person be a real leader, even a CEO? Facebook’s founder and CEO Mark Zuckerberg is still in his twenties. When current CEO Sheryl Sandberg was being recruited from Google, she admits to having had this thought: “Wow, I’m going to work for a CEO who is quite young.” “Mark is a great leader,” she now says. After working for him, her perception has changed. “Mark has a real purity of vision. . . . He brings people along with him.”13 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c03-note13)

Halo Effects A halo effect (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo162) occurs when one attribute of a person or situation is used to develop an overall impression of that individual or situation. Like stereotypes, these distortions are more likely to occur in the organization stage of perception. Halo effects are common in our everyday lives. When meeting a new person, for example, a pleasant smile can lead to a positive �irst impression of an overall “warm” and “honest” person. The result of a halo effect is the same as that associated with a stereotype, however, in that individual differences are obscured.

A halo effect uses one attribute to develop an overall impression of a person or situation.

Halo effects are particularly important in the performance appraisal process because they can in�luence a manager’s evaluations of subordinates’ work performance. For example, people with good attendance records may be viewed as intelligent and responsible while those with poor attendance records are considered poor performers. Such conclusions may or may not be valid. It is the manager’s job to try to get true impressions rather than allowing halo effects to result in biased and erroneous evaluations.

Selective Perception Selective perception (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo387) is the tendency to single out those aspects of a situation, person, or object that are consistent with one’s needs, values, or attitudes. Its strongest impact occurs in the attention stage of the perceptual process. This perceptual distortion was identi�ied in a classic research study involving executives in a manufacturing company.14 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c03-note14) When asked to identify the key problem in a comprehensive business policy case, each executive selected a problem consistent with his or her functional area work assignments. Most marketing executives viewed the key problem area as sales, whereas production people tended to see the problem as one of production and organization. These differing viewpoints would likely affect how each executive would approach the problem; they might also create dif�iculties as the executives tried to work together to improve things.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,sec… 111/501

Selective perception is the tendency to de�ine problems from one’s own point of view.

WORTH CONSIDERING ...OR BEST AVOIDED?

Not Enough Women on Board? Europe Turns to Quotas

The consulting �irm McKinsey & Company reports that women are hired to �ill more than 50 percent of professional jobs in America’s large corporations. Then they start leaking from the career pipeline. They hold 3 percent of CEO positions, 14 percent of C-suite jobs, and 28 percent of director positions on corporate boards. That’s the good news. Data from the rest of the world are worse. Women hold just 13.7 percent of seats on corporate boards in Europe and 7.1 percent elsewhere in the world.

The low percentage of women serving at the top of corporate hierarchy doesn’t match well with data showing their presence has a positive performance impact. A Millward Brown Optimor study found that top global companies with women on their boards showed 66 percent brand growth over a 5-year period and those with no female board members had 6 percent brand growth. An Ernst & Young study concludes, “The undisputed conclusion from all the research is that having more women at the top improves �inancial performance.” The report went on to say that “Performance increased signi�icantly once a certain critical mass was attained, namely at least three women on management committees for an average membership of 10 people.”

Rather than leave the future of female representation on corporate boards to chance, Europe has started to consider quotas. Norway, Spain, Iceland, and France have already passed 40 percent quotas. When legislation requiring all EU-listed companies to appoint women to 40 percent of nonexecutive board seats by 2020 was proposed by the European Commission, it was later pulled for lack of support. Some member countries say they plan to �ile it again in the future.

© Trista Weibell/iStockphoto

A Heidrick & Struggles survey showed 51 percent of women directors supporting quotas like those appearing in Europe. Only 25 percent of men directors voiced similar support.

Do the Analysis

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 112/501

Is Europe on the right path with quotas to correct gender disparities in corporate boards? Should this conversation be limited to women in general? What about women of color? What about other minorities— male or female? When it comes to career advancement for women and minorities in the corporate world, is it time for quotas, or are we better off waiting for changes to take a natural course?

Projection Projection (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo346) is the assignment of one’s personal attributes to other individuals. It is especially likely to occur in the interpretation stage of perception. A classic error is projecting your needs, values, and views onto others. This causes their individual differences to get lost. Such projection errors can be controlled through a high degree of self- awareness and empathy—the ability to view a situation as others see it.

Projection assigns personal attributes to other individuals.

Suppose, for example, that you enjoy responsibility and achievement in your work. Suppose, too, that you are the newly appointed leader of a team whose jobs seem dull and routine. You may move quickly to expand these jobs so that members get increased satisfaction from more challenging tasks. Basically, you want them to experience what you value in work. However, this may not be a good decision. Instead of designing team members’ jobs to best �it their needs, you have designed their jobs to best �it yours.

Contrast Effects We mentioned earlier how a bright red sports car would stand out from a group of gray sedans. This shows a contrast effect (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo63) in which the meaning or interpretation of something is arrived at by contrasting it with a recently occurring event or situation. This form of perceptual distortion can occur, say, when a person gives a talk following a strong speaker or is interviewed for a job following a series of mediocre applicants. A contrast effect occurs when an individual’s characteristics are contrasted with those of others recently encountered who rank higher or lower on the same characteristics.

A contrast effect occurs when the meaning of something that takes place is based on a contrast with another recent event or situation.

Self-Ful�illing Prophecies A �inal perceptual distortion is the self-ful�illing prophecy (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo394) : the tendency to create or �ind in another situation or individual that which you expected to �ind in the �irst place. A self-ful�illing prophecy is sometimes referred to as the “Pygmalion effect,” named for a mythical Greek sculptor who created a statue of his ideal mate and then made her come to life.15 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c03-note15)

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 113/501

A self-ful�illing prophecy is creating or �inding in a situation that which you expected to �ind in the �irst place.

Self-ful�illing prophecies can have both positive and negative outcomes. In effect, they may create in work and personal situations that which we expect to �ind. Suppose you assume that team members prefer to satisfy most of their needs outside the work setting and want only minimal involvement with their jobs. Consequently, you assign simple, highly structured tasks designed to require little involvement. Can you predict what response they will have to this situation? In fact, they may show the very same lack of commitment you assumed they would have in the �irst place. In this case your initial expectations get con�irmed as a negative self-ful�illing prophecy.

CHECKING ETHICS IN OB

Workers Report Views on Ethical Workplace Conduct

These data on ethical workplace conduct are from a survey conducted for Deloitte & Touche USA.

42 percent of workers say the behavior of their managers is a major in�luence on an ethical workplace.

Most common unethical acts by managers and supervisors include verbal, sexual, and racial harassment, misuse of company property, and giving preferential treatment.

Most workers consider it unacceptable to steal from an employer, cheat on expense reports, take credit for another’s accomplishments, and lie on time sheets.

Most workers consider it acceptable to ask a work colleague for a personal favor, take sick days when not ill, and use company technology for personal affairs.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 114/501

Izvorinka Jankovic/iStockphoto

Top reasons for unethical behavior are lack of personal integrity (80 percent) and lack of job satisfaction (60 percent).

Among workers, 91 percent are more likely to behave ethically when they have work–life balance; 30 percent say they suffer from poor work–life balance.

Whose Ethics Count? Shouldn’t an individual be accountable for her or his own ethical reasoning and analysis? How and why is it that the ethics practices of others, including managers, in�luence our ethics behaviors? What can be done to strengthen people’s con�idence in their own ethical frameworks so that even bad management won’t result in unethical practices?

Self-ful�illing prophecies can also have a positive side. In a study of army tank crews, one set of tank commanders was told that some members of their assigned crews had exceptional abilities whereas others were only average. However, the crew members had been assigned randomly so that the two test groups were equal in ability. The commanders later reported that the so-called “exceptional” crew members performed better than the “average” ones. The study also revealed that the commanders had given more attention and praise to the crew members for whom they had the higher expectations.16 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c03-note16) Don’t you wonder what might happen with students and workers in general if teachers and managers adopted more uniformly positive and optimistic approaches toward them?

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 115/501

3.3 Perception, Attribution, and Social Learning LEARNING ROADMAP

IMPORTANCE OF ATTRIBUTIONS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec52#sec53)

ATTRIBUTION ERRORS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec52#sec54)

ATTRIBUTION AND SOCIAL LEARNING (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec52#sec55)

One of the ways in which perception exerts its in�luence on behavior is through attribution (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo16) . This is the process of developing explanations or assigning perceived causes for events. It is natural for people to try to explain what they observe and what happens to them. What happens when you perceive that someone in a job or student group isn’t performing up to expectations? How do you explain this? And, depending on the explanation, what do you do to try and correct things?

Attribution is the process of creating explanations for events.

Importance of Attributions Attribution theory helps us understand how people perceive the causes of events, assess responsibility for outcomes, and evaluate the personal qualities of the people involved.17 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c03-note17) It is especially concerned with whether the assumption is that an individual’s behavior, such as poor performance, has been internally or externally caused. Internal causes are believed to be under an individual’s control—you believe Jake’s performance is poor because he is lazy. External causes are seen as coming from outside a person—you believe Kellie’s performance is poor because the software she’s using is out of date.

According to attribution theory, three factors in�luence this internal or external determination of causality: distinctiveness, consensus, and consistency. Distinctiveness considers how consistent a person’s behavior is across different situations. If Jake’s performance is typically low, regardless of the technology with which he is working, we tend to assign the poor performance to an internal attribution—there’s something wrong with Jake. If the poor performance is unusual, we tend to assign an external cause to explain it—there’s something happening in the work context. Consensus takes into account how likely all those facing a similar situation are to respond in the same way. If all the people using the same technology as Jake perform poorly, we tend to assign his performance problem to an external attribution. If others do not perform poorly, we attribute Jake’s poor performance to internal causation. Consistency concerns whether an individual responds the same way across time. If Jake performs poorly over a sustained period of time, we tend to give the poor performance an internal attribution. If his low performance is an isolated incident, we may well attribute it to an external cause.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 116/501

Bias against Black Leaders Found on the Football Field

Are black leaders at a disadvantage when leadership success is evaluated? The answer is “yes” according to research reported in the Academy of Management Journal.

Scholars Andrew M. Carton and Ashleigh Shelby Rosette studied how the performance of football quarterbacks was reported in the news. They found that successful performances by black quarterbacks were attributed in news articles less often to the players’ competence, such as “making decisions under pressure,” and more often to factors that made up for incompetence, such as having “the speed to get away.” The researchers expressed concern that black leaders may suffer from poor career advancement because of biased evaluations.

Sportschrome/NewsCom

Attribution Errors

People often fall prey to perception errors when making attributions about what caused certain events.18 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c03-note18) Look, for example, at the data reported in Figure 3.2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec52#r�ig3-2) . When executives were asked to attribute causes of poor performance among their subordinates, they most often blamed internal de�iciencies of the individual—lack of ability and effort, rather than external de�iciencies in the situation—lack of support. This demonstrates what is known as fundamental attribution error (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo151) —the tendency to underestimate the in�luence of situational factors and to overestimate the in�luence of personal factors

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 117/501

when evaluating someone else’s behavior. When asked to identify causes of their own poor performance, however, the executives mostly cited lack of support—an external, or situational, de�iciency. This demonstrates self-serving bias (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo398) —the tendency to deny personal responsibility for performance problems but to accept personal responsibility for performance success.

Fundamental attribution error overestimates internal factors and underestimates external factors as in�luences on someone’s behavior.

Self-serving bias underestimates internal factors and overestimates external factors as in�luences on someone’s behavior.

The managerial implications of attribution errors trace back to the fact that perceptions in�luence behavior.19 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c03-note19) For example, a team leader who believes that members are not performing well and perceives the reason to be an internal lack of effort is likely to respond with attempts to “motivate” them to work harder. The possibility of changing external, situational factors that may remove job constraints and provide better organizational support may be largely ignored. This oversight could sacri�ice major performance gains for the team.

Attribution and Social Learning Perception and attribution are important components in social learning theory (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo416) , which describes how learning takes place through the reciprocal interactions among people, behavior, and environment. According to the work of Albert Bandura, an individual uses modeling or vicarious learning to acquire behavior by observing and imitating others.20 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c03-note20) In a work situation, the model may be a higher manager or co-worker who demonstrates desired behaviors. Mentors or senior workers who befriend younger and more inexperienced protégés can also be important models. Indeed, some have argued that a shortage of mentors for women in senior management has been a major constraint to their progression up the career ladder.21 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c03-note21)

Social learning theory describes how learning occurs through interactions among people, behavior, and environment.

FIGURE 3.2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec52#�ig3-2) Attribution errors by executives when explaining poor performance by others and themselves.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 118/501

FIGURE 3.3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec52#�ig3-3) Simpli�ied model of social learning.

The symbolic processes shown in Figure 3.3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec52#r�ig3-3) are important in social learning. Words and symbols used by managers and others in the workplace help communicate values, beliefs, and goals and thus serve as guides to an individual’s behavior. For example, a “thumbs up” or other signal from the boss lets you know your behavior is appropriate. At the same time, the person’s self- control is important in in�luencing his or her own behavior. And self-ef�icacy—the person’s belief that he or she can perform adequately in a situation—is an important part of such self-control. Closely associated with the concept of self-ef�icacy are such terms as con�idence, competence, and ability.22 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c03-note22)

People with high self-ef�icacy believe that they have the necessary abilities for a given job, that they are capable of the effort required, and that no outside events will hinder them from attaining their desired performance level.23 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c03-note23) In contrast, people with low self-ef�icacy believe that no matter how hard they try, they cannot manage their environment well enough to be successful. If you feel high self-ef�icacy as a student, a low grade on one test is likely to encourage you to study harder, talk to the instructor, or do other things to enable you to do well the next time. In contrast, a person low in self-ef�icacy would probably drop the course or give up studying. Of course, even people who are high in self-ef�icacy do not control their environment entirely.

Four Ways to Build or Enhance Self-Ef�icacy

Scholars generally recognize the following four ways of building or enhancing our self-ef�icacy:

Enactive mastery—gaining con�idence through positive experience. The more you work at a task, so to speak, the more your experience builds and the more con�ident you become at doing it.

Vicarious modeling—gaining con�idence by observing others. When someone else is good at a task and we are able to observe how they do it, we gain con�idence in being able to do it ourselves.

Verbal persuasion—gaining con�idence from someone telling us or encouraging us that we can perform the task. Hearing others praise our efforts and link those efforts with performance successes is often very motivational.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 119/501

Emotional arousal—gaining con�idence when we are highly stimulated or energized to perform well in a situation. A good analogy for arousal is how athletes get “psyched up” and highly motivated to perform in key competitions.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 120/501

3.4 Learning by Reinforcement LEARNING ROADMAP

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec56#sec57)

OPERANT CONDITIONING AND THE LAW OF EFFECT (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec56#sec58)

POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec56#sec59)

NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec56#sec60)

PUNISHMENT (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec56#sec61)

EXTINCTION (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec56#sec62)

REINFORCEMENT PROS AND CONS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec56#sec63)

When it comes to learning, the concept of reinforcement is very important in OB. It has a very speci�ic meaning that has its origin in some classic studies in psychology.24 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c03-note24) Reinforcement (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo359) is the administration of a consequence as a result of a behavior. Managing reinforcement properly can change the direction, level, and persistence of an individual’s behavior. This idea is best understood through the concepts of conditioning and reinforcement that you may have already learned in a basic psychology course.

Reinforcement is the delivery of a consequence as a result of behavior.

Classical Conditioning Ivan Pavlov described classical conditioning as a form of learning through association that involves the manipulation of stimuli to in�luence behavior. The Russian psychologist “taught” dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell by ringing the bell when feeding the dogs. The sight of the food naturally caused the dogs to salivate. The dogs “learned” to associate the bell ringing with the presentation of food and to salivate at the ringing of the bell alone.

The key here is to understand stimulus and conditioned stimulus. A stimulus is something that incites action and draws forth a response, such as food for the dogs. The trick is to associate one neutral stimulus —the bell ringing—with another stimulus that already affects behavior—the food. The once-neutral stimulus is called a conditioned stimulus when it affects behavior in the same way as the initial stimulus. Such learning through association is so common in organizations that it is often ignored until it causes considerable confusion.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 121/501

Take a look at the following �igure for an example of how classical conditioning might occur in the workplace. Here, the boss’s smiling has become a conditioned stimulus because of its association with his criticisms. The employee has learned to feel nervous and grit her teeth whenever the boss smiles.

Classical conditioning involves learning to display a behavior through its association with a stimulus.

Operant Conditioning and the Law of Effect The well-known psychologist B. F. Skinner extended the applications of learning by reinforcement to include more than just conditioned stimulus and response behavior.25 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c03-note25) He focused on operant conditioning as the process of controlling behavior by manipulating its consequences. You may think of operant conditioning (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo280) as learning by reinforcement. In a work setting the goal is to use reinforcement principles to systematically reinforce desirable behavior and discourage undesirable behavior.26 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c03-note26)

Operant conditioning is the control of behavior by manipulating its consequences.

Operant conditioning occurs by linking behavior and consequences. The following �igure uses the example of an agreement with the boss to work overtime. When the employee actually does work overtime, this is the behavior. The consequence in the example is receiving the boss’s praise. In operant conditioning, this consequence strengthens the behavior and makes it more likely to reoccur when the boss next requests overtime work.

The basis for operant conditioning rests in E. L. Thorndike’s law of effect (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo223) .27 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c03-note27) It is simple but powerful: Behavior that results in a pleasant outcome is likely to be repeated, whereas behavior that results in an unpleasant

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 122/501

outcome is not likely to be repeated. The implications of this law are rather straightforward. If you want more of a behavior—say the willingness of someone to stay and work overtime when things are rushed— you must make sure the consequences of performing the desired behavior are positive for the individual.

The law of effect is that behavior followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated; behavior followed by unpleasant consequences is not.

The consequences that reinforce behavior under the Law of Effect are extrinsic rewards (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo133) —positively valued work outcomes given to the individual by another person.28 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c03-note28) Some of these are contrived rewards like pay increases and cash bonuses. These rewards have direct costs and budgetary implications. Other outcomes could be natural rewards such as verbal praise and recognition. These have no real cost other than the time and effort expended to deliver them.

Extrinsic rewards are positively valued work outcomes that are given to the individual by some other person.

The use of extrinsic rewards to systematically reinforce desirable work behavior and to discourage unwanted work behavior is known as organizational behavior modi�ication (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo286) , or OB Mod for short. It involves the use of four basic reinforcement strategies: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement (or avoidance), punishment, and extinction.29 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c03- note29)

Organizational behavior modi�ication is the use of extrinsic rewards to systematically reinforce desirable work behavior and discourage undesirable behavior.

Positive Reinforcement B. F. Skinner and his followers place great emphasis on the power of positive reinforcement (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo326) in operant conditioning. This is the administration of positive consequences that tend to increase the likelihood that desirable behavior will be repeated. An example is when a team leader nods to a team member to express approval after she makes a useful comment during a sales meeting. For example, this increases the likelihood of future useful comments from the team member, something that might not happen if the useful comments went unrecognized when �irst offered in the meeting.

Positive reinforcement strengthens a behavior by making a desirable consequence contingent on its occurrence.

It’s easy to waste rewards by giving them in ways that have little impact on future desired behaviors. In order to have maximum reinforcement value, a reward should be delivered only when a desired behavior —such as giving constructive comments in a meeting—is exhibited. That is, the reward must be

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 123/501

contingent on the desired behavior. This principle is known as the law of contingent reinforcement (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo222) . In addition, the reward should be given as soon as possible after the desired behavior. This is known as the law of immediate reinforcement (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo224) .30 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c03-note30) If a team leader waits for the annual performance review to praise a team member for providing constructive comments during meetings, the law of immediate reinforcement would be violated.

The law of contingent reinforcement states that a reward should only be given when the desired behavior occurs.

The law of immediate reinforcement states that a reward should be given as soon as possible after the desired behavior occurs.

Shaping The power of positive reinforcement can be mobilized through a process known as shaping (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo401) : the creation of a new behavior by the positive reinforcement of successive approximations to it. For example, new machine operators in the Ford Motor casting operation in Ohio must learn a complex series of tasks in pouring molten metal into castings in order to avoid gaps, over�ills, or cracks.31 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c03-note31) The molds are �illed in a three-step process, with each step progressively more dif�icult than its predecessor. Astute master craftspersons �irst show newcomers how to pour as the �irst step and give praise based on what they did right. As the apprentices gain experience, they are given praise only when all of the elements of the �irst step are completed successfully. Once the apprentices have mastered the �irst step, they move to the second. Reinforcement is given only when the entire �irst step and an aspect of the second step are completed successfully. Over time, apprentices learn all three steps and are given contingent positive rewards immediately upon completing a casting that has no cracks or gaps. In this way behavior is shaped gradually rather than changed all at once.

Shaping is positive reinforcement of successive approximations to the desired behavior.

FINDING THE LEADER IN YOU Richard Branson Leads with Personality and Positive Reinforcement

Sir Richard Branson, well-known founder of Virgin Group, is a believer in positive reinforcement. “For the people who work for you or with you, you must lavish praise on them at all times,” he says. “If a �lower is watered, it �lourishes. If not it shrivels up and dies.” And besides, he goes on to add, “It’s much more fun looking for the best in people.”

Virgin Group is a business conglomerate employing many thousands of people around the globe. It even holds a space venture: Virgin Galactic. It’s all very creative and ambitious—but that’s Branson. “I love to learn things I know little about,” he says.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 124/501

Yet if you bump into Branson on the street you might be surprised. He’s casual, he’s smiling, and he’s fun; he’s also considered brilliant when it comes to business and leadership. His goal is to build Virgin into “the most respected brand in the world.”

As the man behind the Virgin brand, Branson is described as “�lamboyant,” something that he doesn’t deny and also considers a major business advantage that keeps him and his ventures in the public eye.

About leadership Branson says, “Having a personality of caring about people is important. . . . You can’t be a good leader unless you generally like people. That is how you bring out the best in them.” He claims his own style was shaped by his family and childhood. At age 10 his mother put him on a 300-mile bike ride to build character and endurance. At 16, he started a student magazine. By the age of 22, he was launching Virgin record stores. And by the time he was 30, Virgin Group was running at high speed.

As for himself, Branson says he’ll probably never retire. Now known as Sir Richard after being knighted, he enjoys Virgin today “as a way of life.” But he also says that “In the next stage of my life I want to use our business skills to tackle social issues around the world. . . . Malaria in Africa kills four million people a year. AIDS kills even more. . . . I don’t want to waste this fabulous situation in which I’ve found myself.”

Rosie Greenway/Getty Images, Inc.

What’s the Lesson Here?

Sir Richard obviously has con�idence in himself as both a person and a leader. How much of his business and leadership success comes from management of his public impression? Is this something we might all use to advantage? And when he says “you must lavish praise all the time” on the people who work for you, is he giving us an example of the law of effect in action? Finally, Branson seems to have moved beyond the quest for personal business success; he’s now talking about real social impact. Is that a natural progression for successful entrepreneurs and business executives?

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 125/501

OB IN POPULAR CULTURE

Positive Reinforcement and Big Bang Theory

Learning is an important part of an individual’s development. In the workplace, reinforcement can be used to help employees learn proper behavior. Through the principle of operant conditioning, reinforcement uses consequences to help mold the behavior of others.

In one episode of “The Big Bang Theory,” Leonard, Penny, and Sheldon are watching anime on television. Penny is bored with a show she does not understand and begins to tell a story about a high school classmate named Anna Mae. Sheldon uses chocolate to get her to stop talking. Later, when Penny’s cell phone rings, Sheldon again uses chocolate to get Penny to take the call in the hallway. Leonard discovers the tactic and forbids Sheldon from experimenting with Penny. Sheldon then sprays Leonard with a water bottle (punishment).

Cliff Lipson/CBS/Getty Images

The episode is hilarious yet serious. It demonstrates how easily behavior can be in�luenced through the proper application of operant conditioning techniques. However, it’s important to remember that what works at one point in time may not work at another. If Sheldon continues to give Penny chocolates, for example, will she eventually lose her desire for them and the reinforcement will no longer be effective?

Get to Know Yourself Better Take Assessment 12, The Downside of Punishment, in the OB Skills Workbook. Have you ever experienced punishment as a student or an employee? What was your reaction? Have you ever seen a boss punish an employee in front of co-workers or customers? Is this an effective way to change behavior? If you were a teacher, how would you handle a behavior problem with a student—such as unwanted text messaging in class?

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 126/501

Scheduling Positive Reinforcement Positive reinforcement can be given on either continuous or intermittent schedules. Continuous reinforcement (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo62) administers a reward each time a desired behavior occurs, whereas intermittent reinforcement (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo203) rewards behavior only periodically. In general, continuous reinforcement draws forth a desired behavior more quickly than does intermittent reinforcement. However, it is easily extinguished when reinforcement is no longer present. Behavior acquired under intermittent reinforcement is more resistant to extinction and lasts longer upon the discontinuance of reinforcement. This is why shaping typically begins with a continuous reinforcement schedule and then gradually shifts to an intermittent one.

Continuous reinforcement administers a reward each time a desired behavior occurs.

Intermittent reinforcement rewards behavior only periodically.

Figure 3.4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec56#r�ig3-4) shows that intermittent reinforcement can be given according to �ixed or variable schedules. Variable schedules typically result in more consistent patterns of desired behavior than do �ixed reinforcement schedules. Fixed-interval schedules provide rewards at the �irst appearance of a behavior after a given time has elapsed. Fixed-ratio schedules result in a reward each time a certain number of the behaviors have occurred. A variable-interval schedule rewards behavior at random times, whereas a variable-ratio schedule rewards behavior after a random number of occurrences.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 127/501

FIGURE 3.4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec56#�ig3-4) Alternative ways to schedule positive reinforcement.

Negative Reinforcement A second reinforcement strategy in operant conditioning is negative reinforcement (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo270) or avoidance learning. It uses the withdrawal of negative consequences to increase the likelihood of desirable behavior being repeated. An example might be the manager regularly nags a worker about being late for work and then doesn’t nag when the worker next shows up on time. The term negative reinforcement comes from this withdrawal of the negative consequences. The strategy is also called avoidance learning because its intent is for the person to avoid the negative consequence by performing the desired behavior. Think of it this way. Even when the streets are deserted, we still stop at red lights to avoid getting a traf�ic ticket.

Negative reinforcement strengthens a behavior by making the avoidance of an undesirable consequence contingent on its occurrence.

Punishment Unlike positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement which are intended to encourage desired behavior, punishment (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo352) intends

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 128/501

to discourage undesirable behavior. It is the administration of negative consequences or the withdrawal of positive consequences to reduce the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.

Punishment discourages a behavior by making an unpleasant consequence contingent on its occurrence.

Evidence does show that punishment administered for poor performance can lead to better performance. Yet, when punishment is perceived as arbitrary and capricious, it leads to low satisfaction and low performance.32 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c03-note32) The lesson here and highlighted in the “How to Make Positive Reinforcement and Punishment Work for You” sidebar is that punishment can be handled poorly, or it can be handled well. If it is necessary to use punishment as a reinforcement strategy, be sure to do it well.

It’s also worth noting that punishment may be offset by positive reinforcement received from another source. Take the case of someone being positively reinforced by peers at the same time as he or she is receiving punishment from a boss, parent, or teacher. Sometimes the positive value of peer support is so great that the individual chooses to put up with punishment and continues the bad behavior. As many times as a child may be verbally reprimanded by a teacher for playing jokes, for example, the “grins” offered by classmates may keep the jokes �lowing in the future.

How to Make Positive Reinforcement and Punishment Work for You

Positive Reinforcement

Clearly identify desired work behaviors.

Maintain a diverse inventory of rewards.

Inform everyone what must be done to get rewards.

Recognize individual differences when allocating rewards.

Follow the laws of immediate and contingent reinforcement.

Punishment

Tell the person what is being done wrong.

Tell the person what is being done right.

Make sure the punishment matches the behavior.

Administer the punishment in private.

Follow the laws of immediate and contingent reinforcement.

Extinction

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 129/501

The �inal reinforcement strategy is extinction (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo132) —the withdrawal of reinforcing consequences in order to weaken undesirable behavior. For example, Enya is often late for work and co-workers provide positive reinforcement by covering for her. The manager instructs Enya’s co- workers to stop covering, thus withdrawing the positive consequences of her tardiness. This is a use of extinction to try and get rid of an undesirable behavior. Still, even though a successful extinction strategy decreases the frequency of or weakens behavior, the behavior is not “unlearned.” It simply is not exhibited and will reappear if reinforced again.

Extinction discourages a behavior by making the removal of a desirable consequence contingent on its occurrence.

Reinforcement Pros and Cons The effective use of the four reinforcement strategies presented in these pages can help in the management of human behavior at work, but their use is not without criticism.33 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c03-note33) A major criticism is that using reinforcement to in�luence human behavior is demeaning and dehumanizing.34 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c03-note34) Another criticism is that it becomes too easy for managers to abuse the power of their positions when they exert this type of external control over individual behavior.

Advocates of the reinforcement approach attack its critics head on. They agree that behavior modi�ication involves the control of behavior, but they also argue that such control is an irrevocable part of every manager’s job. The real question, they say, is how to ensure that the reinforcement strategies are done in positive and constructive ways.35 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c03-note35)

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 130/501

3 Study Guide

Key Questions and Answers What is perception, and why is it important?

Individuals use the perception process to select, organize, interpret, and retrieve information from the world around them.

Perception acts as a �ilter through which all communication passes as it travels from one person to the next.

Because people tend to perceive things differently, the same situation may be interpreted and responded to differently by different people.

Factors in�luencing perceptions include characteristics of the perceiver, the setting, and the perceived.

What are the common perceptual distortions?

Stereotypes occur when a person is identi�ied with a category and is assumed to display characteristics otherwise associated with members of that category.

Halo effects occur when one attribute of a person or situation is used to develop an overall impression of the person or situation.

Selective perception is the tendency to single out for attention those aspects of a situation or person that reinforce or emerge and are consistent with existing beliefs, values, and needs.

Projection involves the assignment of personal attributes to other individuals.

Contrast effects occur when an individual’s characteristics are contrasted with those of others recently encountered who rank higher or lower on the same characteristics.

What is the link between perception, attribution, and social learning?

Attribution theory addresses tendencies to view events or behaviors as primarily the results of external causes or internal causes.

Three factors that in�luence the attribution of external or internal causation are distinctiveness, consensus, and consistency.

Fundamental attribution error occurs when we blame others for performance problems while excluding possible external causes.

Self-serving bias occurs when, in judging our own performance, we take personal credit for successes and blame failures on external factors.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 131/501

Social learning theory links perception and attribution by recognizing how learning is achieved through the reciprocal interactions among people, behavior, and environment.

What is involved in learning by reinforcement?

Reinforcement theory recognizes that behavior is in�luenced by environmental consequences.

The law of effect states that behavior followed by a pleasant consequence is likely to be repeated; behavior followed by an unpleasant consequence is unlikely to be repeated.

Positive reinforcement is the administration of positive consequences that tend to increase the likelihood of a person’s repeating a behavior in similar settings.

Positive reinforcement should be contingent and immediate, and it can be scheduled continuously or intermittently depending on resources and desired outcomes.

Negative reinforcement, or avoidance learning, is used to encourage desirable behavior through the withdrawal of negative consequences for previously undesirable behavior.

Punishment is the administration of negative consequences or the withdrawal of positive consequences to reduce the likelihood of an undesirable behavior being repeated.

Extinction is the withdrawal of reinforcing consequences to weaken or eliminate an undesirable behavior.

Terms to Know Attribution (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec52#key1)

Classical conditioning (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec56#key2)

Continuous reinforcement (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec56#key3)

Contrast effect (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec45#key4)

Extinction (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec56#key5)

Extrinsic rewards (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec56#key6)

Fundamental attribution error (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec52#key7)

Halo effect (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec45#key8)

Impression management (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec41#key9)

Intermittent reinforcement (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec56#key10)

Law of contingent reinforcement (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec56#key12)

Law of effect (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec56#key13)

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 132/501

Law of immediate reinforcement (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec56#key14)

Negative reinforcement (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec56#key15)

Operant conditioning (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec56#key16)

Organizational behavior modi�ication (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec56#key17)

Perception (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec41#key18)

Positive reinforcement (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec56#key19)

Projection (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec45#key20)

Prototype (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec41#key21)

Punishment (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec56#key22)

Reinforcement (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec56#key23)

Schemas (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec41#key24)

Selective perception (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec45#key25)

Selective screening (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec41#key26)

Self-ful�illing prophecy (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec45#key27)

Self-serving bias (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec52#key28)

Shaping (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec56#key29)

Social learning theory (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec52#key30)

Stereotype (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec45#key31)

Self-Test 3 Multiple Choice

1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c03str1) . Perception is the process by which people ____________ and interpret information.

a. (a) generate

b. (b) retrieve

c. (c) transmit

d. (d) verify

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 133/501

2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c03str2) . When an individual attends to only a small portion of the vast information available in the environment, this tendency in the perception process is called ____________.

a. (a) interpretation

b. (b) self scripting

c. (c) attribution

d. (d) selective screening

3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c03str3) . Self-serving bias is a form of attribution error that involves ____________.

a. (a) blaming yourself for problems caused by others

b. (b) blaming the environment for problems you caused

c. (c) poor emotional intelligence

d. (d) low self-ef�icacy

4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c03str4) . In fundamental attribution error, the in�luence of ____________ as causes of a problem are ____________.

a. (a) situational factors, overestimated

b. (b) personal factors, underestimated

c. (c) personal factors, overestimated

d. (d) situational factors, underestimated

5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c03str5) . If a new team leader changes tasks for persons on his or her work team mainly “because I would prefer to work the new way rather than the old,” she may be committing a perceptual error known as ____________.

a. (a) halo effect

b. (b) stereotype

c. (c) selective perception

d. (d) projection

6 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c03str6) . Use of special dress, manners, gestures, and vocabulary words when meeting a prospective employer in a job interview are all examples of how people use ____________.

a. (a) projection

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 134/501

b. (b) selective perception

c. (c) impression management

d. (d) self-serving bias

7 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c03str7) . The perceptual tendency known as a/an ____________ is associated with the “Pygmalion effect” and refers to �inding or creating in a situation that which was originally expected.

a. (a) self-ef�icacy

b. (b) projection

c. (c) self-ful�illing prophecy

d. (d) halo effect

8 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c03str8) . If a manager allows one characteristic of a person, say a pleasant personality, to bias performance ratings of that individual overall, the manager is falling prey to a perceptual distortion known as ____________.

a. (a) halo effect

b. (b) stereotype

c. (c) selective perception

d. (d) projection

9 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c03str9) . The underlying premise of reinforcement theory is that ____________.

a. (a) behavior is a function of environment

b. (b) motivation comes from positive expectancy

c. (c) higher-order needs stimulate hard work

d. (d) rewards considered unfair are de-motivators

10 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c03str10) . The law of ____________ states that behavior followed by a positive consequence is likely to be repeated, whereas behavior followed by an undesirable consequence is not likely to be repeated.

a. (a) reinforcement

b. (b) contingency

c. (c) goal setting

d. (d) effect

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 135/501

11 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c03str11) . ____________ is a positive reinforcement strategy that rewards successive approximations to a desirable behavior.

a. (a) Extinction

b. (b) Negative reinforcement

c. (c) Shaping

d. (d) Merit pay

12 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c03str12) . B. F. Skinner would argue that “getting a paycheck on Friday” reinforces a person for coming to work on Friday but would not reinforce the person for doing an extraordinary job on Tuesday. This is because the Friday paycheck fails the law of ____________ reinforcement.

a. (a) negative

b. (b) continuous

c. (c) immediate

d. (d) intermittent

13 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c03str13) . The purpose of negative reinforcement as an operant conditioning technique is to ____________.

a. (a) punish bad behavior

b. (b) discourage bad behavior

c. (c) encourage desirable behavior

d. (d) offset the effects of shaping

14 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c03str14) . Punishment ____________.

a. (a) may be offset by positive reinforcement from another source

b. (b) generally is the most effective kind of reinforcement

c. (c) is best given anonymously

d. (d) should never be directly linked with its cause.

15 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c03str15) . A de�ining characteristic of social learning theory is that it ____________.

a. (a) recognizes the existence of vicarious learning

b. (b) is not concerned with extrinsic rewards

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 136/501

c. (c) relies only on use of negative reinforcement

d. (d) avoids any interest in self-ef�icacy

Short Response

16 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c03str16) . Draw and brie�ly discuss a model showing the important stages of the perception process.

17 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c03str17) . Select two perceptual distortions, brie�ly de�ine them, and show how they can lead to poor decisions by managers.

18 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c03str18) . Why is the law of effect useful in management?

19 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c03str19) . Explain how the reinforcement learning and social learning approaches are similar and dissimilar to one another.

Applications Essay

20 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c03str20) . One of your friends has just been appointed as leader of a work team. This is her �irst leadership assignment and she has recently heard a little about attribution theory. She has asked you to explain it to her in more detail, focusing on its possible usefulness and risks in managing the team. What will you tell her?

Steps to Further Learning 3 Top Choices from The OB Skills Workbook

These learning activities from The OB Skills Workbook found at the back of the book are suggested for Chapter 3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/ch3#ch3) .

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 137/501

Case for Critical Thinking

Team and Experiential Exercises

Self-Assessment Portfolio

The Jim Donovan Case

How We View Differences

Alligator River Story

Cultural Cues

Downside of Punishment

Turbulence Tolerance Test

Global Readiness Index

Intolerance for Ambiguity

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 138/501

4 Emotions, Attitudes, and Job Satisfaction

The Key Point

Emotions test us in everyday living. When we’re feeling good, there’s hardly anything better. When we’re feeling down, it takes a toll on us and possibly others. OB scholars are very interested in how emotions and attitudes—such as job satisfaction—in�luence how people feel and behave.

What’s Inside?

Bringing OB to LIFE

PAYING A HIGH PRICE FOR INCIVILITY AT WORK

Worth Considering . . . or Best Avoided?

GOT A YOGA MAT? MEDITATION CAN BE GOOD FOR YOU AND YOUR JOB

Checking Ethics in OB

THE DOWNSIDE OF FACEBOOK FOLLIES

Finding the Leader in You

DON THOMPSON LETS EMOTIONS AND LISTENING TAKE THE LEAD

OB in Popular Culture

MOODS AND CRASH

Research Insight

JOB SATISFACTION SPILLOVER HAS IMPACT ON FAMILY LIVES

Chapter at a Glance

What Are Emotions and Moods?

How Do Emotions and Moods In�luence Behavior in Organizations?

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 139/501

What Are Attitudes, and How Do They In�luence Behavior in Organizations?

What Is Job Satisfaction, and Why Is It Important?

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 140/501

4.1 Understanding Emotions and Moods LEARNING ROADMAP

THE NATURE OF EMOTIONS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec65#sec66)

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec65#sec67)

TYPES OF EMOTIONS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec65#sec68)

THE NATURE OF MOODS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec65#sec69)

How do you feel when . . . You are driving a car and are halted by a police of�icer? You are in class and receive a poor grade on an exam? A favorite pet passes away? You check e-mail and discover that you are being offered a job interview? A good friend walks right by without speaking? A parent or sibling or child loses his job? You get this SMS from a new acquaintance: “Ur gr8!”?

These are examples of things that draw out feelings of many forms, such as happy or sad, angry or pleased, anxious or elated. Such feelings constitute what scholars call affect (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo10) , the range of emotions and moods that people experience in their life context.1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04-note1) Our affects have important implications not only for our lives in general but also our work experiences and careers.2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04-note2)

Affect is the range of feelings in the forms of emotions and moods that people experience.

The Nature of Emotions Anger, excitement, apprehension, attraction, sadness, elation, grief are all emotions (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo111) that appear as strong positive or negative feelings directed toward someone or something.3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04-note3) Emotions are usually intense and not long-lasting. They are always associated with a source. That is, someone or something makes us feel the way we do. You might feel the positive emotion of elation when an instructor congratulates you on a �ine class presentation; you might feel the negative emotion of anger when an instructor criticizes you in front of the class. In both situations the object of your emotion is the instructor, but the impact of the instructor’s behavior on your feelings is quite different in each case. And your response to the aroused emotions is likely to differ as well—perhaps breaking into a wide smile after the compliment, or making a nasty side comment or withdrawing from further participation after the criticism.

Emotions are strong positive or negative feelings directed toward someone or something.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 141/501

Emotional Intelligence All of us are familiar with the notions of cognitive ability and intelligence, or IQ, which have been measured for many years. A related concept is emotional intelligence, or EI as it is often called. It is de�ined by scholar Daniel Goleman as an ability to understand emotions in ourselves and others and to use that understanding to manage relationships effectively.4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04-note4) EI is demonstrated in the ways in which we deal with affect—for example, by knowing when a negative emotion is about to cause problems and being able to control that emotion so that it doesn’t become disruptive.

Emotional intelligence is an ability to understand emotions and manage relationships effectively.

Goleman’s point about emotional intelligence is that we perform better when we are good at recognizing and dealing with emotions in ourselves and others. When high in EI, we are more likely to behave in ways that avoid having our emotions “get the better of us.” Knowing that an instructor’s criticism causes us to feel anger, for example, EI might help us control that anger, maintain a positive face, and perhaps earn the instructor’s praise when we make future class contributions. If the unchecked anger caused us to act in a verbally aggressive way—creating a negative impression in the instructor’s eyes—or to withdraw from all class participation—causing the instructor to believe we have no interest in the course, our course experience would likely suffer.

If you are good at knowing and managing your emotions and are good at reading others’ emotions, you may perform better while interacting with other people. This applies to life in general, as well as to work leadership situations.5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04-note5) Figure 4.1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec65#r�ig4-1) identi�ies four essential emotional intelligence competencies that can and should be developed for leadership success and success more generally in all types of interpersonal situations.6 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04-note6) The competencies are self-awareness, social awareness, self-management, and relationship management.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 142/501

FIGURE 4.1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec65#�ig4-1) Four key emotional intelligence competencies for success in leadership and relationships.

Self-awareness in emotional intelligence is the ability to understand our emotions and their impact on our work and on others. You can think of this as a continuing appraisal of your emotions that results in a good understanding of them and the capacity to express them naturally. Social awareness (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo410) is the ability to empathize, to understand the emotions of others, and to use this understanding to better relate to them. It involves continuous appraisal and recognition of others’ emotions, resulting in better perception and understanding of them.

Self-awareness is the ability to understand our emotions and their impact on us and others.

Social awareness is the ability to empathize and understand the emotions of others.

Self-management (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo395) in emotional intelligence is the ability to think before acting and to be in control of otherwise disruptive impulses. It is a form of self-regulation in which we stay in control of our emotions and avoid letting them take over. Relationship management (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo361) is an ability to establish rapport with others in ways that build good relationships and in�luence their emotions in positive ways. It shows up as the capacity to make good use of emotions by directing them toward constructive activities and improved relationships.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 143/501

Self-management is the ability to think before acting and to control disruptive impulses.

Relationship management is the ability to establish rapport with others to build good relationships.

Types of Emotions Researchers have identi�ied six major types of emotions: anger, fear, joy, love, sadness, and surprise. The key question from an emotional intelligence perspective is this: Do we recognize these emotions in ourselves and others, and can we manage them well? Anger, for example, may involve disgust and envy, both of which can have very negative consequences. Fear may contain alarm and anxiety; joy may contain cheerfulness and contentment; love may contain affection, longing, and lust; sadness may contain disappointment, neglect, and shame.

It is also common to differentiate between self-conscious emotions (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo391) that arise from internal sources and social emotions that are stimulated by external sources.7 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04-note7) Shame, guilt, embarrassment, and pride are examples of internal emotions. Understanding self-conscious emotions helps individuals regulate their relationships with others. Social emotions such as pity, envy, and jealousy derive from external cues and information. An example is feeling envious or jealous upon learning that a co-worker received a promotion or job assignment that you were hoping to get.

Self-conscious emotions arise from internal sources.

Social emotions derive from external sources.

The Nature of Moods Whereas emotions tend to be short term and clearly targeted at someone or something, moods (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo257) are more generalized positive and negative feelings or states of mind that may persist for some time. Everyone seems to have occasional moods, and we each know the full range of possibilities they represent. How often do you wake up in the morning and feel excited and refreshed and just happy, or wake up feeling grouchy and depressed and generally unhappy? And what are the consequences of these different moods for your behavior with friends and family, and at work or school?

Moods are generalized positive and negative feelings or states of mind.

The �ield of OB is especially interested in how moods in�luence someone’s likeability and relationships at work. When it comes to CEOs, for example, it often pays to be viewed as in a positive mood, one that makes them seem more personable and caring in the eyes of others. If a CEO goes to a meeting in a good mood and gets described as “cheerful,” “charming,” “humorous,” “friendly,” and “candid,” she or he may be viewed as on the upswing. If the CEO goes into a meeting in a bad mood and is perceived as “prickly,” “impatient,” “remote,” “tough,” “acrimonious,” or even “ruthless,” the perception will more likely be of a CEO on the downslide.8 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04-note8)

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 144/501

CHECKING ETHICS IN OB

The Downside of Facebook Follies

Facebook is fun, but if you’re having a bad day or are in a bad or snarky mood and post the wrong things on it—inappropriate photo, snide comment, complaint about your boss, and such, you might get hurt. Some Facebook follies have caused users to change their online status to “Just got �ired!”

Bed Sur�ing Banker—After a Swiss bank employee called in sick with the excuse that she “needed to lie in the dark,” company of�icials observed her sur�ing Facebook. She was �ired, and the bank’s statement said it “had lost trust in the employee.”

Angry Mascot—The Pittsburgh Pirates �ired their mascot after he posted criticisms of team management on his Facebook page. A Twitter campaign by supporters helped him get hired back.

Loic Venance/AFP/Getty Images, Inc.

Shortchanged Server—A former server at a pizza parlor in North Carolina used Facebook to call her customers “cheap” for not giving good tips. After �inding out about the posting, her bosses �ired her for breaking company policy.

Who’s Right and Wrong? You may know of similar cases where employees ended up being penalized for things they posted on their Facebook pages. But where do you draw the line? Isn’t a person’s Facebook page separate from one’s work? Shouldn’t people be able to speak freely about their jobs, co-workers, and

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 145/501

even bosses when outside the workplace? Or is there an ethical boundary that travels from work into one’s public communications that we must respect? What are the ethics here—on the employee and the employer sides?

FIGURE 4.2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec65#�ig4-2) Emotions and moods are different, but they can also in�luence one another.

Figure 4.2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec65#r�ig4-2) offers a brief comparison of emotions and moods. In general, emotions are intense feelings directed at someone or something; they always have rather speci�ic triggers; and they come in many types: anger, fear, happiness, and the like. Moods tend to be more generalized positive or negative feelings. They are less intense than emotions and most often seem to lack a clear source; it’s often hard to identify how or why we end up in a particular mood.9 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04-note9) In addition, moods tend to be more long lasting than emotions. When someone says or does something that causes a quick and intense positive or negative reaction from you, that emotion will probably quickly pass. However, a bad or good mood is likely to linger for hours or even days and in�luence a wide range of behaviors.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 146/501

4.2 How Emotions and Moods In�luence Behavior LEARNING ROADMAP

EMOTION AND MOOD CONTAGION (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec70#sec71)

EMOTIONAL LABOR (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec70#sec72)

EMOTIONAL EMPATHY (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec70#sec73)

CULTURAL ASPECTS OF EMOTIONS AND MOODS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec70#sec74)

EMOTIONS AND MOODS AS AFFECTIVE EVENTS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec70#sec75)

Although emotions and moods are in�luenced by different events and situations, each of us may display some relatively predictable tendencies.10 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04- note10) Some people seem almost always positive and upbeat about things. For these optimists (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo282) we might say the glass is nearly always half full. Others, by contrast, seem to be often negative or downbeat. They tend to be pessimists viewing the glass as half empty. Such tendencies toward optimism and pessimism in�luence the individual’s behavior. They can also in�luence the people with whom he or she interacts.

Emotion and Mood Contagion Researchers are increasingly interested in emotion and mood contagion (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo104) —the spillover effects of one’s emotions and mood onto others.11 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04-note11) You might think this as a bit like catching a cold from someone. Such contagion can have up and down effects on the emotions and moods of co-workers and teammates as well as family and friends.

Emotion and mood contagion is the spillover of one’s emotions and mood onto others.

Daniel Goleman and his colleagues studying emotional intelligence believe leaders should manage emotion and mood contagion with care. “Moods that start at the top tend to move the fastest,” they say, “because everyone watches the boss.”12 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04-note12) When mood contagion is positive, followers report being more attracted to their leaders and rate the leaders more highly.13 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04-note13) In teams, one study found, team members shared good and bad moods within two hours of being together. Interestingly, the contagion of bad moods traveled person to person in teams faster than good moods did.14 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04-note14)

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 147/501

OB IN POPULAR CULTURE

Moods and Crash

None of us is immune to feelings and the in�luence they have on our lives, and it doesn’t matter whether we are at work, at home, or at play. We are generally expected to be in charge of our feelings, particularly when we interact with others. This requires a good deal of self-control, and that can be dif�icult when moods take over our feelings. Moods are positive or negative states that persist, perhaps for quite a long time.

In the �ilm Crash, Jean Cabot (Sandra Bullock) is talking on the telephone with her best friend, Carol. When she begins to complain about her housekeeper, Carol’s response is skeptical and a bit critical. Jean starts to justify her reaction but then admits she is angry at practically everyone with whom she interacts. Her �inal admission is quite telling—Jean informs Carol that she wakes up angry every day. When Carol ends the conversation prematurely, Jean loses focus and ends up falling down the stairs in her home.

Bull’s Eye Entertainment/Lions GateFilms//Photofest

This scene from the movie illustrates how moods can be all consuming—affecting not only our outlook but also our relationships and even behaviors. When emotions and moods get the best of us, we may say or do things that are not in our best interests and that we may regret later. Emotional intelligence involves understanding moods, recognizing how they affect behavior, and learning to control emotions.

Get to Know Yourself Better Take Assessment 3, The Turbulence Tolerance Test, in the OB Skills Workbook. Remember to respond as if you were the manager. What is your tolerance level for turbulence? What role might moods and emotions play in how you react to these and other situations? How can better self- awareness and emotional intelligence help you prepare to handle such things more effectively?

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 148/501

Emotional Labor The concept of emotional labor (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo110) relates to the need to show certain emotions in order to perform a job well.15 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04-note15) Good examples come from service settings such as airline check-in personnel or �light attendants. Persons in such jobs are supposed to appear approachable, receptive, and friendly while taking care of the things you require as a customer. Some airlines, such as Southwest, go even further in asking service employees to be “funny” and “caring” and “cheerful” while doing their jobs.

Emotional labor is a situation in which a person displays organizationally desired emotions in a job.

Emotional labor isn’t always easy; it can be hard to be consistently “on” in displaying the desired emotions in one’s work. If you’re having a bad mood day or have just experienced an emotional run-in with a neighbor, for example, being “happy” and “helpful” with a demanding customer might seem a little much to ask. Such situations can cause emotional dissonance (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo108) in which the emotions we actually feel are inconsistent with the emotions we try to project.16 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04-note16) That is, we are expected to act with one emotion while we actually feel quite another.

Emotional dissonance is inconsistency between emotions we feel and those we try to project.

It often requires a lot of self-regulation to display organizationally desired emotions in one’s job. Imagine, for example, how often service workers struggling with personal emotions and moods experience dissonance when having to act positive toward customers.17 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04-note17) Deep acting occurs when someone tries to modify his or her feelings to better �it the situation—such as putting yourself in the position of the air travelers whose luggage went missing and feeling the same sense of loss. Surface acting occurs when someone hides true feelings while displaying very different ones—such as smiling at a customer even though the words they used to express a complaint just offended you.

Emotional Empathy It was noted previously that empathy is an important component of emotional intelligence. Although empathy itself can be thought of as a generalized sensitivity to other persons and their states of mind, it can be further considered at both the cognitive and emotional levels.18 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04-note18) Daniel Goleman differentiates between cognitive empathy—an ability to know how others are viewing things—and emotional empathy—an ability to feel what the other person is experiencing in a particular situation.19 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04-note19)

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 149/501

Cognitive empathy is the ability to know how others are viewing things.

Emotional empathy is the ability to feel what the other person is experiencing in a particular situation.

Emotional empathy is considered important in how relationships play out, be they relationships between spouses and family members, friends, or co-workers. Simply the perception that a partner is putting forth the effort to seek emotional empathy has been linked to relationship satisfaction among spouses.20 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04-note20) In the work context, emotional empathy and management affect trust and collaboration in interpersonal relationships.21 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04-note21) And when it comes to the distribution of empathic emotional skills, Goleman cites research showing that women score better than men.22 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04-note22)

Cultural Aspects of Emotions and Moods Issues of emotional intelligence, emotion and mood contagion, and emotional labor can be complicated in cross-cultural situations. General interpretations of emotions and moods appear similar across cultures, with the major emotions of happiness, joy, and love all valued positively.23 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04-note23) However, the frequency and intensity of emotions are known to vary somewhat. In China, for example, research suggests that people report fewer positive and negative emotions as well as less intense emotions than in other cultures.24 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04-note24) Norms for emotional expression also vary across cultures. In collectivist cultures that emphasize group relationships such as Japan, individual emotional displays are less likely to occur and less likely to be accepted than in individualistic cultures.25 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04-note25)

Informal cultural standards called display rules (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo88) govern the degree to which it is appropriate to show emotions. The display rules of British culture, for example, tend to encourage downplaying emotions. Those of Mexican culture tend to allow emotions to be more publicly demonstrative. Overall, the lesson is that the way emotions are displayed in one culture may not be the same in another culture. When Walmart �irst went to Germany, its executives found that an emphasis on friendliness embedded in its U.S. roots didn’t work as well in the local culture. The more serious German shoppers did not respond well to Walmart’s friendly greeters and helpful personnel.26 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04-note26)

Display rules govern the degree to which it is appropriate to display emotions.

Believe It or Not, Video Games May Be Good for Our Brains

Believe it or not, researchers are starting to talk about gaming being good for our brains. Consider these data. Starcraft players show faster thought and movements; players of action video games were 25

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 150/501

percent faster than nonplayers in decision making; game players can track six things at once, and non- players track four; surgeons who play games at least three hours a week make fewer surgical errors. Of course there’s a lot of downside risk, too. Players of violent video games seem to have more aggressive thoughts and are less caring toward others. Perhaps your gaming, well considered, can be a decision- making asset—boosting creativity and multitasking skills.

Jerzyworks/Master�ile

Emotions and Moods as Affective Events The affective events theory (AET) shown in Figure 4.3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec70#r�ig4-3) is one way of summarizing how emotions and moods end up in�luencing human behavior in organizations.27 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04-note27) The basic notion of the theory is that day-to-day events involving other people and situations end up having an impact on our emotions and moods. They, in turn, in�luence our job performance and satisfaction.

The left-hand side of the �igure shows how the work environment—including the job and its emotional labor requirements, daily work events, everyday hassles and uplifts—elicit positive and negative emotional reactions. These reactions affect one’s job satisfaction and performance.28 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04-note28) Notice that personal predispositions in the form of personality and moods also affect the connection between work events and emotional reactions. Someone’s mood at the time can exaggerate the emotions experienced as a result of an event. If you have just been criticized by your boss, for example, you are likely to feel worse than you would otherwise when a colleague makes a joke about the length of your coffee breaks.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 151/501

FIGURE 4.3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec70#�ig4-3) Figurative summary of affective events theory.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 152/501

4.3 How Attitudes In�luence Behavior LEARNING ROADMAP

WHAT IS AN ATTITUDE? (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec76#sec77)

COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDES (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec76#sec78)

ATTITUDES AND COGNITIVE CONSISTENCY (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec76#sec79)

ATTITUDES AND THE WORKPLACE (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec76#sec80)

At one time Challis M. Lowe was one of only two African-American women among the �ive highest-paid executives in U.S. companies.29 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04-note29) Her 25- year career included several changes of employers and lots of stressors—working-mother guilt, a failed marriage, gender bias on the job, and an MBA degree earned part time. Looking back she said: “I’ve never let being scared stop me from doing something. Just because you haven’t done it before doesn’t mean you shouldn’t try.” That, simply put, is what we would call a “can-do” attitude.

What Is an Attitude? An attitude (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo15) is a predisposition to respond in a positive or negative way to someone or something in one’s environment. When you say, for example, that you “like” or “dislike” someone or something, you are expressing an attitude. It’s important to remember that an attitude, like a value, is a hypothetical construct; one never sees, touches, or actually isolates an attitude. Rather, attitudes are inferred from the things people say or through their behavior.

An attitude is a predisposition to respond positively or negatively to someone or something.

Attitudes are in�luenced by values and are acquired from the same sources—friends, teachers, parents, role models, and culture. Attitudes, however, focus on speci�ic people or objects. The notion that shareholders should have a voice in setting CEO pay is a value. Your positive or negative feeling about a speci�ic company due to the presence or absence of shareholder inputs on CEO pay is an attitude.

Components of Attitudes The three components of an attitude are shown in Figure 4.4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec76#r�ig4-4) : cognitive, affective, and behavioral.30 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04-note30) The cognitive component of an attitude re�lects underlying beliefs, opinions, knowledge, or information a person possesses. It represents a person’s ideas about someone or something and the conclusions drawn about them. The

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 153/501

statement “My job lacks responsibility” is a belief as shown in the �igure. The statement “and this is important to me” re�lects an underlying value. Together they comprise the cognitive component of an attitude toward one’s work or workplace.

FIGURE 4.4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec76#�ig4-4) A work-related example of the three components of attitudes.

The affective component of an attitude is a speci�ic feeling regarding the personal impact of the antecedent conditions evidenced in the cognitive component. In essence this becomes the actual attitude, such as the feeling “I don’t like my job.” Notice that the affect in this statement displays a negative attitude; “I don’t like my job” is a very different condition than “I do like my job.”

The behavioral component is an intention to behave in a certain way based on the affect in one’s attitude. It is a predisposition to act, but may or may not be implemented. The example in the �igure shows behavioral intent expressed as “I’m going to quit my job.” Yet even with such intent, it remains to be seen whether or not the person really quits.

As just pointed out, the link between attitudes and behavior is tentative. An attitude expresses an intended behavior that may or may not be carried out. In general, the more speci�ic attitudes are, the stronger the relationship with eventual behavior. A person who feels “I don’t like my job” may be less likely to actually quit than someone who feels “I can’t stand another day with Alex harassing me at work.” For an attitude to actually in�luence behavior, it’s also necessary to have the opportunity or freedom to behave in the intended way. There are lots of people who stick with their jobs while still holding negative job attitudes, perhaps you know some. The fact is they may not have any other choice.31 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04-note31)

Attitudes and Cognitive Consistency Social psychologist Leon Festinger used the term cognitive dissonance (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo40) to describe a state of inconsistency between an individual’s attitudes and/or between attitudes and behavior.32 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04-note32) This is an important issue. Perhaps you have the attitude that recycling is good for the economy. You also realize you aren’t always recycling everything you can. Festinger points out that such cognitive inconsistency between attitude and behavior is uncomfortable. We tend to deal with the discomfort by trying to do things to reduce or eliminate the

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 154/501

dissonance: (1) changing the underlying attitude, (2) changing future behavior, or (3) developing new ways of explaining or rationalizing the inconsistency.

Cognitive dissonance is experienced inconsistency between one’s attitudes and/or between attitudes and behavior.

The way we respond to cognitive dissonance is in�luenced by the degree of control we seem to have over the situation and the rewards involved. In the case of recycling dissonance, for example, the lack of convenient recycling containers would make rationalizing easier and changing the positive attitude less likely. A reaf�irmation of intention to recycle in the future might also reduce the dissonance.

Attitudes and the Workplace Even though attitudes do not always predict behavior, the link between attitudes and potential or intended behavior is an important workplace issue. Think about your daily experiences or conversations with other people about their work. It isn’t uncommon to hear concerns expressed about a co-worker’s “bad attitude” or another’s “good attitude.” Such feelings get re�lected in things like job satisfaction, job involvement, organizational commitment, organizational identi�ication, and employee engagement.

Job Satisfaction You often hear the term morale used to describe how people feel about their jobs and employers. It relates to the more speci�ic notion of job satisfaction, an attitude re�lecting a person’s positive and negative feelings toward a job, co-workers, and the work environment. Indeed, you should remember that helping others realize job satisfaction is considered one hallmark of effective team leaders and managers—those who create work environments in which people achieve high performance and experience high job satisfaction.

Job satisfaction is the degree to which an individual feels positive or negative about a job.

WORTH CONSIDERING ...OR BEST AVOIDED?

Got a Yoga Mat? Meditation Can Be Good for You and Your Job

Gone are the days when the only investment employers make in training is on “hard skills.” It’s a whole new world out there. Take a peek at the new normal at global giant General Mills.

4 pm—large room on premises—50 or more smiling faces topping off loose �itting clothes – lots of meditation cushions. Tibetan prayer bells are rung three times and the session leader says to everyone: “Take a posture that for you in this moment embodies dignity and strength. Allow the body to rest, to step out of busyness, bringing attention to the sensation of each breath.” A collective sigh rises from the room and stress moves out as mindfulness settles in.

This is a glimpse into General Mills’s Mindful Leadership Program, one supported by senior management to the point where meditation and yoga are becoming part of the corporate culture. And the evaluations

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 155/501

back up the investment: over 80 percent of participants say it helps them be productive, improves their decision making, and makes them better listeners.

General Mills isn’t alone in turning toward meditation and yoga as pathways to stress release and work engagement. Google, Aetna, and Target are among those committing to similar approaches. William George, former CEO of Medtronic, has written an article in the Harvard Business Review extolling the virtues of meditation. He claims that in his busy life meditation helps keep him focused and “if you’re fully present on the job, you will be more effective as a leader, you will make better decisions, and you will work better with other people.”

Hero Images/Corbis

Do the Analysis

Is corporate attention to meditation and yoga just a passing fad? Is General Mills onto something that other employers, large and small alike, should be copying? Or is this just a luxury item that few employers can afford and few employees really want to bother with? Just how far should organizations go in trying to encourage people to join in these types of activities?

Job Involvement In addition to job satisfaction, OB scholars and researchers are interested in job involvement (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo215) . This is the extent to which an individual feels dedicated to a job. Someone with high job involvement psychologically identi�ies with her or his job and, for example, shows willingness to work beyond expectations to complete a special project. A high level of job involvement is generally linked with lower tendencies to withdraw from work, either physically by quitting or psychologically by reducing one’s work efforts.

Job involvement is the extent to which an individual is dedicated to a job.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 156/501

Organizational Commitment and Organizational Identi�ication Another work attitude is organizational commitment (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo290) , or the degree of loyalty an individual feels toward the organization. Individuals with a high organizational commitment want to maintain their membership in the organization. Just as persons with a high sense of job involvement, their inclination is to stay and contribute rather than withdraw either physically or psychologically.

Organizational commitment is the sense of loyalty an individual has to the organization.

Two types of organizational commitment are often discussed. Rational commitment re�lects feelings that the job serves one’s �inancial, and career development, interests—in other words, “I am committed because I need what the organization offers in return for my labor.” Emotional commitment re�lects feelings that what one does is important, valuable, and of real bene�it to others—in other words, “I am committed because of the self-satisfaction I experience from my membership in the organization.” Research shows that strong emotional commitments to the organization are more powerful than rational commitments in positively in�luencing performance.33 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04-note33)

The concept of emotional commitment is linked in OB research to something called organizational identi�ication, or OID. It is the extent to which one feels personally identi�ied with one’s membership organization to the point that it becomes part of the self-concept. This notion derives from social identity theory and the premise that the memberships individuals maintain contribute to their feelings of self- esteem.34 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04-note34)

Organizational identi�ication is the extent to which a person identi�ies with his or her membership organization.

When organizational identi�ication is positive for one’s esteem, the expectation is that the individual will strive to be a good team player, a responsible organizational citizen, and generally a positive work contributor and performer.35 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04-note35) It’s also recognized that positive identi�ication can work to the negative if it causes someone to commit unethical acts perceived as necessary to maintain organizational membership.36 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04-note36) But, organizational identi�ication can be negative as well as positive. Think of a person saying “I belong to this organization, and I don’t feel good about myself because of it.” In such cases individuals may struggle to psychologically balance their self- concept with the reality of the organizational membership.37 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04-note37)

Employee Engagement A survey of 55,000 American workers by the Gallup, Inc., suggests that pro�its for employers rise when workers’ attitudes re�lect high levels of job involvement, organizational commitment, and organizational identi�ication. This combination creates a high sense of employee engagement (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo112) —de�ined by Gallup as feeling “a profound connection” with the organization and “a passion” for one’s job.38 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04-note38) Scholar Jeffrey Pfeffer describes it as a

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 157/501

“conceptual cousin” of job satisfaction.39 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04- note39)

Employee engagement is a strong sense of connection with the organization and passion for one’s job.

A highly engaged individual tends to have an enthusiastic attitude toward work as well as being willing to help others, to always try to do something extra to improve performance, and to speak positively about the organization. Individuals with high employee engagement also report more positive moods and better handling of workplace stress.40 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04-note40) The drivers of high engagement in the Gallup research held the beliefs that one has the opportunity to do one’s best every day, one’s opinions count, fellow workers are committed to quality, and a direct connection exists between one’s work and the organization’s mission.41 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04-note41)

When Students Share Assignments, Is It Collaborating . . . Or Cheating?

When a Harvard professor �inished reading take-home �inal examinations from more than a hundred students in a government class, the conclusion was that too many answers said close to the same things. When the faculty member reported the incident to the university administration, Harvard had a “cheating” scandal on its hands. Or did it? From the perspective of some students, “collaborating” is a better choice of words. That’s the view of a generation that grew up using the Internet and all sorts of collaborative media, and for whom online courses or class activities are a way of life. So, whose perspective is correct? Are the professors out of date? Do test-taking rules need better clari�ication? Are students taking advantage of new situations and technologies?

© Lighthaunter.iStockphoto

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 158/501

Given all this, do you have a sense of how engaged most people are in their work? The fact is that recent Gallup research shows that 52 percent of American workers are “not engaged”—think “mentally checked out”—and another 18 percent are “actively disengaged”—think “undermining and disrupting.” Even though high employee engagement is good for organizations and probably for the individual, only about 30 percent of American workers on the average report experiencing it.42 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04-note42)

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 159/501

4.4 Job Satisfaction Trends and Issues LEARNING ROADMAP

COMPONENTS OF JOB SATISFACTION (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec81#sec82)

JOB SATISFACTION TRENDS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec81#sec83)

HOW JOB SATISFACTION INFLUENCES WORK BEHAVIOR (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec81#sec84)

LINKING JOB SATISFACTION AND JOB PERFORMANCE (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec81#sec85)

There is no doubt that job satisfaction—a person’s feelings toward his or her job or job setting at a particular point in time—is one of the most talked about of all job attitudes.43 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04-note43) And when it comes to job satisfaction, several good questions can be asked. What are the major components of job satisfaction? What are the main job satisfaction �indings and trends? What is the relationship between job satisfaction and job performance?

Components of Job Satisfaction It is possible to infer the job satisfaction of others by careful observation and interpretation of what they say and do while going about their jobs. Interviews and questionnaires can also be used to more formally assess levels of job satisfaction on a team or in an organization.44 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04-note44) Two of the more popular job satisfaction questionnaires used over the years are the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) and the Job Descriptive Index (JDI).45 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04-note45) The MSQ measures satisfaction with working conditions, chances for advancement, freedom to use one’s own judgment, praise for doing a good job, and feelings of accomplishment, among others. The JDI measures these �ive job satisfaction facets:

Common facets of job satisfaction

The work itself—responsibility, interest, and growth

Quality of supervision—technical help and social support

Relationships with co-workers—social harmony and respect

Promotion opportunities—chances for further advancement

Pay—adequacy of pay and perceived equity vis-á-vis others

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 160/501

Job Satisfaction Trends If you watch or read the news, you’ll regularly �ind reports on the job satisfaction of workers. You’ll also �ind lots of job satisfaction studies in the academic literature. The results don’t always agree, but they usually fall within a common range. Until recently, we generally concluded that the majority of U.S. workers are at least somewhat satis�ied with their jobs. Now, the trend has turned down.46 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04-note46)

Surveys conducted by The Conference Board showed in 1987 that about 61 percent of American workers said they were satis�ied; in 2009 only 45 percent were reporting job satisfaction.47 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04-note47) The report states, “Fewer Americans are satis�ied with all aspects of employment, and no age or income group is immune. In fact, the youngest cohort of employees (those currently under age 25) expresses the highest level of dissatisfaction ever recorded by the survey for that age group.” In terms of other patterns, just 51 percent of workers surveyed in 2009 said their jobs were interesting versus 70 percent in 1987. And, only 51 percent said they were satis�ied with their bosses versus 60 percent in 1987.

A global survey in 2011 by Accenture contacted 3,400 professionals from 29 countries around the world.48 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04-note48) Results showed less than one- half were satis�ied with their jobs, and that the percentage of job satisfaction was about equal between women (43 percent) and men (42 percent). But about three-quarters of the respondents said they had no plans to leave their current jobs. These data prompt an important question: What are the implications for both employees and employers when people stick with jobs that give them little satisfaction?

FINDING THE LEADER IN YOU Don Thompson Lets Emotions and Listening Take the Lead

The open �loor plan at McDonald’s world headquarters in Oak Brook, Illinois, �its nicely with CEO Don Thompson’s management style and personality. His former mentor Raymond Mines says, “He has the ability to listen, blend in, analyze and communicate. People feel at ease with him. A lot of corporate executives have little time for those below them. Don makes everyone a part of the process.”

When Thompson was previously appointed president and chief operating of�icer, his boss, McDonald’s vice chairman and chief executive of�icer, Jim Skinner said, “Don has done an outstanding job leading our U.S. business, and I am con�ident he will bring the same energy and innovative thinking to his new global role.”

Although these rosy accolades are well deserved, there was a time when Thompson had to make a bold choice in his career. After grand success when �irst joining McDonald’s, he ran into a period of routine accomplishment. He was getting stuck and thought it might be time to change employers. However, the �irm’s diversity of�icer recommended he speak with Raymond Mines, at the time the �irm’s highest-ranking African-American executive. When Thompson con�ided that he “wanted to have an impact on decisions,” Mines told him to move out of engineering and into the operations side of the business.

Thompson listened to the advice and moved into unfamiliar territory. It got him the attention he needed to advance to ever-higher responsibilities that spanned restaurant operations, franchisee relations, and global strategic management.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 161/501

Yves Logghe/AP

Thompson now says, “I want to make sure others achieve their goals, just as I have.”

What’s the Lesson Here?

How attuned are you to your own emotions and to those of others? What do you do when you feel frustrated? Do you ignore it, or do you try to address it by seeking out the advice of others? Are you willing to help others by sharing your own learning with them?

Both men and women in the Accenture survey generally agreed on the least satisfying things about their jobs: being underpaid, lacking career advancement opportunities, and feeling trapped in their jobs. Gender differences were also evident. Women are less likely than men to ask for pay raises (44 percent vs. 48 percent) and for promotions (28 percent vs. 39 percent). Women are more likely to believe their careers are not fast tracked (63 percent vs. 55 percent) and more likely to report that getting ahead in careers is due to hard work and long hours (68 percent vs. 55 percent). In respect to generational differences, Gen Y workers ranked pay higher as a source of motivation (73 percent) than either Gen Xers (67 percent) or Baby Boomers (58 percent).

How Job Satisfaction In�luences Work Behavior Would you agree that people deserve to have satisfying work experiences? You probably do. But, is job satisfaction important in other than a “feel good” sense? How does it impact work behaviors and job performance? In commenting on the Conference Board data just summarized, for example, Lynn Franco, the director of the organization’s Consumer Research Center, said, “The downward trend in job satisfaction could spell trouble for the engagement of U.S. employees and ultimately employee productivity.”49 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04-note49)

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 162/501

Physical Withdrawal There is a strong relationship between job satisfaction and physical withdrawal behaviors of absenteeism and turnover. Workers who are more satis�ied with their jobs are absent less often than those who are dissatis�ied. Satis�ied workers are also more likely to remain with their present employers, and dissatis�ied workers are more likely to quit or at least be on the lookout for other jobs.50 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04-note50) Withdrawal through absenteeism and turnover can be very costly in terms of lost experience and the expenses for recruiting and training of replacements.51 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04-note51)

A survey by Salary.com (http://www.Salary.com) showed that employers tend not only to overestimate the job satisfaction of their employees; they also underestimate the amount of job seeking they are doing.52 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04-note52) Whereas employers estimated that 37 percent of employees were on the lookout for new jobs, 65 percent of the employees said they were job seeking by networking, Web sur�ing, posting résumés, or checking new job possibilities. Millennials in their twenties and early thirties were most likely to engage in these “just-in-case” job searches. The report concluded that “most employers have not placed enough emphasis on important retention strategies.”

Psychological Withdrawal There is also a relationship between job satisfaction and psychological withdrawal behaviors. Think of the employee engagement concept introduced previously and discussed in the positive sense. Now we are talking about work disengagement as the negative side of things. It shows up in such forms as daydreaming, cyber-loa�ing via Internet sur�ing or personal electronic communications, excessive socializing, and even just giving the appearance of being busy when one is not. These disengagement behaviors are something that Gallup researchers say as many as 71 percent of workers report feeling at times.53 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04-note53)

Organizational Citizenship Job satisfaction is also linked with organizational citizenship behaviors (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo288) .54 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04-note54) These are discretionary behaviors, sometimes called OCBs, that represent a willingness to “go beyond the call of duty” or “go the extra mile” in one’s work.55 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04-note55) A person who is a good organizational citizen does extra things that help others—interpersonal OCBs—or advance the performance of the organization as a whole—organizational OCBs.56 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04-note56) You might observe interpersonal OCBs in a service worker who is extraordinarily courteous while taking care of an upset customer, or a team member who takes on extra tasks when a co-worker is ill or absent. Examples of organizational OCBs are co-workers who are always willing volunteers for special committee or task force assignments, and those whose voices are always positive when commenting publicly on their employer.

Organizational citizenship behaviors are the extras people do to go the extra mile in their work.

BRINGING OB TO LIFE

“Just one habitually offensive employee critically positioned in your organizations can cost you dearly in lost employees, lost customers, and lost productivity.”

Paying a High Price for Incivility at Work

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 163/501

There’s more downside to incivility at work than hurt feelings and bad relationships. When rudeness rules behavior, look for losses in the bottom line. The costs of incivility are the subject of research by Harvard scholars Christine Porath and Christine Pearson. They admit that most managers say they are against incivility and try to stop it whenever they can. It’s also the case that managers don’t have a good handle on the real costs incurred when employees are rude and disrespectful toward one another.

When the researchers asked 800 workers from different industries about how they responded to incivility at work, results showed:

48 percent decreased work effort

47 percent cut back time spent at work

80 percent lost work time due to worry

63 percent performed less well

78 percent were less committed to the organization

25 percent took frustration out on customers

There are lots of things managers, leaders, and employers can do to improve workplace civility—from modeling positive behaviors to teaching about civility to penalizing unacceptable behavior. An example is found at Cisco Systems. It has a global workforce civility program designed to decrease incivility and make civility part of the culture. The program was started after a study by the company concluded that incivility behaviors were costing the �irm some $12 million a year.

© Ariel Skelley/Corbis

Porath and Pearson conclude their article with this warning: “Just one habitually offensive employee critically positioned in your organizations can cost you dearly in lost employees, lost customers, and lost

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 164/501

productivity.” How about it? Is incivility taking a toll on the teams and organizations in your life? Is improved civility a hidden pathway to higher performance?

Counterproductive Behavior The �lip side of organizational citizenship shows up as counterproductive work behaviors (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo69) .57 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04-note57) Often associated with a lack of job satisfaction, they purposely disrupt relationships, processes, satisfaction and/or performance in the workplace.58 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04-note58) Counterproductive workplace behaviors cover a wide range of behaviors from work avoidance, to physical and verbal aggression, to bad-mouthing, to outright work sabotage and even theft. Workplace bullying is a special type of counterproductive behavior that manifests itself as one person acting in an abusive, demeaning, intimidating, and/or violent manner toward another on a continuing basis. It is continuing occurrence rather than one-off or occasional behavior that differentiates “bullying” from essentially “bad” behavior. Although bullying has roots in the personality of the perpetrator and power differentials between perpetrator and victim, it can also re�lect the bully’s personal lack of satisfaction with work.59 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04-note59)

Counterproductive work behaviors intentionally disrupt relationships or performance at work.

Workplace bullying is one person acting in an abusive, demeaning, intimidating, and/or violent manner toward another on a continuing basis.

Work-Home Spillover OB scholars are very aware that what happens to us at home can affect our attitudes and behaviors at work. They also recognize that job satisfaction can spill over to in�luence at-home affect, basically how we feel at home as represented by emotions and moods. Research �inds that people with higher daily job satisfaction show more positive affect after work.60 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04-note60) In a study that measured spouse or signi�icant-other evaluations, more positive at-home affect scores were reported on days when workers experienced higher job satisfaction.61 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04-note61) This issue of the job satisfaction and at-home affect link is proving especially signi�icant as workers in today’s high-tech and always-connected world struggle with work–life balance.

At-home affect is how we feel at home as re�lected by our emotions and moods.

Spotting Counterproductive or Deviant Workplace Behaviors

Whereas organizational citizenship behaviors help make the organization a better and more pleasant place, counterproductive or deviant behaviors do just the opposite. To varying degrees of severity, they harm the work, the people, and the organizational culture. Here are some things to look for:

Personal aggression—sexual harassment, verbal abuse, physical abuse, intimidation, humiliation

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 165/501

Production deviance—wasting resources, avoiding work, disrupting work �low, making deliberate work errors

Political deviance—spreading harmful rumors, gossiping, using bad language, lacking civility in relationships

Property deviance—destroying or sabotaging facilities and equipment, stealing money and other resources

Linking Job Satisfaction and Job Performance We might say that people make two key decisions about their employment and organizational memberships—the decision to belong and the decision to perform. But, we also know that not everyone who belongs to an organization—whether it’s a classroom or workplace or sports team or voluntary group—performs up to expectations. So, just how does the relationship between job satisfaction and performance enter into this puzzle?62 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04-note62)

Three different positions have been advanced about causality in the satisfaction–performance relationship. The �irst is that job satisfaction causes performance; in other words, a happy worker is a productive worker. The second is that performance causes job satisfaction. The third is that job satisfaction and performance in�luence one another, and they are mutually affected by other factors such as the availability of rewards. Perhaps you can make a case for one or more of these positions based on your work experiences.

Satisfaction Causes Performance If job satisfaction causes high levels of performance, the message is clear. To increase someone’s work performance, make them happy. But, research hasn’t found a simple and direct link between individual job satisfaction at one point in time and later work performance. A sign once posted in a tavern near one of Ford’s Michigan plants helps tell the story: “I spend 40 hours a week here. Am I supposed to work, too?” Even though some evidence exists for the satisfaction-causes- performance relationship among professional or higher-level employees, the best conclusion is that job satisfaction alone is not a consistent predictor of individual work performance.

Performance Causes Satisfaction If high levels of performance cause job satisfaction, the message is quite different. Instead of focusing on job satisfaction as the precursor to performance, try to create high performance as a pathway to job satisfaction. It generally makes sense that people should feel good about their jobs when they perform well. And, research does �ind a link between individual performance measured at one time and later job satisfaction. Figure 4.5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec81#r�ig4-5) shows this relationship using a model from the work of Edward E. Lawler and Lyman Porter. It suggests that performance leads to rewards that, in turn, lead to satisfaction.63 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04- note63)

Research Insight

Job Satisfaction Spillover Has Impact on Family Lives

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 166/501

The spillover of job satisfaction onto workers’ family lives is the subject of a study published in the Academy of Management Journal by Remus Ilies, Kelly Schwind Wilson, and David T. Wagner. Noting that communication technologies and �lexibility in work schedules have narrowed the gap between work and home, the researchers asked this question: How does daily job satisfaction spill over to affect a person’s feelings and attitudes in the family role?

The research was conducted by survey and telephone interviews with 101 university employees and their spouses or signi�icant others over a 2-week period. High work–family role integration was de�ined as making “little distinction between their work and family roles,” and low work–family role integration meant that work and family were quite segmented from one another. A key hypothesis in the research was that job satisfaction spillover from work to home on any given day would be greater for the high work– family role integration employees.

Results showed that workers displayed higher positive affect at home on days when they also reported higher job satisfaction. As shown in the �igure, the expected moderating effect of work–family integration also held. Workers with high work–family role integration showed a stronger relationship between daily job satisfaction and positive affect at home versus those with low work–family role integration. In fact, among workers with low work–family integration, those who tended to segment work and family roles, positive home affect actually declined as job satisfaction increased.

Do the Research How can the �indings for the low work–family integration group be explained? What research questions does this study raise in your mind that might become the topics for further study in this area? Would you hypothesize that the job satisfaction–home spillover effects would vary by type of occupation, age of worker, family responsibilities such as number of at-home children, or other factors? Could you suggest a study that might empirically investigate these possibilities?

Source: Remus Ilies, Kelly Schwind Wilson, and David T. Wagner, “The Spillover of Daily Job Satisfaction onto Employees’ Family Lives: The Facilitating Role of Work-Family Integration,” Academy of Management Journal,

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 167/501

Vol. 52, No. 1 (2009), pp. 87–102.

Rewards are intervening variables in the Porter-Lawler model. When valued by the recipient, they link performance with later satisfaction. The model also includes perceived equity of rewards as a moderator variable. This indicates that performance leads to satisfaction only if rewards are perceived as fair and equitable. Although this model is insightful, we also know from experience that some people may perform well but still not like the jobs that they have to do.

Rewards Cause Both Satisfaction and Performance The third alternative in the job satisfaction– performance discussion suggests that the right rewards allocated in the right ways will positively in�luence both performance and satisfaction. A key issue here is performance contingency in the allocation of rewards. This means that the size of the reward varies in proportion to the level of performance.

FIGURE 4.5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec81#�ig4-5) Simpli�ied Porter-Lawler model of the performance → satisfaction relationship.

Research generally �inds that rewards in general in�luence satisfaction, while performance-contingent rewards in�luence performance.64 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04-note64) The prevailing advice is to make good use of performance contingency when giving out rewards. A high performer receiving a large reward is likely to strive for more of the same in the future. And although giving a low performer a small reward may lead to dissatisfaction at �irst, the expectation is that he or she will make efforts to improve performance in order to obtain higher rewards in the future.65 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c04-note65)

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 168/501

4 Study Guide

Key Questions and Answers What are emotions and moods?

Affect is a generic term that covers a broad range of feelings that individuals experience as emotions and moods.

Emotions are strong feelings directed at someone or something and that in�luence behavior, often with intensity and for short periods of time.

Moods are generalized positive or negative states of mind that can be persistent in�luences on one’s behavior.

Emotional intelligence is the ability to detect and manage emotional cues and information. Four emotional intelligence skills or competencies are self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, and relationship management.

How do emotions and moods in�luence behavior in organizations?

Emotional contagion involves the spillover effects onto others of one’s emotions and moods; in other words, emotions and moods can spread from person to person.

Emotional labor is a situation in which a person displays organizationally desired emotions while performing a job.

Emotional dissonance is a discrepancy between true feelings and organizationally desired emotions; it is linked with deep acting to try to modify true inner feelings and with surface acting to hide one’s true inner feelings.

Affective events theory relates characteristics of the work environment, work events, and personal predispositions to positive or negative emotional reactions and job satisfaction.

What are attitudes, and how do they in�luence behavior in organizations?

An attitude is a predisposition to respond in a certain way to people and things.

Attitudes have affective, cognitive, and behavioral components.

Although attitudes predispose individuals toward certain behaviors, they do not guarantee that such behaviors will take place.

Individuals desire consistency between their attitudes and their behaviors, and cognitive dissonance occurs when a person’s attitude and behavior are inconsistent.

Job satisfaction is an attitude toward one’s job, co-workers, and workplace.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 169/501

Job involvement is a positive attitude that shows up in the extent to which an individual is dedicated to a job.

Organizational commitment is a positive attitude that shows up in the loyalty of an individual to the organization.

What is job satisfaction, and why is it important?

Five components of job satisfaction are the work itself, quality of supervision, relationships with co-workers, promotion opportunities, and pay.

Job satisfaction in�luences physical withdrawal behaviors of absenteeism; turnover; and psychological withdrawal behaviors such as daydreaming and cyber-loa�ing.

Job satisfaction is linked with organizational citizenship behaviors that are both interpersonal —such as doing extra work for a sick teammate—and organizational—such as always speaking positively about the organization.

A lack of job satisfaction may be re�lected in counterproductive work behaviors such as purposely performing poorly, avoiding work, acting violently at work, or even engaging in workplace theft.

Three possibilities in the job satisfaction and performance relationship are that satisfaction causes performance, performance causes satisfaction, and rewards cause both performance and satisfaction.

Terms to Know Affect (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec65#key1)

At-home affect (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec81#key2)

Attitude (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec76#key3)

Cognitive dissonance (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec76#key4)

Cognitive empathy (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec70#key5)

Counterproductive work behaviors (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec81#key6)

Display rules (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec70#key7)

Emotion and mood contagion (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec70#key8)

Emotional dissonance (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec70#key9)

Emotional intelligence (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec65#key10)

Emotional empathy (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec70#key11)

Emotional labor (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec70#key12)

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 170/501

Emotions (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec65#key13)

Employee engagement (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec76#key14)

Job involvement (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec76#key15)

Job satisfaction (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec76#key16)

Moods (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec65#key17)

Organizational citizenship behaviors (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec81#key18)

Organizational commitment (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec76#key19)

Organizational identi�ication (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec76#key20)

Relationship management (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec65#key21)

Self-awareness (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec65#key22)

Self-conscious emotions (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec65#key23)

Self-management (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec65#key24)

Social awareness (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec65#key25)

Social emotions (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec65#key26)

Workplace bullying (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec81#key27)

Self-Test 4 Multiple Choice

1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c04str1) . A/an ____________ is a rather intense but short-lived feeling about a person or a situation, whereas a/an ____________ is a more generalized positive or negative state of mind.

a. (a) stressor, satis�ier

b. (b) affect, attitude

c. (c) spillover, moderator

d. (d) emotion, mood

2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c04str2) . When someone is feeling anger about something a co-worker did, she is experiencing a/an ____________, but when just having a bad day overall she is experiencing a/an ____________.

a. (a) mood, emotion

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 171/501

b. (b) emotion, mood

c. (c) affect, effect

d. (d) dissonance, consonance

3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c04str3) . Emotions and moods as personal affects are known to in�luence ____________.

a. (a) attitudes

b. (b) ability

c. (c) aptitude

d. (d) intelligence

4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c04str4) . If a person shows empathy and understanding of the emotions of others and uses this to better relate to them, she is displaying the emotional intelligence competency of ____________.

a. (a) self-awareness

b. (b) emotional contagion

c. (c) relationship management

d. (d) social awareness

5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c04str5) . The ____________ component of an attitude indicates a person’s belief about something, whereas the ____________ component indicates positive or negative feeling about it.

a. (a) cognitive, affective

b. (b) emotional, affective

c. (c) cognitive, mood

d. (d) behavioral, mood

6 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c04str6) . ____________ describes the discomfort someone feels when his or her behavior is inconsistent with an expressed attitude.

a. (a) Alienation

b. (b) Cognitive dissonance

c. (c) Job dissatisfaction

d. (d) Person–job imbalance

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 172/501

7 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c04str7) . Affective events theory shows how one’s emotional reactions to work events, environment, and personal predispositions can in�luence ____________.

a. (a) job satisfaction and performance

b. (b) emotional labor

c. (c) emotional intelligence

d. (d) emotional contagion

8 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c04str8) . The tendency of people at work to display feelings consistent with the moods of their co-workers and bosses is known as ____________.

a. (a) emotional dissonance

b. (b) emotional labor

c. (c) mood contagion

d. (d) mood stability

9 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c04str9) . When an airline �light attendant displays organizationally desired emotions when interacting with passengers, this is an example of ____________.

a. (a) emotional labor

b. (b) emotional contagion

c. (c) job commitment

d. (d) negative affect

10 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c04str10) . A person who always volunteers for extra work or helps someone else with their work is said to be high in ____________.

a. (a) emotional labor

b. (b) affect

c. (c) emotional intelligence

d. (d) organizational commitment

11 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c04str11) . The main difference between job involvement and ____________ is that the former shows a positive attitude toward the job and the latter shows a positive attitude toward the organization.

a. (a) organizational commitment

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 173/501

b. (b) employee engagement

c. (c) job satisfaction

d. (d) cognitive dissonance

12 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c04str12) . Job satisfaction is known to be a good predictor of ____________.

a. (a) deep acting

b. (b) emotional intelligence

c. (c) cognitive dissonance

d. (d) absenteeism

13 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c04str13) . The best conclusion about job satisfaction in today’s workforce is probably that ____________.

a. (a) it isn’t an important issue

b. (b) the only real concern is pay

c. (c) most people are not satis�ied with their jobs most of the time

d. (d) trends show declining job satisfaction

14 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c04str14) . Which statement about the job satisfaction–job performance relationship is most consistent with research?

a. (a) A happy worker will be productive.

b. (b) A productive worker will be happy.

c. (c) A well-rewarded productive worker will be happy.

d. (d) A poorly rewarded productive worker will be happy.

15 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c04str15) . What does “performance contingent” mean when rewards are discussed as possible in�luences on satisfaction and performance?

a. (a) Rewards are highly valued.

b. (b) Rewards are frequent.

c. (c) Rewards are in proportion to performance

d. (d) Rewards are based only on seniority.

Short Response

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 174/501

16 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c04str16) . What are the major differences between emotions and moods as personal affects?

17 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c04str17) . Describe and give examples of the three components of an attitude.

18 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c04str18) . List �ive facets of job satisfaction and brie�ly discuss their importance.

19 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c04str19) . Why is cognitive dissonance an important concept for managers to understand?

Applications Essay

20 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c04str20) . Your boss has a sign posted in her of�ice: “A satis�ied worker is a high-performing worker.” In a half-joking and half-serious way she points to it and says, “You are fresh out of college as a business and management major. Am I right or wrong?” What is your response?

Steps to Further Learning 4 Top Choices from The OB Skills Workbook

These learning activities from The OB Skills Workbook found at the back of the book are suggested for Chapter 4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/ch4#ch4) .

Case for Critical Thinking Team and Experiential Exercises

Self-Assessment Portfolio

Tough Situation at Magrec, Inc.

My Best Manager

My Best Job

My Asset Base

Graf�iti Needs Assessment

Learning Style Inventory

Student Leadership Practices Inventory

21st-Century Manager

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 175/501

5 Motivation

The Key Point

Even with great talents some people fail to achieve great things. In some cases it’s because they just aren’t willing to work hard enough to achieve high performance. When individuals underachieve, so do their organizations. An understanding of motivation theories can help turn such situations around.

What’s Inside?

Bringing OB to LIFE

HITTING THE SNOOZE BUTTON TO IMPROVE PERFORMANCE

Worth Considering . . . or Best Avoided?

HIRING HOURLY WORKERS? PAYING MORE THAN THE MINIMUM MAY BE THE BEST CHOICE

Checking Ethics in OB

INFORMATION GOLDMINE CREATES A DILEMMA

Finding the Leader in You

LORRAINE MONROE TURNS LEADERSHIP VISION INTO INSPIRATION

OB in Popular Culture

EQUITY THEORY AND ALLY BANK

Research Insight

CONSCIOUS AND SUBCONSCIOUS GOALS HAVE MOTIVATIONAL IMPACT

Chapter at a Glance

What Is Motivation?

What Can We Learn from the Needs Theories of Motivation?

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 176/501

Why Is the Equity Theory of Motivation Important?

What Are the Insights of the Expectancy Theory of Motivation?

How Does Goal Setting In�luence Motivation?

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 177/501

5.1 What Is Motivation? LEARNING ROADMAP

MOTIVATION DEFINED (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec87#sec88)

MOTIVATION THEORIES (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec87#sec89)

Motivation De�ined

Parable: Once upon a time there was a horse standing knee deep in a �ield of carrots, contentedly munching away. A farmer wanted the horse to pull a wagon to another �ield, but she couldn’t get the horse to come over to the fence and be harnessed. So, she stood by the wagon and held up a bunch of carrots for the horse to see. But, the horse continued to munch away on the carrots in the �ield.1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c05-note1)

“What,” you might be asking, “do horses and carrots have to do with human behavior in organizations?” The answer is motivation (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo261) . Think of it as the forces within the individual that account for the direction, level, and persistence of effort expended at work. Direction refers to an individual’s choice among alternative ends or goals. Level refers to the amount of effort put forth. Persistence refers to the length of time a person sticks with a path of action, even in face of dif�iculty.

Motivation refers to forces within an individual that account for the level, direction, and persistence of effort expended at work.

With our co-workers and teammates, and with those we supervise and those who supervise us, we are often like the farmer in our opening parable: We’d really like someone to do something for us or for the team or organization, and we reach for some sort of incentive to try and “motivate” them to do so. All too often these attempts aren’t any more successful than that of the farmer in the �ield.

Motivation Theories Many years of OB scholarship have created a rich foundation of research and thinking about motivation. Even as that research continues to evolve, a number of core “content” and “process” theories help us to think more rigorously and systematically about what turns people on and off in their work.2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c05-note2) Although no single theory offers an absolutely best explanation, each is valuable in its own way. By combining insights from the available theories with wisdom gained through our experiences, we have a good chance of developing personal models of motivation that work well for us in most situations.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 178/501

The content theories (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo59) of motivation focus primarily on individual needs—physiological or psychological de�iciencies that we feel a compulsion to reduce or eliminate. These theories try to explain the behaviors people display at work as a search for pathways to satisfy important needs or as reactions to blocked needs. Examples to be discussed in this chapter are Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory, Alderfer’s ERG theory, McClelland’s acquired needs theory, and Herzberg’s two-factor theory.

Content or needs theories identify different needs that may motivate individual behavior.

Something to Read—Drive: The Surprising Truth About What Motivates Us

Author Daniel Pink believes that real drive—think of it as a willingness to work hard to accomplish a goal —comes from intrinsic motivation. In his book, Drive, Pink sets out the notion that we are more motivated to do things that we enjoy than to do things merely to get extrinsic rewards. Although most of us need to work for a living, once a minimum amount of pay and job security is achieved the motivational kick comes mainly from intrinsic motivation. This “motivation from the inside” happens when we are able to do things that are meaningful to us, things we pursue because we want to and not because we’re told we have to do them. Employers can tap the potential of intrinsic motivation by giving workers discretion to make decisions about how their jobs get done and free time to pursue their own ideas on how things can be done better.

Larry Busacca/Getty Images

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 179/501

The process theories (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo342) of motivation focus on how cognitive processes—individual thoughts and decision tendencies—in�luence work behavior. The focus is on understanding how and why certain factors in�luence people’s decisions to work hard or not in certain situations. Three process theories discussed in this chapter are equity theory, expectancy theory, and goal-setting theory.

Process theories examine the thought processes that motivate individual behavior.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 180/501

5.2 Motivation and Human Needs LEARNING ROADMAP

HIERARCHY OF NEEDS THEORY (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec90#sec91)

ERG THEORY (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec90#sec92)

ACQUIRED NEEDS THEORY (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec90#sec93)

TWO FACTOR THEORY (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec90#sec94)

EMOTIONAL DRIVES OR NEEDS MODEL (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec90#sec95)

The premise of the content or needs theories is that motivation results from our attempts to satisfy important needs. They suggest that once an individual’s needs are understood, it should be possible to create situations—work, family, sport, or otherwise—that respond positively to them.

Hierarchy of Needs Theory Perhaps the most well-known of the content approaches to motivation is Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo165) . As depicted in Figure 5.1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec90#r�ig5-1) , this theory identi�ies �ive levels of individual needs. They range from self-actualization and esteem needs at the top, to social, safety, and physiological needs at the bottom.3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c05-note3) The concept of a needs “hierarchy” assumes that some needs are more important than others and must be satis�ied before the other needs can serve as motivators. For example, physiological needs must be satis�ied before safety needs are activated; safety needs must be satis�ied before social needs are activated; and so on.

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory offers a pyramid of physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization needs.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 181/501

FIGURE 5.1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec90#�ig5-1) Pathways to satisfaction of Maslow’s higher-order and lower-order needs.

Maslow’s model is easy to understand and has been quite popular for many years. However, it needs to be considered with caution. Research fails to support the existence of a precise �ive-step hierarchy of needs. If anything, the needs are more likely to operate in a �lexible rather than in a strict, step-by-step sequence. The higher-order needs (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo167) of self-actualization and esteem, for example, may grow more important than the lower-order needs (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo241) —physiological, safety, and social, as one moves to higher levels of work responsibility.4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c05-note4)

Higher-order needs in Maslow’s hierarchy are esteem and self-actualization.

Lower-order needs in Maslow’s hierarchy are physiological, safety, and social.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 182/501

Studies report that needs may vary according to a person’s career stage, the size of the organization, and even geographic location.5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c05-note5) There is also no consistent evidence that the satisfaction of a need at one level decreases its importance and increases the importance of the next-higher need.6 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c05-note6) In addition, the presumed hierarchy of needs may vary across cultures. Findings suggest, for instance, that social needs tend to take on higher importance in more collectivist societies, such as Mexico, than in individualistic ones, such as the United States.7 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c05-note7)

ERG Theory Clayton Alderfer’s ERG theory (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo119) is also based on needs, but it differs from Maslow’s theory in important ways.8 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c05-note8) To begin, the theory collapses Maslow’s �ive needs categories into three. Existence needs (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo125) are desires for physiological and material well-being. Relatedness needs (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo360) are desires for satisfying interpersonal relationships. Growth needs (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo161) are desires for continued personal growth and development. ERG theory also abandons Maslow’s strict hierarchy and contends that more than one of these needs need may be active at the same time.

Alderfer’s ERG theory identi�ies existence, relatedness, and growth needs.

Existence needs are desires for physiological and material well-being.

Relatedness needs are desires for satisfying interpersonal relationships.

Growth needs are desires for continued personal growth and development.

One of the most unique aspects of ERG theory is its allowance for frustration–regression in how needs become activated. Alderfer believes an already satis�ied lower-level need can become reactivated when a higher-level need cannot be satis�ied. When someone is continually frustrated in attempts to satisfy growth needs, for example, relatedness and existence needs can again surface as key motivators.9 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c05-note9) This frustration-regression dynamic might explain why complaints about wages, bene�its, and working conditions are often heard in many work settings. In addition to possible absolute de�iciencies in these matters, concerns for them may also get exaggerated attention due to a lack of opportunities for workers to satisfy their relatedness and growth needs.

Acquired Needs Theory In the late 1940s psychologist David I. McClelland and his co-workers began experimenting with the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) as a way of measuring human needs.10 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c05-note10) The TAT is a projective technique that

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 183/501

asks people to view pictures and write stories about what they see, and its use proved historic in motivation theory. Consider, for example, these differences when McClelland showed three executives a photograph of a man looking at family photos arranged on his work desk. One executive wrote of an engineer who was daydreaming about a family outing scheduled for the next day. Another described a designer who had picked up an idea for a new gadget from remarks made by his family. The third described an engineer who was intently working on a bridge stress problem that he seemed sure to solve because of his con�ident look.11 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c05-note11)

McClelland identi�ied themes in the TAT stories that he believed correspond to needs that are acquired over time as a result of our life experiences. Need for achievement (nAch) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo267) was evident in the executive who spoke of an engineer working on a bridge stress problem. It is the desire to do something better or more ef�iciently, to solve problems, or to master complex tasks. Need for af�iliation (nAff) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo268) is the desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm relations with others. This need may be more represented in the executives who mentioned family in regards to the TAT photos. Yet another need identi�ied in McClelland’s work is need for power (nPower) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo269) . You can think of it as the desire to control others, to in�luence their behavior, or to be responsible for others.

Need for achievement (nAch) is the desire to do better, solve problems, or master complex tasks.

Need for af�iliation (nAff) is the desire for friendly and warm relations with others.

Need for power (nPower) is the desire to control others and in�luence their behavior.

Because each of the acquired needs can be linked with a set of work preferences, McClelland encouraged managers to identify in themselves and in others the strengths of nAch, nAff, and nPower. Armed with this understanding, it is possible to create work environments that will satisfy people with different need pro�iles. Someone with a high need for achievement, for example, will prefer individual responsibilities, challenging goals, and performance feedback. Someone with a high need for af�iliation is drawn to interpersonal relationships and opportunities for communication. Someone with a high need for power seeks in�luence over others and likes attention and recognition.

BRINGING OB TO LIFE

“‘Chronic exhaustion’—meaning employees who don’t get enough rest—is estimated to cost U.S. companies $60 billion a year in lost productivity.”

Hitting the Snooze Button to Improve Performance

Not all of us can quietly close the of�ice door and take a midday power nap. Yet, facts are suggesting that napping should become an accepted norm. Perhaps it’s time for organizations to have dedicated “Quiet, I’m napping!” zones just as they have wellness and day care centers. After all, feeling sleepy at work can’t be good for business.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 184/501

Did you know that medical researchers �ind that about one-third of American workers don’t get enough sleep to perform at high levels on the job? And “chronic exhaustion”—meaning employees who don’t get enough rest—comes at high cost to not just the individual but also the organization. It is estimated to cost U.S. companies $60 billion a year in lost productivity. That’s a big number, and many employers are taking notice.

What we are talking about here are people who come to work tired and end up cranky, listless, and underperforming. They don’t intend to be that way, but lack of sleep caused by pressures of balancing work demands with complicated personal lives leaves them that way. The problem is especially common among shift workers whose work and personal schedules are out of balance.

Is it time to put the snooze button on the desk and disassociate the of�ice nap from perceived loa�ing? If we made the quick nap acceptable in the organizational culture, everyone might gain. That’s part of the message in a book, Sleep for Success, by Psychologist James Maas. He writes, “If we treated machinery like we treat the human body, there would be breakdowns all the time.”

Photo-Dave/iStockphoto

Organizational behavior researchers are always interested in studying things like motivation, effort, ability, and performance. It may be time for them to put “well rested” on their lists of research variables.

Since these three needs are acquired, McClelland also believed it may be possible to teach people to develop need pro�iles required for success in various types of jobs. His research indicated, for example, that a moderate-to-high need for power that is stronger than a need for af�iliation is linked with success as a senior executive. The high nPower creates the willingness to exercise in�luence and control over others; the lower nAff allows the executive to make dif�icult decisions without undue worry over being disliked.12 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c05-note12)

Two-Factor Theory

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 185/501

As scholarship on work motivation continued to develop, Frederick Herzberg took yet another approach that proved insightful to some and controversial to many. He began by asking workers to report the times they felt exceptionally good about their jobs and the times they felt exceptionally bad about them.13 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c05-note13) Results showed that people talked about very different things when they reported feeling good or bad about their jobs. Herzberg explained these results using what he called the two-factor theory (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo461) , also known as the motivator– hygiene theory. This theory identi�ies motivator factors as primary causes of job satisfaction and hygiene factors as primary causes of job dissatisfaction.

Herzberg’s two-factor theory identi�ies job context as the source of job dissatisfaction and job content as the source of job satisfaction.

FIGURE 5.2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec90#�ig5-2) Sources of dissatisfaction and satisfaction in Herzberg’s two-factor theory.

Hygiene factors (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo173) , shown to the left in Figure 5.2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec90#r�ig5-2) , are sources of job dissatisfaction, and they are found in the job context or work setting. They relate more to the setting in which people work than to the nature of the work itself. The two-factor theory suggests that job dissatisfaction occurs when hygiene is poor. It also suggests that improving the hygiene factors will not increase job satisfaction; it will only decrease job dissatisfaction. Among the hygiene factors, perhaps the most surprising is salary. Herzberg found that paying a low base salary or wage makes people dissatis�ied, but paying more does not necessarily satisfy or motivate them.

Hygiene factors in the job context are sources of job dissatisfaction.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 186/501

Motivator factors (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo262) , shown on the right in Figure 5.2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec90#r�ig5-2) , are sources of job satisfaction. These factors are found in job content—what people actually do in their work. They include such things as a sense of achievement, opportunities for personal growth, recognition, and responsibility. According to two-factor theory, the presence or absence of satis�iers or motivators in people’s jobs is the key to satisfaction, motivation, and performance. When motivator factors are minimal, low job satisfaction decreases motivation and performance. When motivator factors are substantial, high job satisfaction raises motivation and performance.

Motivator factors in the job content are sources of job satisfaction.

A controversial point in the two-factor theory is Herzberg’s belief that job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are separate dimensions. Taking action to improve a hygiene factor, such as by giving pay raises or creating better physical working conditions, will not make people satis�ied and more motivated in their work; it will only prevent them from being less dissatis�ied on these matters. To improve job satisfaction, Herzberg believes job content must be enriched by adding more motivator factors. His technique of job enrichment (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo214) is given special attention in the next chapter as a job design alternative. For now, the implication is well summarized in this statement by Herzberg: “If you want people to do a good job, give them a good job to do.”14 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c05-note14)

Job enrichment tries to build more motivator factors into job content.

OB scholars have long debated the merits of the two-factor theory.15 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c05-note15) It is criticized as being method bound, or replicable only when Herzberg’s original methods are used. This is a serious criticism, since the scienti�ic approach valued in OB requires that theories be veri�iable under different research methods.16 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c05-note16) Yet, the distinction between hygiene and motivator factors has been a useful contribution to OB. As will be apparent in the discussions of job designs and alternative work schedules in the next chapter, the notion of two factors—job content and job context—has a practical validity that adds useful discipline to management thinking.

Emotional Drives or Needs Model An example of continuing attention to the link between human needs and motivation is found in the emotional drives or needs model described by Harvard scholars Paul Lawrence and Nitin Nohria. Their model of motivation identi�ies four emotional drives or needs that people seek to satisfy at work and in daily living. The drive to acquire is the need to obtain physical and psychological grati�ication. The drive to bond is the need to connect with other people individually and in groups. The drive to comprehend is the need to understand things and gain a sense of mastery. And, the drive to defend is the need to be protected from threats and obtain justice.17 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c05-note17)

The emotional drives or needs model ties each of the four drives with speci�ic things that organizations and managers can do to satisfy them as ways to gain a positive impact on motivation. As shown in the �igure, the drive to acquire is satis�ied through reward systems that clearly distinguish between high and low performers and that distribute rewards contingently based on performance. The drive to bond is

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 187/501

satis�ied through a collaborative organizational and team culture that encourages friendship and positive social identity. The drive to comprehend is satis�ied by job designs that provide a sense of meaning and importance in work being done, as well as the opportunity to learn and improve in one’s competencies. The drive to defend is satis�ied by information transparency and fair practices that build con�idence and trust, especially in relation to rewards and resource allocations.

When the four emotional drives or needs were examined in empirical studies of 685 workers in major businesses, researchers found that their satisfaction explained 60 percent of the motivation workers experienced in their organizations.18 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c05-note18) Perhaps more important, they also reached this conclusion: “Employees in our study attributed as much importance to their boss’s meeting their four drives as to the organization’s policies.”19 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c05-note19)

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 188/501

5.3 Motivation and Equity LEARNING ROADMAP

EQUITY AND SOCIAL COMPARISONS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec96#sec97)

EQUITY THEORY PREDICTIONS AND FINDINGS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec96#sec98)

EQUITY AND ORGANIZATIONAL JUSTICE (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec96#sec99)

What happens when you get a grade back on a written assignment or test? How do you interpret your results, and what happens to your future motivation in the course? Such questions fall in the motivational domain of process theory, speci�ically equity theory (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo118) . As known in OB through the writing of J. Stacy Adams, equity theory argues that any perceived inequity becomes a motivating state. In other words, people are motivated to behave in ways that restore or maintain a sense of balance— perceived equity—in their minds. These tendencies are found in work situations and the full variety of our personal affairs.20 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c05-note20)

Adams’s equity theory posits that people will act to eliminate any felt inequity in the rewards received for their work in comparison with others.

Equity and Social Comparisons The act of social comparison is a basic foundation of equity theory. Think back to the earlier questions. When you receive a grade, do you quickly try to �ind out what others received as well? When you do, does the interpretation of your grade depend on how well your grade compared to those of others? Equity theory predicts that your behavior upon receiving a grade—working less or harder in the course—will be based on whether or not you perceive it as fair and equitable. Furthermore, that determination is made only after you compare your results with those received by others.

FINDING THE LEADER IN YOU Lorraine Monroe Turns Leadership Vision into Inspiration

Dr. Lorraine Monroe began her career in the New York City schools as a teacher. She went on to serve as assistant principal, principal, and vice-chancellor for curriculum and instruction. Her career really took off when she founded the Frederick Douglass Academy, a public school in Harlem, where she had grown up. The academy’s namesake was an escaped slave who later became a prominent abolitionist and civil rights leader. Under her leadership as principal, the school became highly respected for educational excellence.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 189/501

Through her experiences, Monroe formed a set of beliefs centered on a leader being vision driven and follower centered. She believes leaders must always start at the “heart of the matter” and that “the job of a good leader is to articulate a vision that others are inspired to follow.” She believes in making sure all workers know they are valued, that their advice is welcome, and that workers and managers should always try to help and support one another. “I have never undertaken any project,” she says, “without �irst imagining on paper what it would ultimately look like. . . . All the doers who would be responsible for carrying out my imaginings have to be informed and let in on the dream.”

About her commitment to public leadership, Monroe states, “We can reform society only if every place we live—every school, workplace, church, and family—becomes a site of reform.” She now serves as a leadership consultant and runs the Lorraine Monroe Leadership Institute. Its goal is to train educational leaders in visionary leadership and help them go forth to build high-performing schools that transform children’s lives.

Lorraine Monroe’s many leadership ideas are summarized in what is called the “Monroe Doctrine.” It begins with this advice: “The job of the leader is to uplift her people—not just as members of and contributors to the organization, but as individuals of in�inite worth in their own right.”

Copyright © 2003 by Lorraine Monroe. Reprinted by permission of PUBLICAFFAIRS, a member of Perseus Books Group. All rights reserved.

What’s the Lesson Here?

How good are you at visioning? Are you able to generate visions that are persuasive and engaging to others? Do others feel inspired by your visions? If not, could it be that you need to think about

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 190/501

how to make the vision more about them and less about you?

Adams argues that the motivational consequences of rewards are a function of how one evaluates rewards received relative to efforts made, and as compared to the rewards received by others relative to their efforts made. A key issue in this comparison is “fairness.” Perceived inequity (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo312) occurs when someone believes that he or she has been under-rewarded or over-rewarded for work contributions in comparison to other people. As you might expect, any feelings of unfairness or perceived inequity are uncomfortable. They create a state of mind that equity theory says we are motivated to eliminate.

Perceived inequity is feeling under-rewarded or over-rewarded in comparison with others.

Equity Theory Predictions and Findings The basic equity comparison can be summarized as follows:

Individual OutcomesIndividual Efforts=?Others’ OutcomesOthers’ Efforts

The preceding equity comparison shows that felt negative inequity exists when an individual believes that he or she has received relatively less than others in proportion to work efforts. Think of this as under- reward inequity. By contrast, felt positive inequity exists when an individual believes that he or she has received relatively more than others. Think of this as over-reward inequity. When either felt negative or positive inequity exists, the theory suggests that people will be motivated to act in ways that remove the cognitive discomfort and restore a sense of perceived equity to the situation. In both cases the motivational value of rewards is determined by social comparison. It isn’t the reward giver’s intentions that count in terms of motivational impact. What counts is how the recipient perceives the reward in his or her social context. In �igurative terms:

Felt positive inequity occurs when an individual believes he or she has received relatively more than others in proportion to efforts.

Felt negative inequity occurs when an individual believes he or she has received relatively less than others in proportion to efforts.

Research on equity theory indicates that people who feel they are overpaid (perceived positive inequity) are likely to try to increase the quantity or quality of their work, whereas those who feel they are underpaid (perceived negative inequity) are likely to try to decrease the quantity or quality of their work.21 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c05-note21) The research is most conclusive with respect to felt negative inequity. It appears that people are less comfortable when they are

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 191/501

under-rewarded than when they are over-rewarded.22 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c05-note22) And it is important to understand how people may react, particularly in felt negative inequity situations. In these cases, an individual might engage one of the following alternatives as a way of restoring a sense of perceived equity to the situation.

Ways to reduce perceived negative inequity

Reduce work inputs (e.g., don’t do anything extra in future: “If that is all I’m going to get, this is all I’m going to do.”).

Change the outcomes received (e.g., ask for a bigger raise: “Given my contributions and what I see others getting for their work, I believe I deserve more.”).

Leave the situation (e.g., quit: “That’s it, I’m out of here.”).

Change the comparison points (e.g., compare to a different co-worker: “Perhaps I’m looking at this the wrong way. My situation is more similar to Henry’s than Alicia’s.”).

Psychologically distort things (e.g., rationalize the inequity as temporary: “The boss has been under a lot of pressure and misses a lot of things going on in the of�ice. Things should improve in the future.”).

Try to change the efforts of the comparison person (e.g., get a teammate to accept more work: “Look, Miranda, I know you’ve had a hard time at home, but it’s only fair that you do a bit more to justify the raises that were just given out.”).

Equity and Organizational Justice Fairness is a basic element of equity theory. It raises an issue in organizational behavior known as organizational justice (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo295) —how fair and equitable people view the practices and outcomes of their workplace.23 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c05-note23)

Organizational justice concerns how fair and equitable people view workplace practices and outcomes.

Procedural justice (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo338) is the degree to which the process, such as rules and procedures speci�ied by policies, is properly followed in all cases to which it applies. In a sexual harassment case, for example, this may mean that required formal hearings are held for every case submitted for administrative review. Distributive justice (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo92) is the degree to which all people are treated the same, regardless of race, ethnicity, gender, age, or any other demographic characteristic. In a sexual harassment case, this might mean that a complaint �iled by a man against a woman would receive the same consideration as one �iled by a woman against a man.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 192/501

Procedural justice is the degree to which rules are always properly followed to implement policies.

Distributive justice is the degree to which all people are treated the same under a policy.

OB IN POPULAR CULTURE

Equity Theory and Ally Bank

Equity theory tells us that employees are motivated to eliminate perceived inequity: the feeling that stems from unfair distributions of rewards. These perceptions develop when employees receive outcomes as a result of their work effort and then make comparisons with similar others, known as referents.

Ally Bank has a number of child-themed commercials to depict unfair practices in the banking industry. The commercials resonate with viewers because we all have a fundamental understanding of what is fair and what is not. In one particular commercial, two little girls are sitting at a table with a grown man. The man turns to the �irst little girl and asks, “Would you like a pony?” The girl smiles and nods af�irmatively, and he hands her a toy pony. Then the man turns and repeats his question to the second little girl. Only this time, when the girl indicates she would like a pony, the man makes a clicking noise and a real pony emerges from behind a playhouse.

The second little girl is overjoyed. But the �irst—initially quite happy with the toy pony, becomes upset. Her reaction illustrates equity theory and shows that we evaluate rewards within the context in which they are given. Rewards may look good on the surface. However, if someone else gets the same reward while doing less or gets a bigger reward for similar work, it makes your reward pale by comparison. That’s not a good feeling.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 193/501

Emmerich-Webb/Getty Images

Get to Know Yourself Better Take Assessment 17, Annual Pay Raises, in the OB Skills Workbook. It asks you to determine pay raises for a group of employees based on information provided about performance, co- worker assessments, and other nonperformance factors. Consider your inclinations when making these decisions. Take a close look at employee Z. Davis. He is a good worker, but others do not see it that way. How would you handle this situation? If Davis is truly deserving and does not get a pay raise, what will he do? If you give Davis a raise, on the other hand, how will co-workers react?

Interactional justice (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo199) is the degree to which the people affected by a decision are treated with dignity and respect. Interactional justice in a sexual harassment case, for example, may mean that both the accused and accusing parties believe they have received a complete explanation of any decision made. Commutative justice (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo46) is the degree to which exchanges and transactions among parties is considered free and fair. In the sexual harassment example again, commutative justice is present when everyone involved perceives themselves as having full access to all the available facts and information.24 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c05- note24)

Interactional justice is the degree to which people are treated with dignity and respect in decisions affecting them.

Commutative justice is the degree to which exchanges and transactions are considered fair.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 194/501

CHECKING ETHICS IN OB

Information Goldmine Creates a Dilemma

A worker opens the top of the of�ice photocopier and �inds a document someone has left behind. It’s a list of performance evaluations, pay, and bonuses for eighty co-workers. She reads the document.

Lo and behold, someone considered a “nonstarter” is getting paid more than others regarded as “super workers.” New hires are being brought in at substantially higher pay and bonuses than are paid to existing staff. To make matters worse, she’s in the middle of the list and not near the top, where she would have expected to be. She makes a lot less money than some others are getting.

Looking at the data, she begins to wonder why she is spending extra hours working on her laptop in the evenings and on weekends at home, trying to do a really great job for the �irm. She wonders to herself, “Should I pass this information around anonymously so that everyone knows what’s going on? Or should I quit and �ind another employer who fully values me for my talents and hard work?”

DAJ/Getty Images

In the end she decides to quit because she couldn’t stand the inequity. She also decided not to distribute the information to others in the of�ice because “It would make them depressed, like it made me depressed.”

What Would You Do? Would you hit “Print,” make about eighty copies, and put them in everyone’s mailboxes—or even just leave them stacked in a couple of convenient locations? That would get the information out and right into the gossip chains pretty quickly. Is this ethical? On the other hand, if you don’t send out the information, is it ethical to let other workers go about their days with inaccurate assumptions about pay practices at the �irm? By quitting and not sharing the information, did this worker commit an ethics miscue?

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 195/501

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 196/501

5.4 Motivation and Expectancy LEARNING ROADMAP

EXPECTANCY TERMS AND CONCEPTS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec100#sec101)

EXPECTANCY THEORY PREDICTIONS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec100#sec102)

EXPECTANCY THEORY IMPLICATIONS AND RESEARCH (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec100#sec103)

Another of the process theories of motivation achieving substantial scholarly impact is Victor Vroom’s expectancy theory (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo127) .25 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c05-note25) It’s legacy value rests with the suggestion that motivation is a result of a rational calculation—people will do what they can do when they want to do it. In other words, work motivation is determined by individual beliefs regarding effort– performance relationships and work outcomes.

Vroom’s expectancy theory argues that work motivation is determined by individual beliefs regarding effort–performance relationships and work outcomes.

Expectancy Terms and Concepts In expectancy theory, and as summarized in Figure 5.3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec100#r�ig5-3) , a person is motivated to the degree that he or she believes that (1) effort will yield acceptable performance (expectancy), (2) performance will be rewarded (instrumentality), and (3) the value of the rewards is highly positive (valence). Each of the key terms is de�ined as follows:

Expectancy (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo126) is the probability assigned by an individual that work effort will be followed by a given level of achieved task performance. Expectancy would equal zero if the person felt it were impossible to achieve the given performance level; it would equal one if a person were 100 percent certain that the performance could be achieved.

Expectancy is the probability that work effort will be followed by performance accomplishment.

Instrumentality (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo195) is the probability assigned by the individual that a given level of achieved task performance will lead to various work outcomes. Instrumentality also varies from 0 to 1. Strictly speaking,

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 197/501

Vroom’s treatment of instrumentality would allow it to vary from −1 to +1. We use the probability de�inition here and the 0 to +1 range for pedagogical purposes; it is consistent with the instrumentality notion.

Instrumentality is the probability that performance will lead to various work outcomes.

Valence (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo470) is the value attached by the individual to various work outcomes. Valences form a scale from −1 (very undesirable outcome) to +1 (very desirable outcome).

Valence is the value to the individual of various work outcomes.

FIGURE 5.3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec100#�ig5-3) Key terms and managerial implications of Vroom’s expectancy theory.

Expectancy Theory Predictions Vroom posits that motivation, expectancy, instrumentality, and valence are related to one another in multiplicative fashion.

Motivation=Expectancy×Instrumentality×Valence

You can remember this expectancy equation simply as M × E × I × V, and the multiplier effect described by the “x” signs is signi�icant. It means that the motivational appeal of a work path is sharply reduced whenever any one or more of these factors—E, I, or V—diminishes and at the extreme approaches the value of zero. In order for a reward to have a high and positive motivational impact as a work outcome, the expectancy, instrumentality, and valence associated with it must each be high and positive.

Suppose, for example, that a team leader is wondering whether or not the prospect of earning a merit pay raise will be motivational to employee team member. Expectancy theory predicts that motivation to work hard to earn the merit pay will be low if expectancy is low: a person feels that he or she cannot achieve the necessary performance level. Motivation will also be low if instrumentality is low—the person is not con�ident that a high level of task performance will result in a high merit pay raise. Motivation will also be low if valence is low: the person places little value on a merit pay increase. Finally, motivation will be low if any combination of these exists.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 198/501

Expectancy Theory Implications and Research The logic of expectancy theory suggests that work situations should be adjusted or created to maximize expectancies, instrumentalities, and valences for people in their jobs.26 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c05-note26) To in�luence expectancies, the advice is to select people with proper abilities, train them well, support them with needed resources, and identify clear performance goals. To in�luence instrumentality, the advice is to clarify performance–reward relationships, and then live up to them when rewards are actually given for performance accomplishments. To in�luence valences, the advice is to identify the needs that are important to each individual and adjust available rewards to match these needs.

WORTH CONSIDERING ...OR BEST AVOIDED?

Hiring Hourly Workers? Paying More than the Minimum May Be the Best Choice

More and more Americans are �inding themselves in hourly paid jobs, and they don’t pay real great on the average. The U.S. minimum wage is $7.25 per hour for non-tipped employees, and in some locations—like Ohio where the wage is $7.70 per hour—set higher minimums. That minimum wage may come with or without bene�its such as health insurance and retirement programs.

For some employers, wages are viewed strictly as costs of production, and when it comes to costs, the tendency is to try and minimize or control them. The less you can pay for labor, the argument goes, the better off the “bottom line” is.

Whole Foods takes a different approach. It views business as a balancing act between owner– shareholders, customers, and employees as key stakeholders. Although the interest of each stakeholder is important, balance among all three is the goal. At Whole Foods this concept is described as “conscious capitalism,” and one of its characteristics is paying employees more than either the law or market conditions require. At the moment this is about $15.00 per hour, often with bene�its. Although this may not sound great, it’s twice the minimum wage and about $3.00 plus bene�its more than what an average worker earns at Walmart, for example.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 199/501

David McNew/Getty Images

Do the Analysis

Whole Foods co-CEO Walter Robb believes that paying more than the minimum and competitors builds a stronger and more committed workforce. The payoff from paying more than you have to is having workers who are loyal, stable, and good for customers. How about it? Should more employers be adopting this philosophy on hourly pay? Or, is this just an interesting case that probably wouldn’t apply in most other settings?

A great deal of research on expectancy theory has been conducted.27 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c05-note27) Even though the theory has received substantial support, speci�ic details, such as the operation of the multiplier effect, remain subject to some question. In addition, expectancy theory has proven interesting in terms of helping to explain some apparently counterintuitive �indings in cross-cultural management situations. For example, one study found that a pay raise motivated a group of Mexican workers to work fewer hours. Why? They wanted a certain amount of money in order to enjoy things other than work, rather than just getting more money in general. And, a Japanese sales representative’s promotion to sales manager at a U.S. company adversely affected his performance. Why? His superiors did not realize that the promotion embarrassed him and distanced him from his colleagues.28 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c05-note28)

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 200/501

5.5 Motivation and Goals LEARNING ROADMAP

MOTIVATIONAL PROPERTIES OF GOALS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec104#sec105)

GOAL-SETTING GUIDELINES (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec104#sec106)

GOAL SETTING AND THE MANAGEMENT PROCESS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec104#sec107)

Every so often a defensive football player makes a dramatic error—scooping up an opponent’s fumble and then with obvious effort and delight running the ball into the wrong end zone. These players don’t lack motivation, but they fail by not focusing their energies toward the right goal. Less dramatic but similar goal and goal-setting problems occur regularly in work settings. People work hard, but end up disappointing themselves and their bosses because they pursued the wrong goals. When goals are clear and properly set, motivation is both activated and directed toward the right accomplishments.

How to Make Goal Setting Work for You

Set challenging goals: When viewed as realistic and attainable, more dif�icult goals lead to higher performance than do easy goals.

Set speci�ic goals: They lead to higher performance than do more generally stated ones, such as “Do your best.”

Provide feedback on goal accomplishment: Make sure that people know how well they are doing with respect to goal accomplishment.

Build goal acceptance and commitment: People work harder for goals they accept and believe in; they resist goals forced on them.

Clarify goal priorities: Make sure that expectations are clear as to which goals should be accomplished �irst, and why.

Reward goal accomplishment: Don’t let positive accomplishments pass unnoticed; reward people for doing what they set out to do.

Motivational Properties of Goals Goal setting (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo155) is the process of developing, negotiating, and formalizing the targets or objectives that a person is responsible for

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 201/501

accomplishing.29 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c05-note29) Over a number of years Edwin Locke, Gary Latham, and their associates have developed a comprehensive framework linking goals to performance. They say: “Purposeful activity is the essence of living action. If the purpose is not clear, not challenging, very little gets accomplished.”30 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c05-note30)

Goal setting is the process of setting performance targets.

Goal-Setting Guidelines Although the theory has its critics, the basic precepts of goal setting remain a respected source of advice for managing human behavior in the work setting.31 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c05-note31) The major implications of research are highlighted in the “How to Make Goal Setting Work for You” sidebar and can be summarized as follows:32 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c05-note32)

Key �indings of goal-setting research

Dif�icult goals are more likely to lead to higher performance than are less dif�icult ones. If the goals are seen as too dif�icult or impossible, however, the relationship with performance no longer holds. For example, you will likely perform better as a �inancial services agent if you have a goal of selling six annuities a week than if you have a goal of selling three. But if your goal is selling �ifteen annuities a week, you may consider that impossible to achieve, and your performance may well be lower than what it would be with a more realistic goal.

Speci�ic goals are more likely to lead to higher performance than are no goals or vague or very general ones. All too often people work with very general goals such as the encouragement of “Do your best.” Research indicates that more speci�ic goals, such as selling six annuities a week, are much more motivational than a simple “Do your best” goal.

Task feedback, or knowledge of results, is likely to motivate people toward higher performance by encouraging the setting of higher performance goals. Feedback lets people know where they stand and whether they are on course or off course in their efforts. Think, for example, about how eager you may be to �ind out how well you did on an examination. Think also about the instructor who often waits until the end of the course to �ind out how well students really liked his or her approach.

Goals are most likely to lead to higher performance when people have the abilities and the feelings of self-ef�icacy required to accomplish them. The individual must be able to accomplish the goals and feel con�ident in those abilities. To take the �inancial services example again, you may be able to do what is required to sell six annuities a week and feel con�ident that you can. If your goal is to sell �ifteen, however, you may believe that your abilities are insuf�icient to the task, and thus you may lack the con�idence to work hard enough to accomplish it.

Goals are most likely to motivate people toward higher performance when they are accepted and there is commitment to them. Participating in the goal-setting process helps build acceptance and commitment; it creates a sense of “ownership” of the goals that is motivating. However,

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 202/501

even when goals are assigned, they can still be motivating if they come from a respected authority �igure and are perceived as attainable. Assigned goals are most likely to lose motivational value when they are curtly or inadequately explained, and/or seem impossible to achieve.

Goal Setting and the Management Process The entire management process is affected by goal setting. Goals set during planning provide the focus for organizing and leading, and they also facilitate controlling by identifying desired outcomes that can then be measured. One approach that tries to integrate goals across these management functions is known as management by objectives (MBO) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo244) . MBO is essentially a process of joint goal setting between managers or team leaders and those who report to them.33 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c05-note33) An example is the team leader who works with team members to set performance goals consistent with higher-level organizational objectives.

Management by objectives or MBO is a process of joint goal setting between a manager or team leader and those who report to them.

Research Insight

Conscious and Subconscious Goals Have Motivational Impact

Writing in the Journal of Applied Psychology, Alexander D. Stajkovic, Edwin A. Locke, and Eden S. Blair note that the literature on goal-setting theory and motivation is well established, but they point out that it deals only with conscious motivation. In two empirical studies they attempt to link this set of �indings with a body of literature in social psychology concerned with subconscious goal motivation.

One of the key �indings of research on goal-setting theory is that dif�icult goals lead to higher performance than do general “Do your best” or easy goals when performance feedback, goal commitment, and task knowledge are present. A research stream of social psychology literature deals with the subconscious activation of goals by primers found in environments in which goals are regularly pursued. Using this background, the researchers stated that their purpose “was to link subconscious and conscious goals by empirically examining the interaction between the two.”

A pilot study and a main study were conducted with samples of undergraduate and graduate students at a university in the Midwest. Study participants were divided into two groups, with one group receiving a “priming” treatment where subjects did setup work involving identi�ication or use of achievement-related words before they completed a performance task. In the second, or “no prime” group, only achievement- neutral words were identi�ied or used in the setup work prior to the performance task.

In both studies the results con�irmed predictions from goal-setting theory by showing that “dif�icult” conscious goals increased performance relative to “easy” and “Do your best” goal-setting conditions. In addition, the researchers found that subjects in primed subconscious conditions performed better than did those in unprimed subconscious conditions on both “dif�icult” and “Do your best” goals. In other

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 203/501

words, primed subconscious goals had positive interactions with conscious goals for both “dif�icult” and “Do your best” goals.

The overall conclusions from these studies show that more research is needed on the links between conscious and subconscious goals with task performance, but the initial �indings are favorable in suggesting that when both types of goals are used together, their motivational impact is increased.

Source: Alexander D. Stajkovic, Edwin A. Locke and Eden S. Blair “A First Examination of the Relationships between Primed Subconscious Goals, Assigned Conscious Goals, and Task Performance”, Journal of Applied Psychology 91 (2006), pp. 1172–1180.

FIGURE 5.4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec104#�ig5-4) How a management by objectives process works.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 204/501

Figure 5.4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec104#r�ig5-4) shows how the MBO process can take advantage of goal-setting principles. The joint team leader and team member discussions are designed to extend participation from the point of setting initial goals all the way to evaluating results in terms of goal attainment. As team members work to achieve their goals, the team leader’s role is to actively coach them.

Researchers identify a number of common dif�iculties with MBO in practice.34 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c05-note34) These include overemphasizing paperwork to document goals and accomplishments, and focusing on top-down goals, goals that are easily stated and achieved, and individual instead of team goals. When these issues are resolved, however, an MBO-type approach can help bring the many bene�its and insights of goal-setting theory to life.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 205/501

5 Study Guide

Key Questions and Answers What is motivation?

Motivation is an internal force that accounts for the level, direction, and persistence of effort expended at work.

Content theories—including the work of Maslow, Alderfer, McClelland, and Herzberg—focus on identifying human needs that in�luence behavior in the workplace.

Process theories, such as equity theory and expectancy theory, examine the thought processes that affect decisions people make about their work efforts.

What can we learn from the needs theories of motivation?

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory views human needs as activated in a �ive-step hierarchy ranging from physiological (lowest) to safety, to social, to esteem, to self-actualization (highest).

Alderfer’s ERG theory collapses the �ive needs into three: existence, relatedness, and growth; it maintains that more than one need can be activated at a time.

McClelland’s acquired needs theory focuses on the needs for achievement, af�iliation, and power, and it views needs as developed over time through experience and training.

Herzberg’s two-factor theory links job satisfaction to motivator factors, such as responsibility and challenge, associated with job content; it links job dissatisfaction to hygiene factors, such as pay and working conditions, associated with job context.

Why is the equity theory of motivation important?

Equity theory points out that social comparison takes place when people receive rewards.

Any felt inequity in social comparison will motivate people to behave in ways that restore a sense of perceived equity to the situation.

When felt inequity is negative—that is, when the individual feels unfairly treated—he or she may decide to work less hard in the future or to quit a job for other, more attractive opportunities.

Organizational justice is an issue of how fair and equitable people view workplace practices; it is described in respect to distributive, procedural, interactive, and commutative justice.

What are the insights of the expectancy theory of motivation?

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 206/501

Vroom’s expectancy theory describes motivation as a function of an individual’s beliefs concerning effort–performance relationships (expectancy), work–outcome relationships (instrumentality), and the desirability of various work outcomes (valence).

Expectancy theory states that Motivation = Expectancy × Instrumentality × Valence, and argues that managers should make each factor strong and positive in order to ensure high levels of motivation.

How does goal setting in�luence motivation?

Goal setting is the process of developing, negotiating, and formalizing performance targets or objectives.

Goals are the most motivational when they are challenging and speci�ic, allow for feedback on results, and create commitment and acceptance.

Management by objectives, a process of joint goal setting between a team leader and team member, is a way of applying goal-setting theory in day-to-day management practice.

Terms to Know Commutative justice (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec96#key1)

Content theories (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec87#key2)

Distributive justice (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec96#key3)

Equity theory (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec96#key4)

ERG theory (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec90#key5)

Existence needs (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec90#key6)

Expectancy (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec100#key7)

Expectancy theory (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec100#key8)

Felt negative inequity (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec96#key9)

Felt positive inequity (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec96#key10)

Goal setting (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec104#key11)

Growth needs (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec90#key12)

Hierarchy of needs theory (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec90#key13)

Higher-order needs (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec90#key14)

Hygiene factors (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec90#key15)

Instrumentality (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec100#key16)

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 207/501

Interactional justice (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec96#key17)

Job enrichment (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec90#key18)

Lower-order needs (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec90#key19)

Management by objectives (MBO) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec104#key20)

Motivation (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec87#key21)

Motivator factors (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec90#key22)

Need for achievement (nAch) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec90#key23)

Need for af�iliation (nAff) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec90#key24)

Need for power (nPower) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec90#key25)

Organizational justice (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec96#key26)

Perceived inequity (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec96#key27)

Procedural justice (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec96#key28)

Process theories (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec87#key29)

Relatedness needs (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec90#key30)

Two-factor theory (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec90#key31)

Valence (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec100#key32)

Self-Test 5 Multiple Choice

1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c05str1) . Motivation is de�ined as the level and persistence of ____________.

a. (a) effort

b. (b) performance

c. (c) need satisfaction

d. (d) instrumentalities

2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c05str2) . A content theory of motivation is most likely to focus on ____________.

a. (a) organizational justice

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 208/501

b. (b) expectancy

c. (c) equity

d. (d) individual needs

3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c05str3) . A process theory of motivation is most likely to focus attention on ____________.

a. (a) frustration-regression

b. (b) expectancies regarding work outcomes

c. (c) lower-order needs

d. (d) hygiene factors

4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c05str4) . When a team member shows strong ego needs in Maslow’s hierarchy, the team leader should �ind ways to link this person’s work on the team task with ____________.

a. (a) compensation tied to group performance

b. (b) individual praise and recognition for work well done

c. (c) lots of social interaction with other team members

d. (d) challenging individual performance goals

5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c05str5) . According to McClelland, a person high in need achievement will be motivated by ____________.

a. (a) status of being an executive

b. (b) control and in�luence over other people

c. (c) teamwork and collective responsibility

d. (d) challenging but achievable goals

6 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c05str6) . In Alderfer’s ERG theory, the ____________ needs best correspond with Maslow’s higher-order needs of esteem and self-actualization.

a. (a) existence

b. (b) relatedness

c. (c) recognition

d. (d) growth

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 209/501

7 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c05str7) . Improvements in job satisfaction are most likely under Herzberg’s two-factor theory when ____________ are improved.

a. (a) working conditions

b. (b) base salaries

c. (c) co-worker relationships

d. (d) opportunities for responsibility

8 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c05str8) . In Herzberg’s two-factor theory ____________ factors are found in job context.

a. (a) motivator

b. (b) satis�ier

c. (c) hygiene

d. (d) enrichment

9 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c05str9) . Both Barry and Marissa are highly motivated college students. Knowing this I can expect them to be ____________ in my class.

a. (a) hard working

b. (b) high performing

c. (c) highly satis�ied

d. (d) highly dissatis�ied

10 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c05str10) . In equity theory, the ____________ is a key issue.

a. (a) social comparison of rewards

b. (b) equality of rewards

c. (c) equality of efforts

d. (d) absolute value of rewards

11 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c05str11) . A manager’s failure to enforce a late-to-work policy the same way for all employees is a violation of ____________ justice.

a. (a) interactional

b. (b) moral

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 210/501

c. (c) distributive

d. (d) procedural

12 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c05str12) . When someone has a high and positive expectancy in expectancy theory of motivation, this means that the person ____________.

a. (a) believes he or she can meet performance expectations

b. (b) highly values the rewards being offered

c. (c) sees a relationship between high performance and the available rewards

d. (d) believes that rewards are equitable

13 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c05str13) . In expectancy theory, ____________ is the perceived value of a reward.

a. (a) expectancy

b. (b) instrumentality

c. (c) motivation

d. (d) valence

14 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c05str14) . Which goals tend to be more motivating?

a. (a) challenging goals

b. (b) easy goals

c. (c) general goals

d. (d) no goals

15 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c05str15) . The MBO process emphasizes ____________ as a way of building worker commitment to goal accomplishment.

a. (a) authority

b. (b) joint goal setting

c. (c) infrequent feedback

d. (d) rewards

Short Response

16 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c05str16) . What is the frustration–regression component in Alderfer’s ERG theory?

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 211/501

17 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c05str17) . What does job enrichment mean in Herzberg’s two-factor theory?

18 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c05str18) . What is the difference between distributive and procedural justice?

19 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c05str19) . What is the multiplier effect in expectancy theory?

Applications Essay

20 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c05str20) . While attending a business luncheon, you overhear the following conversation at a nearby table. Person A: “I’ll tell you this: If you satisfy your workers’ needs, they’ll be productive.” Person B: “I’m not so sure. If I satisfy their needs, maybe they’ll be real good about coming to work but not very good about working really hard while they are there.” Which person do you agree with and why?

Steps to Further Learning 5 Top Choices from The OB Skills Workbook

These learning activities from The OB Skills Workbook found at the back of the book are suggested for Chapter 5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/ch5#ch5) .

Case for Critical Thinking

Team and Experiential Exercises

Self-Assessment Portfolio

“It Isn’t Fair . . . ”

What Do You Value in Work?

Teamwork and Motivation

Downsides of Punishment

Annual Pay Raises

Managerial Assumptions

Two-Factor Pro�ile

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 212/501

6 Motivation and Performance

The Key Point

Work, family, and leisure are highly intertwined in our busy multitasking world. There’s a lot to balance in the quest for life and career satisfaction. Things go a lot better for people and organizations when work activities and outcomes �it well with individual needs and responsibilities.

What’s Inside?

Bringing OB to LIFE

PAYING OR NOT PAYING FOR KIDS’ GRADES

Worth Considering . . . or Best Avoided?

WANT VACATION? NO PROBLEM, TAKE AS MUCH AS YOU WANT

Checking Ethics in OB

SNIFFLING AT WORK TAKES ITS TOLL

Finding the Leader in You

SARA BLAKELY LEADS SPANX FROM IDEA TO BOTTOM LINE

OB in Popular Culture

SELF-MANAGEMENT AND SLUMDOG MILLIONAIRE

Research Insight

RACIAL BIAS MAY EXIST IN SUPERVISOR RATINGS OF WORKERS

Chapter at a Glance

What Is the Link Between Motivation, Performance, and Rewards?

What Are the Essentials of Performance Management?

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 213/501

How Do Job Designs In�luence Motivation and Performance?

What Are the Motivational Opportunities of Alternative Work Arrangements?

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 214/501

6.1 Motivation, Rewards, and Performance LEARNING ROADMAP

EMPLOYEE VALUE PROPOSITION AND FIT (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec109#sec110)

INTEGRATED MODEL OF MOTIVATION (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec109#sec111)

INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC REWARDS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec109#sec112)

PAY FOR PERFORMANCE (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec109#sec113)

Motivation is de�ined as forces within the individual that account for the level and persistence of an effort expended at work. And because motivation is a property of the individual, we basically motivate ourselves. All managers and team leaders or parents and teachers can do is try to create environments that offer other individuals appealing sources of motivation. Whether they respond positively or not is up to them. But, one way to unlock this motivational potential is to provide opportunities to earn rewards that match well with individual needs and goals.

Motivation accounts for the level and persistence of a person’s effort expended at work.

Employee Value Proposition and Fit Perhaps the best place to start any discussion of the link between motivation, rewards, and performance is the concept of an employee value proposition, or EVP. Think of it as an exchange of value, what the organization offers the employee in return for his or her work contributions.1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c06-note1) The value offered by the individual includes things like effort, loyalty, commitment, creativity, and skills. The value offered by the employer includes things like pay, bene�its, meaningful work, �lexible schedules, and personal development opportunities. It is common to call this exchange of values the psychological contract (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo350) .

The employee value proposition, or EVP, is an exchange of value in what the organization offers the employee in return for his or her work contributions.

When everything comes together in an EVP and the psychological contract is in balance, the foundations for motivation are well set—not perfect yet, but well set. The key starting point is that each party perceives the exchange of values as fair and that it is getting what it needs from the other. Any perceived imbalance is likely to cause problems. From the individual’s side, a perceived lack of inducements from the employer may reduce motivation and ultimately poor performance. From the employer’s side, a perceived

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 215/501

lack of contributions from the individual may cause a loss of con�idence in and commitment to the employee, and reduced rewards for work delivered.

The foundation for a healthy and positive employee value proposition is “�it.” Person–job �it is the extent to which an individual’s skills, interests, and personal characteristics match well with the requirements of the job. Person–organization �it is the extent to which an individual’s values, interests, and behaviors are consistent with the culture of the organization. A poor �it in either case increases the likelihood that imbalance will creep into the EVP. The importance of a good �it to the employee value proposition is highlighted to the extreme at Zappos.com (http://www.Zappos.com) . Believe it or not, if a new employee is unhappy with the �irm after going through initial training, Zappos pays them to quit. At last check the “bye-bye bounty” was $4,000, and between 2 and 3 percent of new hires were taking it each year.2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c06-note2)

Person–job �it is the extent to which an individual’s skills, interests, and personal characteristics match well with the requirements of the job.

Person–organization �it is the extent to which an individual’s values, interests, and behaviors are consistent with the culture of the organization.

Integrated Model of Motivation Wouldn’t it be nice if we all worked with a great employee value proposition and could connect with our jobs and organizations in positive and inspirational ways? In fact, there are lots of great workplaces out there. And, they become great because people and practices throughout the organization turn members on to their jobs rather than off of them. Making this happen requires a good understanding of motivation, a true appreciation for diversity and individual differences, and the ability to make rewards for good work truly meaningful.

FIGURE 6.1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec109#�ig6-1) An integrated model of individual motivation to work.

Figure 6.1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec109#r�ig6-1) outlines an integrated model of motivation that ties together the basic effort–performance–rewards relationship. The �igure shows job performance and satisfaction as separate but interdependent work results. Performance is in�luenced by individual attributes such as ability and experience; organizational support comes from things such as goals, resources, and technology; and effort is the willingness of people to work hard at what they are doing. The individual experiences satisfaction when the rewards received for work accomplishments are perceived as both performance contingent and equitable.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 216/501

Double-check Figure 6.1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec109#r�ig6-1) and locate where various motivation theories come into play. Reinforcement theory highlights performance contingency and immediacy in determining how rewards affect future performance. Equity theory points to the in�luence on behavior of the perceived fairness of rewards. Content theories offer insight into individual needs that can give motivational value to the possible rewards. And, expectancy theory is central to the effort–performance–rewards linkage.

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Rewards The typical reward systems of organizations offer a mix both intrinsic and extrinsic rewards. Intrinsic rewards (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo209) are positively valued work outcomes that the individual receives directly as a result of task performance. Think of them as the reasons we do things just to enjoy them—play a sport, listen to certain music, and even do certain jobs. A feeling of achievement after completing a particularly challenging task is an example. Yves Chouinard, founder and CEO of Patagonia, Inc., puts it this way: “It’s easy to go to work when you get paid to do what you love to do.”3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c06-note3) One of the most important things to remember about intrinsic rewards is that we give them to ourselves. Their positive impact doesn’t require anyone else—boss or team leader included—to be involved.

Intrinsic rewards are valued outcomes received as internal enjoyment of task performance.

Extrinsic rewards are positively valued work outcomes that are given to an individual or a group by another person. We don’t get them by ourselves; someone else has to be the provider. Common extrinsic rewards include symbolic gestures, such as praise for a job well done, or material perks, such as pay raises or bonuses and so on. All such rewards have to be well managed if they are to have positive motivational impact. And the process can be tricky. How often have you heard someone say, “I’ll do the minimum to keep the pay and bene�its of this job, but that’s it,” or “For what I get paid with not even a thankyou, this job is hardly worth the effort I put into it.”

Extrinsic rewards are valued outcomes received from an external source or person.

Pay for Performance Pay is a common and often talked about extrinsic reward. It’s also an especially complex one that may not always deliver the hoped-for results. When pay functions well, it can help an organization attract and retain highly capable workers. It can also help satisfy and motivate these workers to work hard to achieve high performance. But when something goes wrong with pay, the results may decrease motivation performance. Pay dissatisfaction often shows up as bad attitudes, increased absenteeism, intentions to leave and actual turnover, poor organizational citizenship, and even adverse impacts on employees’ physical and mental health.

FINDING THE LEADER IN YOU Sara Blakely Leads Spanx from Idea to Bottom Line

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 217/501

“Like so many women, I bought clothes that looked amazing in a magazine or the hanger, but in reality . . . .” The words are Sara Blakely’s, and her concerns led to product innovation, entrepreneurship, and ultimately a successful big business: Spanx. With $5,000 of her own money and a new idea for “body shaping” underwear, she cut the feet out of a pair of pantyhose and never looked back.

When her �irst attempts to convince manufacturers to make product samples met with resistance—with one calling it “a stupid idea”—she persisted until one agreed. She aspired to place Spanx in high-end department stores. But again, she didn’t give up, �inally persuading a Neiman-Marcus buyer to sell them. Blakely kept at it, traveling extensively and energetically, some might say exhaustively. “I’m the face of the brand,” she says, “and we didn’t have money to advertise. I had to be out. Sitting in the of�ice wasn’t helping.” She sent Oprah Winfrey samples, and with Oprah’s endorsement as “one of her favorite things,” sales and the �irm took off.

After about a year of fast-paced growth, Blakely turned operations over to a chief executive of�icer. This left her free to pursue creative efforts, new products, and brand development. She says that she recognized her limits and “was eager to delegate my weaknesses.” It worked. She won the national Entrepreneur of the Year Award and was voted Georgia’s Woman of the Year. Her motivation to succeed extends beyond product and business goals alone. She has since started the Sara Blakely Foundation with the express purpose of “supporting and empowering women around the world.”

Joe Kohen/Wireimage/GettyImages

What’s the Lesson Here?

Blakely’s success story obviously began with having a great product idea. It’s also tied to who she is as a person. Where would she be today without her special personality? What about her persistence in the face of adversity? What role did goal setting play in her journey to success? Can you combine qualities like these with your ideas to build a motivational capacity for long-term career achievement?

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 218/501

The research of scholar and consultant Edward Lawler generally concludes that pay only serves as a motivator when high levels of job performance are viewed as the paths through which high pay can be achieved.4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c06-note4) This is the logic of performance-contingent pay (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo316) , or pay for performance, where you earn more when you produce more and earn less when you produce less. Organizations pursue various options when implementing performance-contingent pay systems.

The essence of performance-contingent pay is that you earn more when you produce more and earn less when you produce less.

Merit Pay It is most common to talk about pay for performance in respect to merit pay (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo253) , a compensation system that directly ties an individual’s salary or wage increase to measures of performance accomplishments during a speci�ied time period.

Merit pay links an individual’s salary or wage increase directly to measures of performance accomplishment.

Although the concept of merit pay is compelling, a survey by the Hudson Institute demonstrates that it is more easily said than done. When asked if employees who perform better really get paid more, only 48 percent of managers and 31 percent of nonmanagers responded with agreement. When asked if their last pay raise had been based on performance, 46 percent of managers and just 29 percent of nonmanagers said yes.5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c06-note5) In fact, surveys often show that people do not believe their pay is an adequate reward for a job well done.6 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c06-note6)

In order to work well a merit pay plan should create a belief among employees that the way to achieve high pay is to perform at high levels. This means that the merit system should be based on realistic and accurate measures of work performance. It means that the merit system should clearly discriminate between high and low performers in the amount of pay increases awarded. It also means that any “merit” aspects of a pay increase are clearly and contingently linked with the desired performance.

BRINGING OB TO LIFE

“It gets the kid’s attention . . . and motivates them to study more.”

Paying or Not Paying for Kids’ Grades

Managing is a lot like parenting, and allocating rewards isn’t easy in either situation. How often have you heard someone say “We pay kids for ‘A’s’?” Perhaps you’ve said this yourself, or plan to someday. But is paying for grades the correct thing to do? Can paying for grades improve control over children’s study habits?

Those in favor of paying for grades are likely to say: “It gets the kid’s attention . . . and motivates them to study more.” “It prepares them for real work where pay and performance go together.” Those against

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 219/501

paying for grades are likely to say “Once kids get paid for As, they’ll be studying for �inancial gain not real learning.” Or “It hurts those who work hard but still can’t get the high grades.” Or “If there’s more than one child in the family, it’s unfair when they don’t all get rewards.”

OB scholars might be viewing this situation as a contrast between extrinsic and intrinsic rewards. They might worry that paying for grades (an extrinsic reward) removes the stimulus value of studying to gain a sense of personal accomplishment (an intrinsic reward). They might also point out that you better make sure the “pay” is really “contingent” on the grades if you expect the outcome to be as planned. With more kids in the family or in the neighborhood, they’d probably be saying “Watch out for equity dynamics.”

Tetra Images/Getty Images

Take a position. As a parent will you pay for grades or not, and why? Take the situation a step further. What can parenting teach us about managing people at work?

Bonuses Some employers award cash bonuses (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo27) as extra pay for performance that meets certain benchmarks or is over and above expectations. The bonus becomes “cash in hand” without raising the base salary or wage rate. This practice is especially common in senior executive ranks. However, a current trend is to extend bonus opportunities to workers at all levels. Employees at Applebee’s, for example, may earn “Applebucks”—small cash bonuses that are given to reward performance and increase loyalty to the �irm.7 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c06-note7)

Bonuses are extra pay awards for special performance accomplishments.

Gain Sharing and Pro�it Sharing Another way to link pay with performance is gain sharing (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo152) . This gives workers the

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 220/501

opportunity to earn more by receiving shares of any productivity gains that they help to create at the team or work unit levels. An alternative is pro�it sharing (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo344) , which rewards workers for contributions to increased organizational pro�its.8 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c06-note8) Both gain-sharing and pro�it-sharing plans are supposed to create a greater sense of personal responsibility for performance improvements and increase motivation to work hard. They are also supposed to encourage cooperation and teamwork to increase productivity.9 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c06-note9)

Gain sharing rewards employees in some proportion to productivity gains.

Pro�it sharing rewards employees in some proportion to changes in organizational pro�its.

Stock Options and Employee Stock Ownership Some companies offer employees stock options (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo432) that give the owner the right to buy shares of stock at a future date at a �ixed or “strike” price.10 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c06-note10) The expectation is that because employees gain �inancially as the stock price increases, those with stock options will be highly motivated to do their best so that the �irm performs well. In employee stock ownership plans (ESOPs) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo114) , companies allow stock to be purchased by employees at a price below market value. The incentive value is like the stock options: Employee owners are expected to work hard so that the organization will perform well, the stock price will rise, and, as owners, they will bene�it from the gains. Of course, there are risks to both options and stock ownership since a �irm’s stock prices can fall in the future as well as rise.11 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c06-note11)

Stock options give the right to purchase shares at a �ixed price in the future.

Employee stock ownership plans (ESOPs) give stock to employees or allow them to purchase stock at special prices.

Skill-Based Pay Skill-based pay (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo408) rewards people for acquiring and developing job-relevant skills. Pay systems of this sort pay people for the mix and depth of skills they have, not for the particular job assignment they hold. The expected motivational advantages include more willingness to engage in cross-training to learn other jobs in a team or work unit as well as to take on more self-management responsibilities, thus reducing the need to pay for more supervisors.12 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c06-note12)

Skill-based pay rewards people for acquiring and developing job-relevant skills.

WORTH CONSIDERING ...OR BEST AVOIDED?

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 221/501

Want Vacation? No Problem, Take as Much as You Want

Sound unreal? It isn’t. Net�lix operates with what CEO Reed Hastings calls a “freedom and responsibility culture.” He describes this culture and the �irm’s vacation policy this way:

We want responsible people who are self-motivating and self-disciplined, and we reward them with freedom. The best example is our vacation policy. It’s simple and understandable: We don’t have one. We focus on what people get done, not on how many days they worked.

Hasting says that the �irm used to use a “standard vacation model” but rejected it as “an industrial era habit.” His logic is that if people don’t keep track of the number of hours they work, why should the employer keep track of how many days they spend on vacation? As for himself, Hastings says, “I make sure to take lots of vacation to set a good example, and I do some of my creative thinking on vacation.”

A Society for Human Resource management survey says the practice of unlimited vacation time is found in only about 1 percent of employers, and then mostly in smaller ones. Among those that do ascribe to it, a high-trust culture seems to be a big success factor. Red Frog Events is a small entertainment organizer with 80 full-time employees, and it lets them take vacation when they want. According to the �irm’s HR director no abuses have been spotted. Another user, Dov Seidman, CEO of the 300-employee �irm LRN, says, “People are a lot more honest and responsible when they are trusted.”

Gareth Cattermole/Getty Images

Do the Analysis

Based on your experience alone, can this approach to vacation time work for all employers? Is this the next hot thing in employee perks? What are its limits, if any? Do the motivation theories in this chapter

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 222/501

support the practice, or warn about its limits? And when it comes to trusting employees, why isn’t this standard practice anyhow?

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 223/501

6.2 Motivation and Performance Management LEARNING ROADMAP

PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT PROCESS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec114#sec115)

PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT APPROACHES AND ERRORS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec114#sec116)

PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT METHODS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec114#sec117)

If you want to get hired by Procter & Gamble and get rewarded by advancements to upper management, you had better be good. Not only is the company highly selective in hiring; it also carefully tracks the performance of every manager in every job they are asked to do. The �irm always has at least three performance-proven replacements ready to �ill any vacancy that occurs. By linking performance to career advancement, motivation to work hard is built into the P&G management model.13 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c06-note13)

The approach followed by P&G can be highly motivating to those who want to work hard, advance in rank, and have successful top executive careers. However, we shouldn’t underestimate the challenge of implementing this type of performance-based reward system. Such systems falter and fail to deliver desired results when the process and/or the performance measurement isn’t respected by everyone involved.

Performance Management Process The foundations for performance management are shown in Figure 6.2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec114#r�ig6-2) . And if the process is to work well, everyone involved must have good answers to both the “Why?” and the “What?” questions.

The “Why?” question in performance management is “What is the purpose?” Performance management serves an evaluation purpose when it lets people know where their actual performance stands relative to objectives and standards. Such an evaluation feeds into decisions that allocate rewards and otherwise administer the organization’s human resource management systems. Performance management serves a developmental purpose when it provides insights into individual strengths and weaknesses. This can be used to plan helpful training and career development activities.

The “What?” question in performance management is “What is being measured?” It takes us back to the adage “What gets measured happens”—that is, people tend to do what they know is going to be measured. Given this, we have to make sure we are measuring the right things in the right ways in the performance management process. If a dean wants faculty members to be great teachers, for example, teaching has to be measured in valid ways and rewards tied to the results. Of course, the de�inition of “great” teaching and the measurement of it are both open to controversy. This is one reason we often talk about the importance of teaching while rewarding faculty members for easier-to-measure research output.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 224/501

FIGURE 6.2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec114#�ig6-2) Four steps in the performance management process.

Performance Measurement Approaches and Errors Performance measurements should be based on clear criteria, be accurate and defensible in differentiating between high and low performance, and be useful as feedback that can help improve performance in the future. Yet, talking about good measurement is easier than actually doing it. It’s good to use output measures (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo305) that assess what is accomplished in respect to concrete work results. But when measuring outputs is hard, activity measures (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo6) that assess work inputs in respect to activities tried and efforts expended are often used as replacements. An example might be to use the number of customer visits made per day—an activity measure—to assess a salesperson, instead of or in addition to counting the number of actual sales made—an output measure.

Output measures of performance assess achievements in terms of actual work results.

Activity measures of performance assess inputs in terms of work efforts.

Tough Talk from Bosses a Real Turnoff for Workers

Lots of times the answer to this question is “It’s my boss.” A survey by Development Dimensions International reports that dif�icult conversations with bosses are what employees often dread the most. Those conversations rank ahead of going back to work after vacation. They even rank higher than getting a speeding ticket or paying taxes. The in�luence of boss behavior—words and actions—on motivation was clear. Some 98 percent of those working for their “best boss ever” said they were highly motivated in their jobs; only 13 percent of those working for their “worst boss ever” said so.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 225/501

Ice Tea Images/Age Fotostock America, Inc.

Regardless of the method being employed, any performance assessment system should satisfy two criteria. First, the measures should past the test of reliability (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo362) . This means they provide consistent results each time they are used for the same person and situation. Second, the measures should pass the test of validity (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo471) . This means that they actually measure something of direct relevance to job performance. The following are examples of measurement errors that can reduce the reliability or validity of any performance assessment.14 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c06-note14)

Reliability means a performance measure gives consistent results.

Validity means a performance measure addresses job-relevant dimensions.

Common performance measurement errors

Halo error—results when one person rates another person on several different dimensions and gives a similar rating for each dimension.

Leniency error—just as some professors are known as “easy A’s,” some managers tend to give relatively high ratings to virtually everyone under their supervision; the opposite is strictness error—giving everyone a low rating.

Central tendency error—occurs when managers lump everyone together around the average, or middle, category; this gives the impression that there are no very good or very poor performers on the dimensions being rated.

Recency error—occurs when a rater allows recent events to in�luence a performance rating over earlier events; an example is being critical of an employee who is usually on time but shows up one hour late for work the day before his or her performance rating.

Personal bias error—displays expectations and prejudices that fail to give the jobholder complete respect, such as showing racial bias in ratings.

Performance Assessment Methods

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 226/501

The formal procedure or event that evaluates a person’s work performance is often called performance review, performance appraisal, or performance assessment. A variety of methods can be used. But, each has strengths and weaknesses that may make it a better choice in some situations than in others.15 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c06-note15)

Comparative Methods Comparative methods of performance assessment identify one worker’s standing relative to others. Ranking (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo354) is the simplest approach and is done by rank ordering each individual from best to worst on overall performance or on speci�ic performance dimensions. Although relatively simple to use, this method can be dif�icult when many people must be considered. An alternative is the paired comparison (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo306) in which each person is directly compared with every other one. A person’s �inal ranking is determined by the number of pairs for which she or he emerges as the “winner.” Yet another alternative is forced distribution (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo141) . It forces a set percentage of all persons being assessed into predetermined performance categories, such as outstanding, good, average, and poor. For example, it might be that a team leader must assign 10 percent of members to “outstanding,” another 10 percent to “poor,” and another 40 percent each to “good” and “average.” One goal of this method is to eliminate tendencies to rate everyone about the same.

Ranking in performance appraisal orders each person from best to worst.

Paired comparison in performance appraisal compares each person with every other one.

Forced distribution in performance appraisal forces a set percentage of persons into predetermined rating categories.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 227/501

FIGURE 6.3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec114#�ig6-3) Sample behaviorally anchored rating scale (BARS) for a customer service representative.

Rating Scales Graphic rating scales (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo158) list a variety of performance dimensions, such as quality or quality of work, or personal traits, such as punctuality or diligence that an individual is expected to exhibit. The scales allow the manager to easily assign the individual scores on each dimension, but the descriptions are often very generalized and lack solid performance links to a given job. The behaviorally anchored rating scale (BARS) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo26) adds more sophistication by linking ratings to speci�ic and observable job-relevant behaviors. These include descriptions of superior and inferior performance. The sample BARS for a customer service representative in Figure 6.3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec114#r�ig6-3) shows a focus on discriminating among very speci�ic work behaviors. This speci�icity makes the BARS more valuable for both evaluation and development purposes.16 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c06-note16)

Graphic rating scales in performance appraisal assign scores to speci�ic performance dimensions.

The behaviorally anchored rating scale (BARS) links performance ratings to speci�ic and observable job behaviors.

Critical Incident Diary Critical incident diaries (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo73) are written records that give

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 228/501

examples of a person’s work behavior that leads to either unusual performance success or failure. The incidents are typically recorded in a diary-type log that is kept daily or weekly according to predetermined dimensions. This approach is excellent for employee development and feedback. However, because it consists of qualitative statements rather than quantitative ratings, it is more debatable as an evaluation tool. This is why the critical incident technique is often used in combination with one of the other methods.

Critical incident diaries record actual examples of positive and negative work behaviors and results.

360° Review Many organizations now make assessments based on a combination of feedback from a person’s bosses, peers, and subordinates, internal and external customers, and self-ratings. Known as the 360° review (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo1) , or 360° assessment, it is quite common in today’s team-oriented organizations. A typical approach asks the jobholder to complete a self rating and meet with a set of 360° participants to discuss it as well as their ratings. The jobholder learns from how well one’s self-rating compares with the viewpoints of others, and the results are useful for both evaluation and development purposes.

A 360° review or assessment gathers feedback from a jobholder’s bosses, peers, and subordinates, internal and external customers, and self-ratings.

Research Insight

Racial Bias May Exist in Supervisor Ratings of Workers

That racial bias may exist in supervisor ratings of workers is a conclusion of a research study by Joseph M. Stauffer and M. Ronald Buckley reported in a recent Journal of Applied Psychology. The authors point out that it is important to have performance criteria and supervisory ratings that are free of bias. They cite a meta-analysis by Kraiger and Ford (1985) that showed white raters tended to rate white employees more favorably than black employees, whereas black raters rated blacks more favorably than whites. They also cite a later study by Sackett and DuBois (1991) that disputed the �inding that raters tended to favor members of their own racial groups.

In their study, Stauffer and Buckley reanalyzed the Sackett and DuBois data to pursue in more depth the possible interactions between rater and ratee race. The data included samples of military and civilian workers, each of whom was rated by black and white supervisors. Their �indings are that, in both samples, white supervisors gave signi�icantly higher ratings to white workers than they did to black workers, whereas black supervisors also tended to favor white workers in their ratings.

Stauffer and Buckley advise caution in interpreting these results as meaning that the rating differences are the result of racial prejudice; instead they maintain that the data aren’t suf�icient to address this issue. The researchers call for additional studies designed to further examine both the existence of bias in supervisory ratings and the causes of such bias. In terms of workplace implications, however, the authors are quite de�initive: “If you are a White ratee then it doesn’t matter if your supervisor is Black or White. If you are a Black ratee, then it is important whether your supervisor is Black or White.”

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 229/501

Do the Research These �indings raise questions that certainly deserve answering. Can you design a research study that could discover whether or not racial bias affects instructor ratings of students? Also, when you bring this issue up with family and friends, do their experiences seem to support or deny the �indings reported here?

Source: Joseph M. Stauffer and M. Ronald Buckley, “The Existence and Nature of Racial Bias in Supervisory Ratings,” Journal of Applied Psychology 90 (2005), pp. 586–591. Also cited: K. Kraiger and J. K. Ford, “A Meta- analysis of Ratee Race Effects in Performance Ratings,” Journal of Applied Psychology 70 (1985), pp. 56–65; and P. R. Sackett and C. L. Z. DuBois, “Rater-Ratee Race Effects on Performance Evaluations: Challenging Meta- Analytic Conclusions,” Journal of Applied Psychology 76 (1991), pp. 873–877.

New technologies allow 360° feedback to be continuous rather than periodic. Accenture uses a computer program called Performance Multiplier that allows users to post projects, goals, and status updates for review by others. And Microsoft-Rypple software allows users to post assessment questions in 140 characters or less. Examples might be—“What did you think of my presentation?” or “How could I have run that meeting better?” Anonymous responses are compiled by the program, and the 360° feedback is then sent to the person posting the query.17 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c06- note17)

Does Success Come from Hard Work, Luck, or a Bit of Both?

A survey of LinkedIn members in 15 countries reports that 84 percent believe that luck in�luences their careers—both good and bad. But they also say that luck is something we create for ourselves and that good luck tends to come to those who have a strong work ethic. In addition to work ethics, other things that are believed to drive good luck include communication skills, networking, being �lexible, and acting

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 230/501

on opportunities when they arise. Among survey respondents, Japanese considered themselves most lucky in their careers whereas Americans ranked in the middle.

John Turner/Stone/Getty Images

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 231/501

6.3 Motivation and Job Design LEARNING ROADMAP

SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec118#sec119)

JOB ENLARGEMENT AND JOB ROTATION (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec118#sec120)

JOB ENRICHMENT (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec118#sec121)

JOB CHARACTERISTICS MODEL (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec118#sec122)

When it comes to motivation, we might say that nothing beats a good person–job �it. A match of job requirements with individual abilities and needs is often a high satisfaction and high performance combination. By contrast, a bad person–job �it is likely to result in poor motivation and performance problems. You might think of the goal this way:

Person+Good Job Fit=High Motivation

Job design (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo212) is the process of planning and specifying job tasks and work arrangements.18 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c06-note18) Figure 6.4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec118#r�ig6-4) shows how three alternative job design approaches differ in the way tasks are de�ined and availability of intrinsic rewards. The “best” job design is one that meets organizational performance requirements, offers a good �it with individual skills and needs, and provides opportunities for job satisfaction.

Job design is the process of specifying job tasks and work arrangements.

Scienti�ic Management The history of scholarly interest in job design can be traced in part to Frederick Taylor’s work with scienti�ic management (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo385) in the early 1900s.19 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c06-note19) Taylor and his contemporaries wanted to create management and organizational practices that would increase people’s ef�iciency at work. Their approach was to study a job carefully, break it into its smallest components, establish exact time and motion requirements for each task to be done, and then train workers to do these tasks in the same way over and over again. Taylor’s principles of scienti�ic management can be summarized as follows:

Taylor’s scienti�ic management used systematic study of job components to develop practices to increase people’s ef�iciency at work.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 232/501

FIGURE 6.4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec118#�ig6-4) A continuum of job design strategies.

Develop a “science” for each job that covers rules of motion, standard work tools, and supportive work conditions.

Hire workers with the right abilities for the job.

Train and motivate workers to do their jobs according to the science.

Support workers by planning and assisting their work using the job science.

Today, the term job simpli�ication (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo219) is used to describe a scienti�ic management approach that standardizes work procedures and employs people in routine, clearly de�ined, and highly specialized tasks. The machine-paced automobile assembly line is a classic example. Why is it used? The answer is to increase operating ef�iciency. Job simpli�ication reduces the number of skills required, allows for hiring low-cost labor, keeps the need for job training to a minimum, and focuses expertise on repetitive tasks. Why is it often criticized? Jobs designed this way come with potential disadvantages—lower work quality, high rates of absenteeism and turnover, and demands for ever-higher wages to compensate for unappealing work. One response is more automation to replace people with technology. In automobile manufacturing, for example, robots now do many different kinds of work previously accomplished with human labor.

Job simpli�ication standardizes work to create clearly de�ined and highly specialized tasks.

Job Enlargement and Job Rotation Although job simpli�ication makes the limited number of tasks easier to master, the repetitiveness of the work can reduce motivation. This has prompted alternative job design approaches that try to make jobs more interesting by adding breadth to the variety of tasks performed.

Job enlargement (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo213) increases task variety by combining into one job two or more tasks that were previously assigned to separate workers. Sometimes called horizontal loading, this approach increases job breadth by having the worker perform more and different tasks, but all at the same level of responsibility and challenge.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 233/501

Job enlargement increases task variety by combining into one job two or more tasks that were previously assigned to separate workers.

Job rotation (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo216) increases task variety by periodically shifting workers among jobs involving different tasks. Also a form of horizontal loading, the responsibility level of the tasks stays the same. The rotation can be arranged according to almost any time schedule, such as hourly, daily, or weekly schedules. An important bene�it of job rotation is training. It allows workers to become more familiar with different tasks and increases the �lexibility with which they can be moved from one job to another.

Job rotation increases task variety by periodically shifting workers among jobs involving different tasks.

If You Want More Job Satisfaction, Consider Being Your Own Boss

Are you working for money alone, or will you be? If so, perhaps you might try self-employment. A survey from the Pew Research Center Social & Demographics Trends project found that the motivation to work differed somewhat between the self-employed and others. Whereas 50 percent of those not self-employed said they worked because they needed the money, this was the case for only 38 percent of the self- employed. Of them, 32 percent said they worked because they wanted to; for the not self-employed that �igure was 19 percent. Results for job satisfaction followed a similar pattern with 39 percent of the self- employed reporting “complete satisfaction” versus 28 percent of the not self-employed. Although the Pew researchers found the self-employed to be more satis�ied and less prone to work for a paycheck alone, they also noted that the �inancial bene�its are less evident. Among the self-employed, 40 percent say they have �inancial problems versus 30 percent among the not self-employed.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 234/501

© Cat Gwynn/Corbis

Job Enrichment When it comes to job rotation and enlargement, psychologist Frederick Herzberg asks: “Why should workers become motivated when one or more ‘meaningless’ tasks are added to previously existing ones or when work assignments are rotated among equally ‘meaningless’ tasks?”20 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c06-note20) He recommends job enrichment. It designs job that create opportunities to experiene responsibility, achievement, recognition, and personal growth. This is done by vertical loading that moves into a job many planning and evaluating tasks normally performed by supervisors. The increased job depth provides pathways to higher-order need satisfaction, and is supposed to increase both motivation and performance.

Job enrichment builds high-content jobs that involve planning and evaluating duties normally done by supervisors.

Job Characteristics Model OB scholars have been reluctant to recommend job enrichment as a universal approach to job design. There are just too many individual differences among people at work for it to solve all performance and satisfaction problems. Their answer to the question “Is job enrichment for everyone?” is a clear “No.” Present thinking focuses more on a diagnostic and contingency approach to job design. A good example is the job characteristics model developed by Richard Hackman and Greg Oldham.21 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c06-note21)

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 235/501

Core Characteristics Figure 6.5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec118#r�ig6-5) shows how the Hackman and Oldham model informs the process of job design. The higher a job scores on each of the following �ive core characteristics, the higher its motivational potential and the more it is considered to be enriched:22 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c06-note22)

Five core job characteristics

Skill variety—the degree to which a job includes a variety of different activities and involves the use of a number of different skills and talents

Task identity—the degree to which the job requires completion of a “whole” and identi�iable piece of work, one that involves doing a job from beginning to end with a visible outcome

Task signi�icance—the degree to which the job is important and involves a meaningful contribution to the organization or society in general

Autonomy—the degree to which the job gives the employee substantial freedom, independence, and discretion in scheduling the work and determining the procedures used in carrying it out

Job feedback—the degree to which carrying out the work activities provides direct and clear information to the employee regarding how well the job has been done

FIGURE 6.5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec118#�ig6-5) Job design considerations according to the job characteristics model.

A job’s motivating potential can be raised by combining tasks to create larger jobs, opening feedback channels to enable workers to know how well they are doing, establishing client relationships to

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 236/501

experience such feedback directly from customers, and employing vertical loading to create more planning and controlling responsibilities. When the core characteristics are enriched in these ways, the job creates what is often called psychological empowerment—a sense of personal ful�illment and purpose that arouses one’s feelings of competency and commitment to the work.23 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c06-note23) Figure 6.5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec118#r�ig6-5) identi�ies three critical psychological states that have a positive impact on individual motivation, performance, and satisfaction: experienced meaningfulness of the work, experienced responsibility for the outcomes of the work, and knowledge of actual results of the work.

Moderator Variables The �ive core job characteristics do not affect all people in the same way. Rather than accept the notion that enriched jobs should be good for everyone, Hackman and Oldham take a contingency view that suggests enriched jobs will lead to positive outcomes only for those persons who are a good match for them—the person–job �it issue again.

“Fit” in the job characteristics model is based on the three moderators shown in Figure 6.5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec118#r�ig6-5) . The �irst is growth-need strength, or the degree to which a person desires the opportunity for self-direction, learning, and personal accomplishment at work. The expectation here is that people high in growth-need strengths will respond positively to enriched jobs, whereas people low in growth-need strengths will �ind enriched jobs to be sources of anxiety. The second moderator is knowledge and skill. People whose capabilities �it the demands of enriched jobs are predicted to feel good about them and perform well. Those who are inadequate or who feel inadequate in this regard are likely to experience dif�iculties. The third moderator is context satisfaction (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo60) , or the extent to which an employee is satis�ied with aspects of the work setting such as salary, quality of supervision, relationships with co-workers, and working conditions. In general, people who are satis�ied with job context are more likely to do well in enriched jobs.

OB IN POPULAR CULTURE

Self-Management and Slumdog Millionaire

The Times of London called this movie an “exotic, edgy thriller,” and the New York Times described it as a “gaudy, gorgeous rush of color, sound and motion.” What’s your take on this rags-to-riches story of an orphan growing up in Mumbai, India, and �inding his way to a TV game show offering him the chance to be a “slumdog millionaire”?

When the disgruntled game-show host has the police chief rough up the main character, Jamal (Dev Patel), the night before the big show, he asks, “What the hell can a slum boy possibly know?” Facing the chief and the prospect of more mistreatment, Jamal looks him in the eye and says in return, “The answers.”

This movie is a study in discipline, con�idence, and self-management—the capacity to act with a strong sense of self-awareness. As a career skill, this ability helps us stay con�ident, build on strengths, overcome weaknesses, and avoid viewing ourselves both more favorably or more negatively than is justi�ied.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 237/501

MCT/NewsCom

You have to admire Jamal’s motivation and the way he held up under the police chief’s torture. He also didn’t fall prey to the quiz master’s repeated attempts to deceive and pressure him into not believing his own best answers. It’s a classic case of self-management in action.

Even if you’ve already seen it, Slumdog Millionaire is worth another viewing. Watch for lessons on management and personal career development that you might explore with your friends and classmates.

Get to Know Yourself Better Take Assessment 7, Two Factor Pro�ile, in the OB Skills Workbook. Think about your capacity for self-management: what really motivates you in work situations. What are your primary sources of motivation, and what role do intrinsic and extrinsic rewards play in them? How con�ident are you that self-management will lead you through situations where extrinsic rewards may be high but the behaviors you might engage in to reach them may be questionable?

Research Concerns and Questions Experts generally agree that the job characteristics model and its diagnostic approach are useful but not perfect, guides to job design.24 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c06-note24) One concern is whether or not jobs have stable and objective characteristics to which individuals will respond predictably and consistently over time.25 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c06-note25) It’s quite possible that individual needs and task perceptions are a result of socially constructed realities. Suppose, for example, that several of your friends tell you that the instructor for a course is bad, the content is boring, and the requirements involve too much work. You may then think that the critical characteristics of the class are the instructor, the content, and the workload, and that they are all bad. All of this may substantially in�luence the way you perceive your instructor and the course, and the way you deal with the class— regardless of the core characteristics discussed in the Hackman and Oldham model.

Finally, research provides the following answers for three common questions about job enrichment and its applications. (1) Should everyone’s job be enriched? The answer is clearly “No.” The logic of individual differences suggests that not everyone will want an enriched job. Individuals most likely to have positive reactions to job enrichment are those who need achievement, who exhibit a strong work ethic, or who are seeking higher-order growth-need satisfaction at work. Job enrichment also appears to work best when the job context is positive and when workers have the abilities needed to do the enriched job. Costs, technological constraints, and workgroup or union opposition may also make it dif�icult to enrich some jobs. (2) With so much attention on teams in organizations today, can job enrichment apply to groups? The

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 238/501

answer is “Yes.” The result is called a self managing team. (3) For those who don’t want an enriched job, what can be done to make their work more motivating? One answer rests in the following section and its focus on alternative work schedules. Even if the job content can’t be changed, a redesign of the job context or setting may have a positive impact on motivation and performance.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 239/501

6.4 Alternative Work Schedules LEARNING ROADMAP

COMPRESSED WORKWEEKS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec123#sec124)

FLEXIBLE WORKING HOURS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec123#sec125)

JOB SHARING (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec123#sec126)

TELECOMMUTING (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec123#sec127)

PART-TIME WORK (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec123#sec128)

Another way that organizations are reshaping employee value propositions is through alternative work arrangements that do away with the traditional forty-hour weeks and nine-to-�ive schedules where work is done at the place of business. New alternatives are designed to improve satisfaction by helping employees balance the demands of work with their nonwork lives.26 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c06-note26) The value from the employee side is more support for work–life balance by a “family-friendly” employer.

If you have any doubts at all about the forces at play, consider these facts: 78 percent of American couples are dual wage earners; 63 percent believe they don’t have enough time for spouses and partners; 74 percent believe they don’t have enough time for their children; 35 percent are spending time caring for elderly relatives. Furthermore, both Baby Boomers and Gen Ys believe �lexible work is important and want opportunities to work remotely at least part of the time.27 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c06-note27)

Compressed Workweeks A compressed workweek (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo49) is any schedule that allows a full-time job to be completed in fewer than the standard �ive days. The most common form is the “4/40”—40 hours of work accomplished in four 10-hour days, leaving a 3-day break. The additional time off gives workers longer weekends, free weekdays to pursue personal business, and lower commuting costs. In return, the organization hopes for less absenteeism, greater work motivation, and improved recruiting of new employees.28 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c06- note28) However, scheduling compressed workweeks can be more complicated, overtime pay for time over 8 hours in one day may be required by law, and union opposition to the longer workday is also a possibility.

A compressed workweek allows a full-time job to be completed in fewer than the standard �ive days.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 240/501

Flexible Working Hours Another alternative is some form of �lexible working hours (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo138) or �lextime that gives individuals daily choice in work hours. A common �lex schedule requires certain hours of “core” time but leaves employees free to choose their remaining hours from �lexible time blocks. One person, for example, may start early and leave early, whereas another may start later and leave later.

Flexible working hours give individuals some amount of choice in scheduling their daily work hours.

All top 100 companies in Working Mother magazine’s list of best employers for working moms offer �lexible scheduling. Reports indicate that the �lexibility gained to deal with nonwork obligations can lower turnover, absenteeism, and tardiness for the organization while reducing stress and raising commitment and performance by workers.29 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c06-note29) Flexible hours help employees manage children’s schedules, ful�ill elder care responsibilities, and attend to personal affairs such as medical and dental appointments, home emergencies, banking, and so on.

Job Sharing In job sharing (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo218) , two or more persons split one full-time job. This can be done, for example, on a half day, weekly, or monthly basis. Organizations bene�it from job sharing when they can attract talented people who would otherwise be unable to work. Some job sharers report less burnout and claim that they feel recharged each time they report for work. The tricky part of this arrangement is �inding two people who will stay coordinated and work well with each other.

In job sharing, one full-time job is split between two or more persons who divide the work according to agreed-upon hours.

Job sharing should not be confused with something called work sharing (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo480) . This occurs when workers agree to cut back on the number of hours they work in order to protect against layoffs. In the recent economic crisis, for example, workers in some organizations agreed to voluntarily reduce their paid hours worked so that others would not lose their jobs.

Work sharing is when employees agree to work fewer hours to avoid layoffs.

How Employers Can Beat the Mommy Drain

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 241/501

Mango Productions/Corbis

It’s no secret that more and more employers are turning to �lexibility in work schedules to better accommodate today’s workers. Among them, Accenture and Booz Allen Hamilton are taking special steps to make sure they can attract and retain talented working mothers. Here is a selection of ways top employers are counteracting the “Mommy drain” and responding to Daddy’s needs as well:

Offer increased pay and extended time for maternity leave.

Offer increased pay and extended time for parental leave.

Allow employee pay set-asides to buy more time for maternal and parental leave.

Create alternative and challenging jobs that require less travel.

Make sure pay for performance plans do not discriminate against those on maternal or parental leave.

Set up mentoring and networking systems to support working parents.

Make sure new mothers feel they are wanted back at work.

Keep in contact with employees on maternity and parental leaves.

Telecommuting Technology has enabled yet another alternative work arrangement that is now highly visible in employment sectors ranging from higher education to government, and from manufacturing to services.30 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c06-note30) Telecommuting (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo454) is work done at home or in a remote location via the use of computers, tablets, and smart phone connections with bosses, co-workers, and customers. And it’s popular. About four out of �ive employees say they would like the option and consider it a “signi�icant job perk.”31 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c06-note31)

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 242/501

Telecommuting is work done at home or from a remote location using computers, tablets, and smart phone devices.

When asked what they like, telecommuters report increased productivity, fewer distractions, the freedom to be their own boss, and the bene�it of having more time for themselves. They also like the added �lexibility, comforts of home, and being able to live and work in locations consistent with personal lifestyles. Potential negatives are reported as well. Some telecommuters say they end up working too much while having dif�iculty separating work and personal life. Other complaints include not being considered as important as on-site workers, feeling isolated from co-workers and less identi�ied with the work team, and even having trouble managing interruptions from everyday family affairs. One telecommuter says, “You have to have self-discipline and pride in what you do, but you also have to have a boss that trusts you enough to get out of the way.”32 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c06-note32)

Employers that allow telecommuting expect it to help improve work–life balance and job satisfaction for employees. But, some also worry that too much telecommuting disrupts schedules and reduces important face-to-face time among co-workers. Yahoo CEO Marissa Mayer, for example, was willing to face criticism when she decided to disallow it. Her reasoning was that working from home detracted from Yahoo!’s collaborative culture and ability to innovate.33 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c06-note33)

CHECKING ETHICS IN OB

Snif�ling at Work Takes Its Toll

You wake up feeling even worse than the day before. Snif�ling, sneezing, coughing, you make your way to work, hoping to get through the day as best as you can. Fine, but what about everyone whom you’ll come into contact with that day, and what about the impact your presenteeism—basically meaning that you go to work sick—can have on of�ice productivity and your co-workers’ and customers’ lives in general?

Brett Gorovsky of CCH, a business information resource, says that when people come to work sick it “can take a very real hit on the bottom line.” His �irm reports that 56 percent of executives in one poll considered this a problem; that �igure is up some 17 percent in a two-year period. Estimates are that the cost of lost productivity is as much as $180 billion annually. Just think of the costs of swine �lu season.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 243/501

Rubberball/iStockphoto

WebMD reports a study claiming that the cost of lost productivity could be higher than what might be paid out in authorized sick days. Still, the fact remains: Many of us work sick because we have to if we want to be paid.

You Tell Us What are the ethics of coming to work sick and sharing our illnesses with others? From the management side of things, what are the ethics of not providing bene�its suf�icient to allow employees to stay home from work when they aren’t feeling well?

Part-Time Work Part-time work is an increasingly prominent and controversial work arrangement. One of the big downsides is that part-timers often fail to qualify for fringe bene�its such as health care insurance and retirement plans. In addition, they may be paid less than their full-time counterparts. Because part-timers are easily released and hired as needs dictate, they are also likely to be laid off before full-timers during dif�icult business times.

The number of part-time workers is growing as today’s employers try to stay �lexible and manage costs in a demanding global economy. This is re�lected in what you might hear called a “permanent temp economy,” one where working as a permanent part timer—or—permatemp is a new reality for many job hunters.34 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c06-note34) Some choose this schedule voluntarily. Recent data, for example, show that many Millennials are opting for a shifting portfolio of freelance jobs that give them �lexibility while still providing earning power.35 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c06-note35) But, there’s no doubt that part-time work is an involuntary alternative for many who would prefer full-time work but are unable to get it.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 244/501

6 Study Guide

Key Questions and Answers What is the link between motivation, performance, and rewards?

The integrated model of motivation brings together insights from content, process, and learning theories around the basic effort–performance–reward linkage.

Reward systems emphasize a mix of intrinsic rewards, such as a sense of achievement from completing a challenging task, and extrinsic rewards, such as receiving a pay increase.

Pay-for-performance systems takes a variety of forms, including merit pay, gain-sharing and pro�it-sharing plans, stock options, and employee stock ownership.

What are the essentials of performance management?

Performance management is the process of managing performance measurement and the variety of human resource decisions associated with such measurement.

Performance measurement serves both an evaluative purpose for reward allocation and a development purpose for future performance improvement.

Performance measurement can be done using output measures of performance accomplishment or activity measures of performance efforts.

The ranking, paired comparison, and forced-distribution approaches are examples of comparative performance appraisal methods.

The graphic rating scale and the behaviorally anchored rating scale use individual ratings on personal and performance characteristics to appraise performance.

360° appraisals involve the full circle of contacts a person may have in job performance—from bosses to peers to subordinates to internal and external customers.

Common performance measurement errors include halo errors, central tendency errors, recency errors, personal bias errors, and cultural bias errors.

How do job designs in�luence motivation and performance?

Job design by scienti�ic management or job simpli�ication standardizes work and employs people in clearly de�ined and specialized tasks.

Job enlargement increases task variety by combining two or more tasks previously assigned to separate workers; job rotation increases task variety by periodically rotating workers among jobs involving different tasks; job enrichment builds bigger and more responsible jobs by adding planning and evaluating duties.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 245/501

The job characteristics model offers a diagnostic approach to job enrichment based on analysis of �ive core job characteristics: skill variety, task identity, task signi�icance, autonomy, and feedback.

The job characteristics model does not assume that everyone wants an enriched job; it indicates that job enrichment will be more successful for persons with high-growth needs, requisite job skills, and context satisfaction.

What are the motivational opportunities of alternative work arrangements?

The compressed workweek allows a full-time workweek to be completed in fewer than �ive days, typically offering four ten-hour days of work and three days free.

Flexible working hours allow employees some daily choice in scheduling core and �lex time.

Job sharing occurs when two or more people divide one full-time job according to agreements among themselves and the employer.

Telecommuting involves work at home or at a remote location while communicating with the home of�ice as needed via computer and related technologies.

Part-time work requires less than a forty-hour workweek and can be done on a temporary or permanent schedule.

Terms to Know 360° review (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec114#key1)

Activity measures (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec114#key2)

Behaviorally anchored rating scale (BARS) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec114#key3)

Bonuses (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec109#key4)

Compressed workweek (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec123#key5)

Critical incident diaries (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec114#key6)

Employee stock ownership plans (ESOPs) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec109#key7)

Employee value proposition (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec109#key8)

Extrinsic rewards (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec109#key9)

Flexible working hours (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec123#key10)

Forced distribution (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec114#key11)

Gain sharing (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec109#key12)

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 246/501

Graphic rating scales (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec114#key13)

Intrinsic rewards (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec109#key14)

Job design (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec118#key15)

Job enlargement (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec118#key16)

Job enrichment (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec118#key17)

Job rotation (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec118#key18)

Job sharing (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec123#key19)

Job simpli�ication (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec118#key20)

Merit pay (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec109#key21)

Motivation (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec109#key22)

Output measures (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec114#key23)

Paired comparison (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec114#key24)

Performance-contingent pay (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec109#key25)

Person–job �it (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec109#key26)

Person–organization �it (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec109#key27)

Pro�it sharing (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec109#key28)

Ranking (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec114#key29)

Reliability (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec114#key30)

Scienti�ic management (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec118#key31)

Skill-based pay (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec109#key32)

Stock options (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec109#key33)

Telecommuting (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec123#key34)

Validity (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec114#key35)

Work sharing (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec123#key36)

Self-Test 6 Multiple Choice

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 247/501

1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c06str1) . In the integrated model of motivation, what predicts effort?

a. (a) rewards

b. (b) organizational support

c. (c) ability

d. (d) motivation

2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c06str2) . Pay is generally considered a/an ____________ reward, whereas a sense of personal growth experienced from working at a task is an example of a/an ____________ reward.

a. (a) extrinsic, skill-based

b. (b) skill-based, intrinsic

c. (c) extrinsic, intrinsic

d. (d) absolute, comparative

3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c06str3) . If someone improves productivity by developing a new work process and receives a portion of the productivity savings as a monetary reward, this is an example of a/an ____________ pay plan.

a. (a) cost-sharing

b. (b) gain-sharing

c. (c) ESOP

d. (d) stock option

4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c06str4) . Performance measurement serves both evaluation and ____________ purposes.

a. (a) reward allocation

b. (b) counseling

c. (c) discipline

d. (d) bene�its calculations

5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c06str5) . Which form of performance assessment is an example of the comparative approach?

a. (a) forced distribution

b. (b) graphic rating scale

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 248/501

c. (c) BARS

d. (d) critical incident diary

6 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c06str6) . If a performance assessment method fails to accurately measure a person’s performance on actual job content, it lacks ____________.

a. (a) performance contingency

b. (b) leniency

c. (c) validity

d. (d) strictness

7 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c06str7) . A written record that describes in detail various examples of a person’s positive and negative work behaviors is most likely part of which performance appraisal method?

a. (a) forced distribution

b. (b) critical incident diary

c. (c) paired comparison

d. (d) graphic rating scale

8 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c06str8) . When a team leader evaluates the performance of all team members as “average,” the possibility for ____________ error in the performance appraisal is quite high.

a. (a) personal bias

b. (b) recency

c. (c) halo

d. (d) central tendency

9 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c06str9) . Job simpli�ication is closely associated with ____________ as originally developed by Frederick Taylor.

a. (a) vertical loading

b. (b) horizontal loading

c. (c) scienti�ic management

d. (d) self-ef�icacy

10 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c06str10) . Job ____________ increases job ____________ by combining into one job several tasks of similar dif�iculty.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 249/501

a. (a) rotation, depth

b. (b) enlargement, depth

c. (c) rotation, breadth

d. (d) enlargement, breadth

11 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c06str11) . If a manager redesigns a job through vertical loading, she would most likely ____________.

a. (a) bring tasks from earlier in the work�low into the job

b. (b) bring tasks from later in the work�low into the job

c. (c) bring higher-level or managerial responsibilities into the job

d. (d) raise the standards for high performance

12 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c06str12) . In the job characteristics model, a person will be most likely to �ind an enriched job motivating if he or she ____________.

a. (a) receives stock options

b. (b) has ability and support

c. (c) is unhappy with job context

d. (d) has strong growth needs

13 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c06str13) . In the job characteristics model, ____________ indicates the degree to which an individual is able to make decisions affecting his or her work.

a. (a) task variety

b. (b) task identity

c. (c) task signi�icance

d. (d) autonomy

14 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c06str14) . When a job allows a person to do a complete unit of work—for example, process an insurance claim from point of receipt from the customer to the point of �inal resolution—it would be considered high on which core characteristic?

a. (a) task identity

b. (b) task signi�icance

c. (c) task autonomy

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 250/501

d. (d) feedback

15 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c06str15) . The 4/40 is a type of ____________ work arrangement.

a. (a) compressed workweek

b. (b) “allow workers to change machine con�igurations to make different products”

c. (c) job-sharing

d. (d) permanent part-time

Short Response

16 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c06str16) . Explain how a 360° review works as a performance appraisal approach.

17 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c06str17) . Explain the difference between halo errors and recency errors in performance assessment.

18 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c06str18) . What role does growth-need strength play in the job characteristics model?

19 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c06str19) . What are the potential advantages and disadvantages of a compressed workweek?

Applications Essay

20 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c06str20) . Choose a student organization on your campus. Discuss in detail how the concepts and ideas in this chapter could be applied in various ways to improve motivation and performance among its members.

Steps to Further Learning 6 Top Choices from The OB Skills Workbook

These learning activities from The OB Skills Workbook found at the back of the book are suggested for Chapter 6 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/ch6#ch6) .

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 251/501

Case for Critical Thinking Team and Experiential Exercises

Self-Assessment Portfolio

Perfect Pizzeria, or Not?

OB Classic: Hovey and Beard Company

My Fantasy Job

Upward Appraisal

Tinkertoys

Job Design Preferences

Two-Factor Pro�ile

Are You Cosmopolitan?

Managerial Assumptions

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 252/501

Part 3 Teams and Teamwork

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 253/501

Synergy drives a great team

©Ian/Lishman/Corbis

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 254/501

7 The Nature of Teams

The Key Point

When teams achieve synergy they unlock member talents and rally enthusiasm for creativity and high performance. But, we all know that teamwork isn’t always easy and that teams sometimes underperform. It takes special skills and commitment—from leaders and team members alike—to bring out the best that teams have to offer.

What’s Inside?

Bringing OB to LIFE

REMOVING THE HEADPHONES TO SHOW TEAM SPIRIT

Worth Considering . . . or Best Avoided?

SOFTWARE MAKES ONLINE MEETINGS EASY. IS IT TIME TO KILL FACE-TO-FACE SIT-DOWNS?

Checking Ethics in OB

CHEAT NOW . . . CHEAT LATER

Finding the Leader in You

TEAMWORK LEADS NASCAR’S RACE IN THE FAST LANE

OB in Popular Culture

SOCIAL LOAFING AND SURVIVOR

Research Insight

MEMBERSHIP, INTERACTIONS, AND EVALUATION INFLUENCE SOCIAL LOAFING IN GROUPS

Chapter at a Glance

What Are Teams, and How Are They Used in Organizations?

When Is a Team Effective?

What Are the Stages of Team Development?

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 255/501

How Can We Understand Teams at Work?

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 256/501

7.1 Teams in Organizations LEARNING ROADMAP

TEAMS AND TEAMWORK (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec130#sec131)

WHAT TEAMS DO (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec130#sec132)

ORGANIZATIONS AS NETWORKS OF TEAMS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec130#sec133)

CROSS-FUNCTIONAL AND PROBLEM-SOLVING TEAMS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec130#sec134)

SELF-MANAGING TEAMS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec130#sec135)

VIRTUAL TEAMS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec130#sec136)

When we hear the word team, a variety of popular sports teams often comes to mind, perhaps a favorite from the college ranks or the professional leagues. For a moment, let’s stick with basketball. Scene—NBA Basketball: Scholars �ind that both good and bad basketball teams win more games the longer the players have been together. Why? They claim it’s a “teamwork effect” that creates wins because players know each other’s moves and playing tendencies.1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c07-note1)

Let’s not forget that teams are important in work settings as well. And whether or not a team lives up to expectations can have a major impact on how well its customers and clients are served. Scene—Hospital Operating Room: Scholars notice that the same heart surgeons have lower death rates for similar procedures when performed in hospitals where they do more operations. They claim it’s because the doctors spend more time working together with members of these surgery teams. The scholars argue it’s not only the surgeon’s skills that count: “The skills of the team, and of the organization, matter.”2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c07-note2)

Teams and Teamwork What is going on in the prior examples? Whereas a group of people milling around a coffee shop counter is just that—a “group” of people, teams like those in the examples are supposed to be something more —“groups +” if you will. That “+” factor is what distinguishes the successful NBA basketball teams from the also-rans and the best surgery teams from all the others.

In OB we de�ine a team (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo448) as a group of people brought together to use their complementary skills to achieve a common purpose for which they are collectively accountable.3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c07-note3) Real teamwork (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo452) occurs when team members accept and live up to their collective accountability by actively working together so that all of their respective skills are best used to achieve team goals.4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c07-note4) Of course, there is a lot more to

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 257/501

teamwork than simply assigning members to the same group, calling it a team, appointing someone as team leader, and then expecting everybody to do a great job.5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c07-note5) The responsibilities for building high- performance teams rest not only with the team leader, manager, or coach, but also with the team members. If you look now at the “Heads Up: Don’t Forget” sidebar, you’ll �ind a checklist of several team must-haves, the types of contributions that team members and leaders can make to help their teams achieve high performance.6 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c07-note6)

A team is a group of people holding themselves collectively accountable for using complementary skills to achieve a common purpose.

Teamwork occurs when team members live up to their collective accountability for goal accomplishment.

Heads Up: Don’t Forget These Must-Have Contributions by Team Members

© Monalyn Gracia Corbis

Putting personal talents to work

Encouraging and motivating others

Accepting suggestions

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 258/501

Listening to different points of view

Communicating information and ideas

Persuading others to cooperate

Resolving and negotiating con�lict

Building consensus

Ful�illing commitments

Avoiding disruptive acts and words

What Teams Do One of the �irst things to understand about teams in organizations is that they do many things and make many types of performance contributions. In general, we can describe them as teams that recommend things, run things, and make or do things.7 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c07- note7)

Teams that recommend things are set up to study speci�ic problems and recommend solutions for them. These teams typically work with a target completion date and often disband once the purpose has been ful�illed. The teams include task forces, ad hoc committees, special project teams, and the like. Members of these teams must be able to learn quickly how to pool talents, work well together, and accomplish the assigned task.

Teams that run things lead organizations and their component parts. A good example is a top-management team composed of a CEO and other senior executives. Key issues addressed by top-management teams include identifying overall organizational purposes, goals, and values as well as crafting strategies and persuading others to support them.8 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c07-note8)

Teams that make or do things are work units that perform ongoing tasks such as marketing, sales, systems analysis, manufacturing, or working on special projects with assigned due dates. Members of these action teams must have good working relationships with one another, the right technologies and operating systems, and the external support needed to achieve performance effectiveness over the long term or within an assigned deadline.

Organizations as Networks of Teams The many formal teams (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo143) found in organizations are created and of�icially designated to serve speci�ic purposes. Some are permanent and appear on organization charts as departments (e.g., market research department), divisions (e.g., consumer products division), or teams (e.g., product-assembly team). Such teams can vary in size from very small departments or teams consisting of just a few people to large divisions employing 100 or more people. Other formal teams are temporary and short lived. They are created to solve speci�ic problems or perform de�ined tasks and are then disbanded once the purpose has been accomplished. Examples include temporary committees and task forces.9 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c07-note9)

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 259/501

Formal teams are of�icial and designated to serve a speci�ic purpose.

Interlocking networks of formal teams create the basic structure of an organization. On the vertical dimension, the team leader at one level is a team member at the next higher level.10 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c07-note10) On the horizontal dimension, a team member may also serve on organization-wide task forces and committees.

Organizations also have vast networks of informal groups (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo188) , which emerge and coexist as a shadow to the formal structure and without any assigned purpose or of�icial endorsement. As shown in the nearby �igure, these informal groups develop through personal relationships and create their own interlocking networks within the organization. Friendship groups consist of persons who like one another. Their members tend to work together, sit together, take breaks together, and even do things together outside of the workplace. Interest groups consist of persons who share job-related interests, such as an intense desire to learn more about computers, or non work interests, such as community service, sports, or religion.

Informal groups are unof�icial and emerge to serve special interests.

Although informal groups can be places where people meet to complain, spread rumors, and disagree with what is happening in the organization, they can also be quite helpful. The personal connections activated within informal networks can speed up work�lows as people assist each other in ways that cut across the formal structures. They also create interpersonal relationships that can satisfy individual needs, such as by providing companionship (meeting a social need) or a sense of personal importance (meeting an ego need).

A tool known as social network analysis (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo418) is used to identify the informal groups and networks of relationships that are active in an organization. The analysis typically asks people to identify co-workers who most often help them, who communicate with them regularly, and who motivate and demotivate them. When these social networks are mapped, you learn a lot about how work really gets done and who communicates most often with whom. The results often contrast markedly with the formal arrangements depicted on organization charts. And, this information can be used to redo the charts and reorganize teamwork for better performance.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 260/501

Social network analysis identi�ies the informal structures and their embedded social relationships that are active in an organization.

FINDING THE LEADER IN YOU Teamwork Leads NASCAR’s Race in the Fast Lane

What distinguishes a group of people from a high-performance team? For one, it’s the way members work with one another to achieve common goals.

A vivid example is a NASCAR pit crew. When a driver pulls in for a pit stop, the team must rapidly perform multiple tasks �lawlessly and in perfect order and unison. A second gained or lost can be crucial to a NASCAR driver’s performance. Team members must be well trained and rehearsed to ef�iciently perform on race day. “You can’t win a race with a twelve-second stop, but you can lose it with an eighteen-second stop,” says pit crew coach Trent Cherry.

Pit crew members are conditioned and trained to execute intricate maneuvers while taking care of tire changes, car adjustments, fueling, and related matters on a crowded pit lane. Each crew member is an expert at one task. Each is also fully aware of how that job �its into every other task that must be performed in a few-second pit-stop interval.

The duties are carefully scripted for each individual’s performance and equally choreographed to �it together seamlessly at the team level. Every task is highly specialized and interdependent; if the jacker is late, for example, the wheel changer can’t pull the wheel.

Pit crews plan and practice again and again, getting ready for the big test of race-day performance. The crew chief makes sure that everyone is in shape, well trained, and ready to contribute to the team. “I don’t want seven all-stars,” Trent Cherry says, “I want seven guys who work as a team.”

The NASCAR pit crews don’t just get together and wing it on race days. The members are carefully selected for their skills and attitudes, the teams practice–practice–practice, and the pit crew leader doesn’t hesitate to make changes when things aren’t going well.

© GeorgeTiedemann/GT Image/Corbis

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 261/501

What’s the Lesson Here?

When in groups do you encourage teamwork, or do you do some things as a leader that might be harmful to team dynamics? Are you able to see ways to make positive changes even when things are going well? How open are you to suggestions for improvement from team members?

Cross-Functional and Problem-Solving Teams A cross-functional team (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo74) consists of people brought together from different functional departments or work units to achieve more horizontal integration and better lateral relations. Members of cross-functional teams are supposed to work together with a positive combination of functional expertise and integrative team thinking. The expected result is higher performance driven by the advantages of better information and faster decision making.

A cross-functional team consists of members from different functions or work units.

Cross-functional teams are a way of trying to beat the functional silos problem (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo150) , also called the functional chimneys problem. It occurs when members of functional units stay focused on internal matters and minimize their interactions and cooperation with other functions. In this sense, the functional departments or work teams create arti�icial boundaries, or “silos,” that discourage rather than encourage interaction with other units. The result is poor integration and poor coordination with other parts of the organization. The cross-functional team helps break down these barriers by creating a forum in which members from different functions work together as one team with a common purpose.11 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c07-note11)

The functional silos problem occurs when members of one functional team fail to interact with others from other functional teams.

Organizations also use any number of problem-solving teams (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo337) , which are created temporarily to serve a speci�ic purpose by dealing with a speci�ic problem or opportunity. The president of a company, for example, might convene a task force to examine the possibility of implementing �lexible work hours; a human resource director might bring together a committee to advise her on changes in employee bene�it policies; a project team might be formed to plan and implement a new organization- wide information system.

A problem-solving team is set up to deal with a speci�ic problem or opportunity.

The term employee involvement team (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo113) applies to a wide variety of teams whose members meet regularly to collectively examine important workplace issues. They might discuss, for example, ways to enhance quality, better satisfy customers, raise productivity, and improve the

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 262/501

quality of work life. Such employee involvement teams are supposed to mobilize the full extent of workers’ know-how and experiences for continuous improvements. An example is what some organizations call a quality circle (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo353) , a small team of persons who meet periodically to discuss and make proposals for ways to improve quality.12 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c07-note12)

An employee involvement team meets regularly to address workplace issues.

A quality circle team meets regularly to address quality issues.

Self-Managing Teams The self-managing team (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo396) is a high-involvement workgroup design that is becoming increasingly well established. Sometimes called self- directed work teams, these teams are empowered to make the decisions needed to manage themselves on a day-to-day basis.13 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c07-note13) They basically replace traditional work units with teams whose members assume duties otherwise performed by a manager or �irst-line supervisor. Figure 7.1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec130#r�ig7-1) shows that members of true self-managing teams make their own decisions about scheduling work, allocating tasks, training for job skills, evaluating performance, selecting new team members, and controlling the quality of work.

Self-managing teams are empowered to make decisions to manage themselves in day-to-day work.

Most self-managing teams include between �ive and �ifteen members. They need to be large enough to provide a good mix of skills and resources but small enough to function ef�iciently. Because team members have a lot of discretion in determining work pace and in distributing tasks, multiskilling (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo265) is important. This means that team members are expected to perform many different jobs—even all of the team’s jobs—as needed. Pay is ideally skill based: The more skills someone masters, the higher the base pay.

In multiskilling, team members are each capable of performing many different jobs.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 263/501

FIGURE 7.1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec130#�ig7-1) Organizational and management implications of self-managing teams.

The expected bene�its of self-managing teams include better work quality, faster response to change, reduced absenteeism and turnover, and improved work attitudes and quality of work life. As with all organizational changes, however, the shift from traditional work units to self-managing teams may encounter dif�iculties. It may be hard for some team members to adjust to the “self-managing” responsibilities, and higher-level managers may have problems dealing with the absence of a �irst-line supervisor. Given all this, self-managing teams are probably not right for all organizations, situations, and people. They have great potential, but they also require the right setting and a great deal of management support. At a minimum, the essence of any self-managing team—high involvement, participation, and empowerment—must be consistent with the values and culture of the organization.

Teamwork Makes “Worker-Owner” an Attractive Alternative to “Working-for-Others”

James Johnson says repairing computers at a local store in Richmond, California, “was just another job.” Now he’s a turned-on worker-owner in a bicycle shop. Called “hippie capitalism” by some, a worker cooperative tries to make teamwork a way of life. Everyone owns a �inancial share, and no one person is boss; work and leadership are evenly distributed. In Johnson’s case, as he says, “you have to oversee people without actually being in charge.” The city of Richmond is promoting cooperatives as a way of combating a bad economy. But the mayor’s former assistant, Marilyn Langois, says the cooperative model “is really about creating democracy in the workplace and giving workers a sense that they own their own jobs.”

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 264/501

© Raphye Alexius/Corbis

Virtual Teams It used to be that teamwork was con�ined in concept and practice to those circumstances in which members could meet face to face. Information technology has changed all that. The virtual team (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo479) , one whose members work together through computer mediation rather than face to face, is now common.14 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c07-note14) Working in electronic space and free from the constraints of geographical distance, members of virtual teams do the same things members of face-to-face groups do. They share information, make decisions, and complete tasks together. And just like face-to-face teams, they have to be set up and managed well to achieve their full bene�its. Some steps to successful teams are summarized in the “Don’t Neglect These Steps to Successful Virtual Teams” sidebar.15 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c07-note15)

Members of virtual teams work together through computer mediation.

The potential advantages of virtual teams begin with the cost and time ef�iciencies of bringing together people located at some, perhaps great, distance from one another.16 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c07-note16) The electronic rather than face-to-face environment of the virtual team can help keep things on task by focusing attention and decision making on objective issues rather than emotional considerations and distracting interpersonal problems. Discussions and information shared among team members can also be stored electronically for continuous access and historical record keeping.

Don’t Neglect These Steps to Successful Virtual Teams

Select team members high in initiative and capable of self-starting.

Select members who will join and engage the team with positive attitudes.

Select members known for working hard to meet team goals.

Begin with social messaging that allows members to exchange information about each other to personalize the process.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 265/501

Assign clear goals and roles so that members can focus while working alone and also know what others are doing.

Gather regular feedback from members about how they think the team is doing and how it might do better.

Provide regular feedback to team members about team accomplishments.

The potential downsides to virtual teams are also real. Members of virtual teams may �ind it hard to get up to speed and work well with one another. When the computer is the go-between, relationships and interactions can be different and require special attention. The lack of face-to-face interaction limits the role of emotions and nonverbal cues in the communication process, perhaps depersonalizing relations among team members.

WORTH CONSIDERING ...OR BEST AVOIDED?

Software Makes Online Meetings Easy. Is It Time to Kill Face-to-Face Sit-downs?

“I just can’t do another meeting,” you say? Well, why not just connect virtually with those who would be involved and let things go at that? If you work for a tech �irm the chances are that’s the way things often get done. The question is this: Why aren’t more people in more organizations abandoning the sit-down meeting and going online?

“When you’re operating on the maker’s schedule, meetings are a disaster,” says software engineer Paul Graham. Meetings just don’t �it the creativity and �lexible timetables that bring most software to life. Some �irms, such as Facebook, Dropbox, and Square, are trying to limit the time people spend in sit-downs. The experience of a former Microsoft engineer lends credibility to their moves. He claims that his 40-hour week was often consumed with 20 to 30 hours of meetings where “too little was accomplished.” He left Microsoft to join GitHub, a small start-up that supports virtual teamwork.

One advantage of moving meetings online is that the tendency of manager-dominated discussions is lessened. In virtual space, people show less deference to job titles and status. Power tends to be distributed among all members and �lows toward those with information and expertise and insight.

Even when the sit-down is unavoidable, some �irms are trying to limit time spent and boost meeting productivity. At Grouper, another start-up, meetings are limited to 10 minutes maximum—and everyone has to stand, no sitting allowed.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 266/501

Master�ile

Do the Analysis

This discussion is prompted by developments in the tech industry where highly talented people—often engineers—work on complex projects. How might the “no sit-down” approach work in other organizational settings? Make a list of two or three factors that you believe are most critical to the success of virtual teamwork. Check the scholarly literature to see if it supports your observations. And �inally, what difference do the people in the meeting make. Is virtual teamwork or the standing face-to-face meeting approach good for everyone?

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 267/501

7.2 Team Effectiveness LEARNING ROADMAP

CRITERIA OF AN EFFECTIVE TEAM (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec137#sec138)

SYNERGY AND TEAM BENEFITS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec137#sec139)

SOCIAL FACILITATION (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec137#sec140)

SOCIAL LOAFING AND TEAM PROBLEMS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec137#sec141)

There is no doubt that teams are pervasive and important in organizations. They accomplish important tasks and help members achieve satisfaction in their work. We also know from personal experiences that teams and teamwork have their dif�iculties; not all teams perform well, and not all team members are always satis�ied. Surely you’ve heard the sayings “A camel is a horse put together by a committee” and “Too many cooks spoil the broth.” They raise an important question: Just what are the foundations of team effectiveness?17 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c07-note17)

Criteria of an Effective Team Teams in all forms and types, just like individuals, should be held accountable for their performance. To do this we need to have some understanding of team effectiveness. In OB we describe an effective team (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo103) as one that achieves high levels of task performance, member satisfaction, and team viability.

An effective team is one that achieves high levels of task performance, member satisfaction, and team viability.

With regard to task performance, an effective team achieves its performance goals in the standard sense of quantity, quality, and timeliness of work results. For a formal work unit such as a manufacturing team, this may mean meeting daily production targets. For a temporary team such as a new policy task force, this may involve meeting a deadline for submitting a new organizational policy to the company president.

With regard to member satisfaction, an effective team is one whose members believe that their participation and experiences are positive and meet important personal needs. They are satis�ied with their team tasks, accomplishments, and interpersonal relationships. And, with regard to team viability, the members of an effective team are suf�iciently satis�ied to continue working well together on an ongoing basis. When one task is �inished, they look forward to working on others in the future. Such a team has all- important long-term performance potential.

Synergy and Team Bene�its

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 268/501

Effective teams offer the bene�its of synergy (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo443) —the creation of a whole that is greater than the sum of its parts. Synergy works within a team, and it works across teams as their collective efforts are harnessed to serve the organization as a whole. It creates the great beauty of teams: people working together and accomplishing more through teamwork than they ever could by working alone.

Synergy is the creation of a whole greater than the sum of its parts.

The performance advantages of teams over individuals are most evident in three situations.18 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c07-note18) First, when there is no clear “expert” for a particular task or problem, teams tend to make better judgments than does the average individual alone. Second, teams are typically more successful than individuals when problems are complex and require a division of labor and the sharing of information. Third, because they tend to make riskier decisions, teams can be more creative and innovative than individuals.

Teams are interactive settings where people learn from one another and share job skills and knowledge. The learning environment and the pool of experience within a team can be used to solve dif�icult and unique problems. This is especially helpful to newcomers, who often need help in their jobs. When team members support and help each other in acquiring and improving job competencies, they may even make up for de�iciencies in organizational training systems.

Teams are also important sources of need satisfaction for their members. Opportunities for social interaction within a team can provide individuals with a sense of security through work assistance and technical advice. Team members can also provide emotional support for one another in times of special crisis or pressure. The many contributions individuals make to teams can help members experience self- esteem and personal involvement.

Social Facilitation Teams are also settings for something known as social facilitation (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo414) —the tendency for one’s behavior to be in�luenced by the presence of others in a group or social setting.19 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c07-note19) In a team context it can be a boost or a detriment to an individual member’s performance contributions.

Social facilitation is the tendency for one’s behavior to be in�luenced by the presence of others in a group.

Social facilitation theory suggests that working in the presence of others creates an emotional arousal or excitement that stimulates behavior and affects performance. The effect is positive and stimulates extra effort when one is pro�icient with the task at hand. An example is the team member who enthusiastically responds when asked to do something she is really good at, such as making slides for a team presentation. But the effect of social facilitation can be negative when the task is unfamiliar or a person lacks the necessary skills. A team member might withdraw, for example, when asked to do something he or she isn’t very good at.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 269/501

OB IN POPULAR CULTURE

Social Loa�ing and Survivor

Although teams offer tremendous performance potential, there are also unique problems in the team context. Social loa�ing is the tendency for an individual to do less in a group than he or she would individually. Two factors increase the likelihood of loa�ing. The �irst relates to the dif�iculty of identifying how individuals perform. When you do not know what others are doing, they can avoid working less hard. It is tempting to say the second factor is individual laziness. However, many times individuals simply recognize that others will pick up the slack and make sure tasks are accomplished. As a result, they simply opt out.

In the ever-popular reality show Survivor, individual players must balance cunning and competitiveness against the need for teamwork and collaboration. In Season 10, Willard Smith �inds himself a member of the successful Koror tribe. Willard’s contributions are limited, so his tribe assigns him to tend the �ire at night. Instead of ful�illing his obligation, Willard sleeps in the only hammock available. When morning comes, eventual winner Tom Westman complains about losing sleep because he has to “cover” for Willard. He and Gregg Carey talk about how easy it is to make a contribution to the team even if physical ability is lacking.

CBS/Landov LLC

Westman’s assessment of Willard’s motives (e.g., “Why should I do it if somebody else is going to do it for me”) shows that social loa�ing can be a dif�icult problem to address even when others know it is happening.

Get to Know Yourself Better Take Assessment 9, Team Effectiveness, in the OB Skills Workbook. What does it say about you and your teamwork tendencies? If the score suggests previous groups were ineffective, explore the reasons. If social loa�ing was a problem, how would you deal with it in the future? If there were issues with other dynamics, think about ways that you could help future group members develop greater trust, communicate more effectively, and become more committed.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 270/501

Social Loa�ing and Team Problems Although teams have enormous performance potential, one of their problems is social loa�ing (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo417) . Also known as the Ringlemann effect, it is the tendency of people to work less hard in a group than they would individually.20 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c07-note20) Max Ringlemann, a German psychologist, pinpointed the phenomenon by asking people to pull on a rope as hard as they could, �irst alone and then as part of a team.21 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c07-note21) Average productivity dropped as more people joined the rope-pulling task. Ringlemann suggested that people may not work as hard in groups because their individual contributions are less noticeable in the group context and because they prefer to see others carry the workload.

Social loa�ing occurs when people work less hard in groups than they would individually.

You may have encountered social loa�ing in your work and study teams, and been perplexed in terms of how to best handle it. Perhaps you have even been surprised at your own social loa�ing in some performance situations. Rather than give in to the phenomenon and its potential performance losses, you can often reverse or prevent social loa�ing. Steps that team leaders can take include keeping group size small and rede�ining roles so that free-riders are more visible and peer pressures to perform are more likely, increasing accountability by making individual performance expectations clear and speci�ic, and making rewards directly contingent on an individual’s performance contributions.22 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c07-note22)

Other common problems and dif�iculties can easily turn the great potential of teams into frustration and failure. Personality con�licts and differences in work styles can disrupt relationships and create antagonisms. Task uncertainties and competing goals or visions may cause some team members to withdraw and reduce their participation. Ambiguous agendas or ill-de�ined problems can also cause fatigue and loss of motivation when teams work too long on the wrong things with little to show for it. Finally, not everyone is always ready to do group work. This might be due to lack of motivation, but it may also stem from con�licts with other work deadlines and priorities. Low enthusiasm may also result from perceptions of poor team organization or progress, as well as from meetings that seem to lack purpose.

Research Insight

Membership, Interactions, and Evaluation In�luence Social Loa�ing in Groups

“Why do individuals reduce their efforts or withhold inputs when in team contexts?” This question led researchers Kenneth H. Price, David A. Harrison, and Joanne H. Gavin into social loa�ing theory. The authors designed a study of natural teams consisting of students working together in course study groups for a semester. They posed hypotheses linking the presence of individual evaluation, perceived dispensability, and perceived fairness of group processes with the presence or absence of social loa�ing.

Price and colleagues studied 144 groups with a total of 515 students in 13 undergraduate and graduate university courses. Participants completed a questionnaire before group work started and again at the end. The �inal questionnaire included a section asking respondents to rate the extent to which each other group member “loafed by not doing his or her share of the tasks, by leaving work for others to do, by goo�ing off, and by having other things to do when asked to help out.”

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 271/501

Findings showed that social loa�ing was negatively related to perceived fairness of group processes and positively related to perceived dispensability of one’s contributions. The relationship between social loa�ing and perceived dispensability strengthened when individual contributions were more identi�iable. Task-relevant ability was negatively associated with perceived dispensability; the presence of relational differences among members was negatively associated with perceived fairness of group processes.

Do the Research Build a model that explains social loa�ing in the teams you often work with. What are the major hypotheses? How might you test them in an actual research study?

Source: Kenneth H. Price, David A. Harrison, and Joanne H. Gavin, “Withholding Inputs in Team Contexts: Member Composition, Interaction Processes, Evaluation Structure, and Social Loa�ing,” Journal of Applied Psychology 91.6 (2006), pp. 1375–1384.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 272/501

7.3 Stages of Team Development LEARNING ROADMAP

FORMING STAGE (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec142#sec143)

STORMING STAGE (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec142#sec144)

NORMING STAGE (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec142#sec145)

PERFORMING STAGE (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec142#sec146)

ADJOURNING STAGE (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec142#sec147)

There is no doubt that the pathways to team effectiveness are often complicated and challenging. One of the �irst things to consider—whether we are talking about a formal work unit, a task force, a virtual team, or a self-managing team—is the fact that the team passes through a series of life cycle stages.23 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c07-note23) Depending on the stage the team has reached, the leader and members can face very different challenges and the team may be more or less effective. Figure 7.2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec142#r�ig7-2) describes the �ive stages of team development as forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning.24 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c07-note24)

Forming Stage In the forming stage (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo145) of team development, a primary concern is the initial entry of members to a group. During this stage, individuals ask a number of questions as they begin to identify with other group members and with the team itself. Their concerns may include “What can the group offer me?” “What will I be asked to contribute?” “Can my needs be met at the same time that I contribute to the group?” Members are interested in getting to know each other and discovering what is considered acceptable behavior, in determining the real task of the team, and in de�ining group rules.

The forming stage focuses around the initial entry of members to a team.

Storming Stage The storming stage (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo433) of team development is a period of high emotionality and tension among the group members. During this stage, hostility and in�ighting may occur, and the team typically experiences many changes. Coalitions or cliques may form as individuals compete to impose their preferences on the group and to achieve a desired status position. Outside demands such as premature performance expectations may create uncomfortable pressures. In the process, membership expectations tend to be clari�ied, and attention shifts toward

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 273/501

obstacles standing in the way of team goals. Individuals begin to understand one another’s interpersonal styles, and efforts are made to �ind ways to accomplish team goals while also satisfying individual needs.

The storming stage is one of high emotionality and tension among team members.

Norming Stage The norming stage (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo276) of team development, sometimes called initial integration, is the point at which the members really start to come together as a coordinated unit. The turmoil of the storming stage gives way to a precarious balancing of forces. While enjoying a new sense of harmony, team members will strive to maintain positive balance, but holding the team together may become more important to some than successfully working on the team tasks. Minority viewpoints, deviations from team directions, and criticisms may be discouraged as members experience a preliminary sense of closeness. Some members may mistakenly perceive this stage as one of ultimate maturity. In fact, a premature sense of accomplishment at this point needs to be carefully managed in order to reach the next level of team development: performing.

The norming stage is reached when members start to work together as a coordinated team.

FIGURE 7.2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec142#�ig7-2) Five stages of team development.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 274/501

FIGURE 7.3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec142#�ig7-3) Ten criteria for measuring the maturity of a team.

Performing Stage The performing stage (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo317) of team development, sometimes called total integration, marks the emergence of a mature, organized, and well- functioning team. Team members are now able to deal with complex tasks and handle internal disagreements in creative ways. The structure is stable, and members are motivated by team goals and are generally satis�ied. The primary challenges are continued efforts to improve relationships and performance. Team members should be able to adapt successfully as opportunities and demands change over time. A team that has achieved the level of total integration typically scores high on the criteria of team maturity as shown in Figure 7.3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec142#r�ig7-3) .

The performing stage marks the emergence of a mature and well-functioning team.

Adjourning Stage A well-integrated team is able to disband, if required, when its work is accomplished. The adjourning stage (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo9) of team development is especially important for the many temporary teams such as task forces, committees, project teams, and the like. Their members must be able to convene quickly, do their jobs on a tight schedule, and then adjourn—often to reconvene later if needed. Their willingness to disband when the job is done and to work well together in future responsibilities, team or otherwise, is an important long-term test of team success.

In the adjourning stage, teams disband when their work is �inished.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 275/501

7.4 Input Foundations for Teamwork LEARNING ROADMAP

TEAM RESOURCES AND SETTING (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec148#sec149)

NATURE OF THE TEAM TASK (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec148#sec150)

TEAM SIZE (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec148#sec151)

TEAM COMPOSITION (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec148#sec152)

MEMBERSHIP DIVERSITY AND TEAM PERFORMANCE (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec148#sec153)

It’s common for managers and consultants to speak about the importance of having “the right players in the right seats on the same bus, headed in the same direction.”25 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c07-note25) This wisdom is quite consistent with the �indings of OB scholars. One of the ways to put it into practice is to understand the open systems model presented in Figure 7.4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec148#r�ig7- 4) . It shows team effectiveness being in�luenced by both team inputs—“right players in the right seats”— and team processes—“on the same bus, headed in the same direction.”26 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c07-note26) You can remember the point with this equation:

Team effectiveness=Quality of inputs×(Process gains−Process losses)

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 276/501

FIGURE 7.4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec148#�ig7-4) An open systems model of team effectiveness.

As shown in the above equation, team inputs establish the initial foundations for team performance. They set the stage for how processes like communication, con�lict, and decision making play out in action. And the fact is that the stronger the input foundations of a team, the more likely it is that processes will be smooth and performance will be effective. Key team inputs include resources and setting, the nature of the task, team size, and team composition.

Team Resources and Setting Appropriate goals, well-designed reward systems, adequate resources, and appropriate technology are all essential to support the work of teams. Performance can suffer when team goals are unclear, insuf�iciently challenging, or arbitrarily imposed. It can also suffer if goals and rewards are focused too much on individual-level instead of group-level accomplishments. In addition, it can suffer when resources— information, budgets, work space, deadlines, rules and procedures, technologies, and the like—are insuf�icient to accomplish the task. By contrast, getting the right resources in place sets a strong launching pad for team success.

The importance of physical setting to teamwork is evident in the attention now being given to of�ice architecture. Simply said, putting a team in the right workspace can go a long way toward nurturing teamwork. At SEI Investments, for example, employees work in a large, open space without cubicles or dividers. Each person has a private set of of�ice furniture and �ixtures, but everything is on wheels. Technology easily plugs and unplugs from suspended power beams that run overhead. This makes it easy for project teams to convene and disband as needed and for people to meet and converse intensely within the ebb and �low of daily work.27 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c07-note27)

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 277/501

CHECKING ETHICS IN OB

Cheat Now . . . Cheat Later

A study reported by Rutgers University professor Donald McCabe found that 56 percent of MBA students reported cheating by plagiarizing, downloading essays from the Web, and more. He believes the actual �igure may be higher and that some respondents held back confessions for fear of losing their anonymity.

Another study, by University of Arkansas professor Tim West and colleagues, surveyed students who had cheated on an accounting test by �inding answers online. When asked why, student responses ranged from being unsure that what they did was cheating, to blaming West for giving a test that had answers available on the Web, to rationalizing that “everyone cheats” and “this is how business operates.” Berkshire Hathaway chairman Warren Buffett says, “The �ive most dangerous words in the English language are ‘Everyone else is doing it.’” Professor Alma Acevedo of the University of Puerto Rico Rio Piedras calls this the fallacy of the “assumed authority of the majority.”

Orlando Sentinel/Getty Images

What’s Your Position? Is this the way business operates? Just because “everyone” may be doing something, does that make it okay for us to do it as well? How often does cheating creep into your thinking?

Team Task The nature of the task is always an important team input because different tasks place different demands on teamwork. When tasks are clear and well de�ined, it’s quite easy for members to both know what they are trying to accomplish and work together while doing it. But, team effectiveness is harder to achieve with complex tasks.28 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c07-note28) Such tasks require lots of information exchange and intense interaction, and everything takes place under conditions

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 278/501

of some uncertainty. To deal well with complexity and achieve desired results, team members have to fully mobilize their talents and use the available resources well. When teams succeed with complex tasks, however, members tend to experience high satisfaction.

One way to analyze the nature of the team task is in terms of its technical and social demands. The technical demands of a task include the degree to which it is routine or not, the level of dif�iculty involved, and the information requirements. The social demands of a task involve the degree to which issues of interpersonal relationships, egos, controversies over ends and means, and the like come into play. Tasks that are complex in technical demands require unique solutions and more information processing. Those that are complex in social demands pose dif�iculties for reaching agreement on goals and methods to accomplish them.

Team Size The size of a team can have an impact on team effectiveness. As a team becomes larger, more people are available to divide up the work and accomplish needed tasks. This can boost performance and member satisfaction, but only up to a point. Communication and coordination problems arise at some point because of the sheer number of linkages that must be maintained. Satisfaction may dip, and turnover, absenteeism, and social loa�ing may increase. Even logistical matters, such as �inding time and locations for meetings, become more dif�icult for larger teams.29 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c07-note29)

BRINGING OB TO LIFE

“You should take off the headphones in the of�ice, that’s not the way we do things here.”

Removing the Headphones to Show Team Spirit

When you put on headphones at work and tune in some nice sounds, are you tuning out team spirit? That’s a question that is �inding its way into more and more work settings. Maybe it’s a Generation Y thing. Maybe it’s just the in�luence of new technology on everyday living. Headphones are as common in some of�ices as they are on the streets. But, when someone puts on headphones, the signal being broadcast— intended or not—may be “Don’t disturb!”

Situation: Saul has just started a new job where everyone works in an open-plan of�ice. He’s just out of college and is happy and getting into his new responsibilities. A music lover, he has been wearing headphones during the day while working on the computer at his work station. Yesterday an older colleague came over and offered him some advice. “You should take off the headphones in the of�ice,” she said. “It’s not the way we do things here. People are starting to say that you aren’t a team player.”

What Saul is bumping up against is a team culture that apparently doesn’t �it well with his headphones. There’s no company policy against them, but the “advice” he’s getting suggests he’s taking individuality a step too far in this setting.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 279/501

Willie B. Thomas/iStockphoto

Even though teams are built from individuals, OB recognizes that individual differences and preferences can fuel bad team dynamics. It’s the type of thing that makes team leaders cringe and researchers take notice. But this situation should be manageable. The issues boil down to norms, cohesiveness, and team leadership in conditions of diversity. The new generation has pretty much grown up with headphones on. It shouldn’t be too hard to �ind a way to �it them in at work.

The ideal size of creative and problem-solving teams is probably between �ive and seven members, or just slightly larger. Those with fewer than �ive may be too small to adequately share all the team responsibilities. With more than seven, individuals may �ind it harder to join in the discussions, contribute their talents, and offer ideas. Larger teams are also more prone to possible domination by aggressive members and have tendencies to split into coalitions or subgroups.30 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c07-note30) Amazon.com (http://www.Amazon.com) ’s founder and CEO, Jeff Bezos, is a great fan of teams. But he also has a simple rule when it comes to the size of Amazon’s product development teams: No team should be larger than two pizzas can feed.31 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c07-note31)

When voting is required, odd-numbered teams are preferred to help rule out tie votes. When careful deliberations are required and the emphasis is more on consensus, such as in jury duty or very complex problem solving, even-numbered teams may be more effective. The even number forces members to confront disagreements and deadlocks rather than simply resolve them by majority voting.32 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c07-note32)

Team Composition “If you want a team to perform well, you’ve got to put the right members on the team to begin with.” It’s advice we hear a lot. There is no doubt that one of the most important input factors is the team

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 280/501

composition (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo450) . You can think of this as the mix of abilities, personalities, backgrounds, and experiences that the members bring to the team. The basic rule of thumb for team composition is to choose members whose talents and interests �it well with the tasks to be accomplished, and whose personal characteristics increase the likelihood of being able to work well with others.

Team composition is the mix of abilities, skills, personalities, and experiences that the members bring to the team.

Ability counts in team composition, and it’s a top priority when selecting members. The team is more likely to perform better when its members have skills and competencies that best �it task demands. Although talents alone cannot guarantee desired results, they do establish an important baseline of high performance potential. Let’s not forget, however, that it takes more than raw talent to generate team success. Surely you’ve been on teams or observed teams where there was lots of talent but very little teamwork. A likely cause is that the blend of members caused relationship problems over everything from needs to personality to experience to age and other background characteristics.

Needs count too. The FIRO-B theory (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo136) (FIRO = fundamental interpersonal relations orientation) identi�ies differences in how people relate to one another in groups based on their needs to express and receive feelings of inclusion, control, and affection.33 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c07-note33) Developed by William Schultz, the theory suggests that teams whose members have compatible needs are likely to be more effective than teams whose members are more incompatible. Symptoms of incompatibilities include withdrawn members, open hostilities, struggles over control, and domination by a few members. Schultz states the management implications of the FIRO–B theory this way: “If at the outset we can choose a group of people who can work together harmoniously, we shall go far toward avoiding situations where a group’s efforts are wasted in interpersonal con�licts.”34 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c07- note34)

FIRO-B theory examines differences in how people relate to one another based on their needs to express and receive feelings of inclusion, control, and affection.

Another issue in team composition is status in terms relative rank, prestige, or social standing. Status congruence (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo427) occurs when a person’s position within the team is equivalent in status to positions the individual holds outside of it. Any status incongruence may create problems. Consider something that is increasingly common today— generationally blended teams. Things may not go smoothly, for example, when a young college graduate is asked to head a project team on social media and whose members largely include senior and more experienced workers.

Status congruence involves consistency between a person’s status within and outside a group.

Membership Diversity and Team Performance

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 281/501

Diversity is always an important aspect of team composition. The presence of different values, personalities, experiences, demographics, and cultures among members can bring both opportunities and problems.35 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c07-note35)

Teamwork usually isn’t much of a problem in homogeneous teams (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo169) where members are very similar to one another. The members typically �ind it quite easy to work together and enjoy the team experience. Yet, researchers warn about the risks of homogeneity. Although it may seem logical that having members similar to one another is an asset, it doesn’t necessarily work out that way. Research points out that teams composed of members who are highly similar in background, training, and experience often underperform even though the members may enjoy a sense of harmony and feel very comfortable with one another.36 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c07-note36)

In homogeneous teams members share many similar characteristics.

Cross-Cultural Teamwork Finds a Home in Of�iceless Companies

Automattic Inc. has 123 employees.

They work in 26 countries, 94 cities, and 28 U.S. states. So where is the headquarters? Well, it’s really nowhere and everywhere. At this Web services company, everyone works from their home. The term “of�iceless” is used to describe a growing number of �irms that operate this way. With Internet chat, Skype, and other technologies—including the telephone—people can easily work together across time and distance. Add in new advances in social media and cloud computing and it’s almost a no-brainer. Being of�iceless can be a real boon for cross-cultural teams, making virtual meetings and teamwork commonplace. Instead of waiting for scheduled travel, the team is available at the touch of a screen or keyboard.

© Thomas Rodriguez/Corbis

Teamwork problems are likely in heterogeneous teams (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo163) where members are very dissimilar to one another. The mix of diverse personalities, experiences, backgrounds, ages, and other personal characteristics may create dif�iculties as members try to de�ine problems, share information, mobilize talents, and deal with obstacles or opportunities. Nevertheless, if—and this is a big “if”—

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 282/501

members can work well together, the diversity can be a source of advantage and enhanced performance potential.37 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c07-note37)

In heterogeneous teams members differ in many characteristics.

Team process and performance dif�iculties due to diversity issues are especially likely to occur in the initial stages of team development. The so-called diversity–consensus dilemma (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo94) is the tendency for diversity to make it harder for team members to work together, especially in the early stages of their team lives, even though the diversity itself expands the skills and perspectives available for problem solving.38 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c07-note38) These dilemmas may be most pronounced in the critical zone of the storming and norming stages of development as described in Figure 7.5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec148#r�ig7-5) . Problems may occur as interpersonal stresses and con�licts emerge from the heterogeneity. The challenge to team effectiveness is to take advantage of diversity without suffering process disadvantages.39 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c07-note39)

Diversity–consensus dilemma is the tendency for diversity in groups to create process dif�iculties even as it offers improved potential for problem solving.

Working through the diversity–consensus dilemma can slow team development and impede relationship building, information sharing, and problem solving.40 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c07-note40) Some teams get stuck here and can’t overcome their process problems. If and when such dif�iculties are resolved, diverse teams can emerge from the critical zone with effectiveness and often outperform less diverse ones. Research also shows that the most creative teams include a mix of old-timers and newcomers.41 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c07-note41) The old-timers have the experience and connections; the newcomers bring in new talents and fresh thinking.

The diversity and performance relationship is evident in research on collective intelligence (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo43) —the ability of a group or team to perform well across a range of tasks.42 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c07- note42) Researchers have found only a slight correlation between average or maximum individual member intelligence and the collective intelligence of teams. But, they �ind strong correlations between collective intelligence and two process variables—social sensitivities within the teams and absence of conversational domination by a few members. Furthermore, collective intelligence is associated with gender diversity, speci�ically the proportion of females on the team. This �inding also links to process, with researchers pointing out that females in their studies scored higher than males on social sensitivity.

Collective intelligence is the ability of a team to perform well across a range of tasks.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 283/501

FIGURE 7.5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec148#�ig7-5) Member diversity, stages of team development, and team performance.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 284/501

7 Study Guide

Key Questions and Answers What are teams, and how are they used in organizations?

A team is a group of people working together to achieve a common purpose for which they hold themselves collectively accountable.

Teams help organizations by improving task performance; teams help members experience satisfaction from their work.

Teams in organizations serve different purposes—some teams run things, some teams recommend things, and some teams make or do things.

Organizations consist of formal teams that are designated by the organization to serve an of�icial purpose, as well as informal groups that emerge from special relationships but are not part of the formal structure.

Organizations can be viewed as interlocking networks of permanent teams such as project teams and cross-functional teams, as well as temporary teams such as committees and task forces.

Members of self-managing teams typically plan, complete, and evaluate their own work, train and evaluate one another in job tasks, and share tasks and responsibilities.

Virtual teams, whose members meet and work together through computer mediation, are increasingly common and pose special management challenges.

When is a team effective?

An effective team achieves high levels of task accomplishment, member satisfaction, and viability to perform successfully over the long term.

Teams help organizations through synergy in task performance, the creation of a whole that is greater than the sum of its parts.

Teams help satisfy important needs for their members by providing them with things like job support and social interactions.

Team performance can suffer from social loa�ing when a member slacks off and lets others do the work.

Social facilitation occurs when the behavior of individuals is in�luenced positively or negatively by the presence of others on a team.

What are the stages of team development?

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 285/501

In the forming stage, team members come together and form initial impressions; it is a time of task orientation and interpersonal testing.

In the storming stage, team members struggle to deal with expectations and status; it is a time when con�licts over tasks and how the team works are likely.

In the norming or initial integration stage, team members start to come together around rules of behavior and what needs to be accomplished; it is a time of growing cooperation.

In the performing or total integration stage, team members are well organized and well functioning; it is a time of team maturity when performance of even complex tasks becomes possible.

In the adjourning stage, team members achieve closure on task performance and their personal relationships; it is a time of managing task completion and the process of disbanding.

How can we understand teams at work?

Teams are open systems that interact with their environments to obtain resources that are transformed into outputs.

The equation summarizing the open systems model for team performance is this: Team effectiveness = Quality of inputs × (Process gains − Process losses)

Input factors such as resources and setting, nature of the task, team size, and team composition, establish the core performance foundations of a team.

Team processes include basic group or team dynamics that show up as the ways members work together to use inputs and complete tasks.

Terms to Know Adjourning stage (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec142#key1)

Collective intelligence (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec148#key2)

Cross-functional team (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec130#key3)

Diversity–consensus dilemma (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec148#key4)

Effective team (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec137#key5)

Employee involvement team (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec130#key6)

FIRO-B theory (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec148#key7)

Formal teams (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec130#key8)

Forming stage (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec142#key9)

Functional silos problem (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec130#key10)

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 286/501

Heterogeneous teams (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec148#key11)

Homogeneous teams (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec148#key12)

Informal groups (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec130#key13)

Multiskilling (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec130#key14)

Norming stage (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec142#key15)

Performing stage (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec142#key16)

Problem-solving team (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec130#key17)

Quality circle (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec130#key18)

Self-managing team (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec130#key19)

Social facilitation (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec137#key20)

Social loa�ing (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec137#key21)

Social network analysis (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec130#key22)

Status congruence (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec148#key23)

Storming stage (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec142#key24)

Synergy (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec137#key25)

Team (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec130#key26)

Team composition (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec148#key27)

Teamwork (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec130#key28)

Virtual team (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec130#key29)

Self-Test 7 Multiple Choice

1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c07str1) . The FIRO-B theory deals with ____________ in teams.

a. (a) membership compatibilities

b. (b) social loa�ing

c. (c) dominating members

d. (d) conformity

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 287/501

2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c07str2) . It is during the ____________ stage of team development that members begin to come together as a coordinated unit.

a. (a) storming

b. (b) norming

c. (c) performing

d. (d) total integration

3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c07str3) . An effective team is de�ined as one that achieves high levels of task performance, member satisfaction, and ____________.

a. (a) coordination

b. (b) harmony

c. (c) creativity

d. (d) team viability

4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c07str4) . Task characteristics, reward systems, and team size are all ____________ that can make a difference in team effectiveness.

a. (a) processes

b. (b) dynamics

c. (c) inputs

d. (d) rewards

5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c07str5) . The best size for a problem-solving team is usually ____________ members.

a. (a) no more than 3 or 4

b. (b) 5 to 7

c. (c) 8 to 10

d. (d) around 12 to 13

6 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c07str6) . When a new team member is anxious about questions such as “Will I be able to in�luence what takes place?” the underlying issue is one of ____________.

a. (a) relationships

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 288/501

b. (b) goals

c. (c) processes

d. (d) control

7 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c07str7) . Self-managing teams ____________.

a. (a) reduce the number of different job tasks members need to master

b. (b) largely eliminate the need for a traditional supervisor

c. (c) rely heavily on outside training to maintain job skills

d. (d) add another management layer to overhead costs

8 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c07str8) . Which statement about self-managing teams is most accurate?

a. (a) They always improve performance but not satisfaction.

b. (b) They should have limited decision-making authority.

c. (c) They operate with elected team leaders.

d. (d) They should let members plan and control their own work.

9 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c07str9) . When a team of people is able to achieve more than what its members could by working individually, this is called ____________.

a. (a) distributed leadership

b. (b) consensus

c. (c) team viability

d. (d) synergy

10 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c07str10) . Members of a team tend to become more motivated and better able to deal with con�lict during the ____________ stage of team development.

a. (a) forming

b. (b) norming

c. (c) performing

d. (d) adjourning

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 289/501

11 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c07str11) . The Ringlemann effect describes ____________.

a. (a) the tendency of groups to make risky decisions

b. (b) social loa�ing

c. (c) social facilitation

d. (d) the satisfaction of members’ social needs

12 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c07str12) . Members of a multinational task force in a large international business should probably be aware that ____________ might initially slow the progress of the team.

a. (a) synergy

b. (b) groupthink

c. (c) the diversity–consensus dilemma

d. (d) intergroup dynamics

13 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c07str13) . When a team member engages in social loa�ing, one of the recommended strategies for dealing with this situation is to ____________.

a. (a) forget about it

b. (b) ask another member to force this person to work harder

c. (c) give the person extra rewards and hope he or she will feel guilty

d. (d) better de�ine member roles to improve individual accountability

14 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c07str14) . When a person holds a prestigious position as a vice president in a top management team, but is considered just another member of an employee involvement team that a lower-level supervisor heads, the person might experience ____________.

a. (a) role underload

b. (b) role overload

c. (c) status incongruence

d. (d) the diversity–consensus dilemma

15 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c07str15) . The team effectiveness equation states: Team effectiveness = ____________ × (Process gains − Process losses).

a. (a) Nature of setting

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 290/501

b. (b) Nature of task

c. (c) Quality of inputs

d. (d) Available rewards

Short Response

16 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c07str16) . In what ways are teams good for organizations?

17 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c07str17) . What types of formal teams are found in organizations today?

18 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c07str18) . What are members of self-managing teams typically expected to do?

19 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c07str19) . What is the diversity–consensus dilemma?

Applications Essay

20 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c07str20) . One of your Facebook friends has posted this note: “Help! I have just been assigned to head a new product design team at my company. The division manager has high expectations for the team and me, but I have been a technical design engineer for four years since graduating from college. I have never ‘managed’ anyone, let alone led a team. The manager keeps talking about her con�idence that I will be very good at creating lots of teamwork. Does anyone out there have any tips to help me master this challenge?” You smile while reading the message and start immediately to formulate your recommendations. Exactly what message will you send?

Steps to Further Learning 7 Top Choices from The OB Skills Workbook

These learning activities from The OB Skills Workbook found at the back of the book are suggested for Chapter 7 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/ch7#ch7) .

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 291/501

Case for Critical Thinking Team and Experiential Exercises

Self-Assessment Portfolio

The Forgotten Team Member

Teamwork and Motivation

Serving on the Boundary

Eggsperiential Exercise

Team Effectiveness

Decision- Making Biases

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 292/501

8 Teamwork and Team Performance

The Key Point

In order for any virtual or face-to-face team to work well and do great things, its members must get things right. This means paying attention to accomplishments and building strong team processes. Team performance can’t be left to chance. For sure teams can be hard work, but they’re also worth the effort.

What’s Inside?

Bringing OB to LIFE

WELCOMING THE ELEPHANT TO THE CONFERENCE ROOM

Worth Considering ...or Best Avoided?

TEAMMATES MAY KNOW YOU BEST. SHOULD THEY PAY YOU AS WELL?

Checking Ethics in OB

SOCIAL LOAFING MAY BE CLOSER THAN YOU THINK

Finding the Leader in You

AMAZON’S JEFF BEZOS HARNESSES TEAMWORK TO DRIVE INNOVATION

OB in Popular Culture

GROUPTHINK AND MADAGASCAR

Research Insight

DEMOGRAPHIC FAULTLINES POSE IMPLICATIONS FOR LEADING TEAMS IN ORGANIZATIONS

Chapter at a Glance

What Are High-Performance Teams?

How Can Team Processes Be Improved?

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 293/501

How Can Team Communications Be Improved?

How Can Team Decisions Be Improved?

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 294/501

8.1 High-Performance Teams LEARNING ROADMAP

CHARACTERISTICS OF HIGH-PERFORMANCE TEAMS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec155#sec156)

THE TEAM-BUILDING PROCESS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec155#sec157)

TEAM-BUILDING ALTERNATIVES (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec155#sec158)

Are you an iPad, Kindle Fire, Samsung Galaxy, or Google Nexus user? Have you ever wondered why the companies behind these products keep giving us a stream of innovative and trend-setting choices?

In many ways today’s smartphone and tablet stories started years ago with Apple, Inc., its co-founder Steve Jobs, the �irst Macintosh computer, and a very special team. The “Mac” was Jobs’s brainchild. To create it, he put together a team of high achievers who were excited and motivated by a highly challenging task. They worked all hours and at an unrelenting pace free from Apple’s normal bureaucracy. Team members combined high talent with commitment to an exciting goal: change the world through computing. They ended up setting a benchmark for high-tech product innovation as well as new standards for what makes for a high-performance team.1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c08-note1)

The smartphone, tablet, and notebook computer industry today is crowded and very competitive. But you can bet that all the players follow some version of the original Apple model, making their �irms hotbeds of high-performing teams that harness great talents to achieve innovation. But even as we celebrate great teams and the teamwork that drives them, scholar J. Richard Hackman warns that many teams in organizations underperform and fail to live up to their potential. He says that they simply “don’t work.”2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c08-note2) The question for us is: What differentiates high-performing teams from the also-rans?

Characteristics of High-Performance Teams It’s quite easy to agree on must-have team leadership skills like those described in the “Teams Gain from Great Leaders . . . ” sidebar. It also makes sense that having a leader set a clear and challenging team direction is at the top of the list.3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c08-note3) Again, Apple’s original Macintosh story gives us an example. After getting a sneak look at what he had been told was the “machine that was supposed to change the world,” Wired magazine’s Steven Levy wrote: “I also met the people who created that machine. They were groggy and almost giddy from three years of creation. Their eyes blazed with Visine and �ire. They told me that with Macintosh, they were going to “put a dent in the Universe.” Their leader, Steven P. Jobs, told them so. They also told me how Jobs referred to this new computer: ‘Insanely Great.’”4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c08-note4)

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 295/501

Teams Gain from Great Leaders and Talented Members Who Do the Right Things

Set a clear and challenging direction

Keep goals and expectations clear

Communicate high standards

Create a sense of urgency

Make sure members have the right skills

Model positive team member behaviors

Create early performance “successes”

Introduce useful information

Help members share useful information

Give positive feedback

Helen King/©Corbis Images

High-performing teams have members who believe in team goals and are motivated to work hard to accomplish them. They feel “collectively accountable” for moving in what Hackman calls “a compelling direction.” Getting to this point isn’t always easy. All too often a team’s members don’t agree on the goal and don’t share an understanding of what the team is supposed to accomplish.5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c08-note5)

Whereas a shared sense of purpose gives general direction to a team, commitment to targeted—not general or vague—performance results makes this purpose truly meaningful. High-performance teams turn a general sense of purpose into speci�ic performance objectives. They set standards for taking action,

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 296/501

measuring results, and gathering performance feedback. They also provide a clear focus when team members have to �ind common ground to solve problems and resolve con�licts.

Talent is essential. High-performance teams have members with the right mix of skills—technical, problem-solving, and interpersonal. Values count too. High-performance teams have strong core values that help guide team members’ attitudes and behaviors in consistent directions. These values act as an internal control system that keeps team members on track without outside direction and supervisory attention.

The concept of collective intelligence applies in a high-performance team. Think of it as the ability of a team to do well on a wide variety of tasks. It fuels a team to excel not just once, but over and over again. Researchers point out that collective intelligence is higher in teams whose processes are not dominated by one or a few members. Collective intelligence is also higher on teams having more female members, a �inding researchers link to higher social sensitivity in team dynamics.6 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c08-note6)

Collective intelligence is the ability of a team to perform well across a range of tasks.

The Team-Building Process Coaches and managers in the sports world spend a lot of time at the start of each season joining new members with old ones and forming a strong team. Yet, we all know that even the most experienced teams can run into problems as a season progresses. Members slack off or become disgruntled with one another; some have performance “slumps,” and others criticize them for it; some are traded gladly or unhappily to other teams.

Even world-champion teams have losing streaks. At times even the most talented players can lose motivation, quibble among themselves, and end up contributing little to team success. When such things happen, concerned owners, managers, and players are apt to examine their problems, take corrective action to rebuild the team, and restore the teamwork needed to achieve high-performance results.7 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c08-note7)

Work teams face similar challenges. When newly formed, they must master many challenges as members learn how to work together while passing through the stages of team development. Even when mature, most work teams encounter problems of insuf�icient teamwork at different points in time. At the very least we can say that teams sometimes need help to perform well and that teamwork always needs to be nurtured.

Boot Camps Help Start Entrepreneurial Teams on the Fast Track

Picture this. A number of people sit around a table playing poker. Are they gambling for fun? No, according to James Barlow, director of entrepreneurial leadership at Tufts University, they are aspiring entrepreneurs learning about team risk taking. How about working together to assemble jigsaw puzzles? It’s an exercise in team problem solving. What’s happening here is a boot camp for entrepreneurs, one that helps them step back from start-up enterprises and reconsider their directions in a team environment. One participant at a camp led by Barlow says, “The luxury of being away from campus or the �ield and being able to immerse yourself in this thinking for �ive days nonstop with your team members is a rarity.”

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 297/501

Fabrizio Costantini/Redux Pictures

FIGURE 8.1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec155#�ig8-1) Steps in the team-building process.

The occasional need for a performance “tune up” is why a process known as team building (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo449) is so important. It is a sequence of planned activities designed to gather and analyze data on the functioning of a team and to initiate changes designed to improve teamwork and increase team effectiveness.8 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c08-note8) When done well and at the right times, team building can be a good way to deal with actual or potential teamwork problems.

Team building is a collaborative way to gather and analyze data to improve teamwork.

The action steps for team building are highlighted in Figure 8.1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec155#r�ig8-1) . Although it is tempting to

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 298/501

view the process as something that consultants or outside experts are hired to do, the fact is that it can and should be part of any team leader and manager’s skill set.

Team building begins when someone notices an actual or a potential problem with team effectiveness. Data are gathered to examine the problem. This can be done by questionnaire, interview, nominal group meeting, or other creative methods. The goal is to get good answers to such questions as “How well are we doing in terms of task accomplishment?” “How satis�ied are we as individuals with the group and the way it operates?” After the answers to such questions are analyzed by team members, they then work together to plan for and accomplish improvements. This team-building process is highly collaborative and participation by all members is essential.

Team-Building Alternatives One fall day, a team of employees from American Electric Power (AEP) went to an outdoor camp. They worked on problems such as how to get six members through a spider-web maze of bungee cords strung 2 feet above the ground. When her colleagues lifted Judy Gallo into their hands to pass her over the obstacle, she was nervous. A trainer addressed her anxiety by telling the team this was just like solving a problem together at the of�ice. The spider web was just another performance constraint, like the dif�icult policy issues or �inancial limits they might face at work. After high-�ives for making it through the web, Judy’s team jumped tree stumps together, passed hula hoops while holding hands, and more. Says one outdoor team trainer, “We throw clients into situations to try and bring out the traits of a good team.”9 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c08-note9)

This was an example of the outdoor experience approach to team building. It is increasingly popular and can be done on its own or in combination with other approaches. The outdoor experience places teams in a variety of physically challenging situations. By having to work together to master dif�icult obstacles, team members are supposed to grow in self-con�idence, gain more respect for each others’ capabilities, and leave with a greater capacity for and commitment to teamwork.

In the formal retreat approach, team building takes place during an off-site retreat. The agenda, which may cover one or more days, is designed to engage team members in the variety of assessment and planning tasks. Formal retreats are often held with the assistance of a consultant, who is either hired from the outside or made available from in-house staff. Team-building retreats are opportunities to take time away from the job to assess team accomplishments, operations, and future potential.

In a continuous improvement approach, the manager, team leader, or group members themselves take responsibility for regularly engaging in the team-building process. This method can be as simple as periodic meetings that implement the team-building steps; it can also include self-managed formal retreats. In all cases, the goal is to engage team members in a process that leaves them more capable and committed to continuous performance assessment and improved teamwork.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 299/501

8.2 Improving Team Processes LEARNING ROADMAP

ENTRY OF NEW MEMBERS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec159#sec160)

ROLES AND ROLE DYNAMICS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec159#sec161)

TASK AND MAINTENANCE LEADERSHIP (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec159#sec162)

TEAM NORMS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec159#sec163)

TEAM COHESIVENESS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec159#sec164)

INTER-TEAM DYNAMICS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec159#sec165)

Team building should be an ongoing concern for leaders and members alike. It’s a way of updating and strengthening the processes through which people work together in teams, something often called team or group dynamics. These are forces operating in teams that affect the way members relate to and work with one another.10 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c08-note10) They are especially important and at risk when teams are taking on new members, addressing disagreements on goals and responsibilities, resolving decision-making delays and disputes, reducing personality friction, and managing con�licts.

Team or group dynamics are the forces operating in teams that affect the ways members work together.

Entry of New Members Special team process dif�iculties are likely to occur when members �irst get together in a new group or team, or when new members join an existing team. Problems arise as new members try to understand what is expected of them while dealing with the anxiety and discomfort of a new social setting. New members, for example, may worry about any of the following:

New member concerns in teams

Participation—“Will I be allowed to participate?”

Goals—“Do I share the same goals as others?”

Control—“Will I be able to in�luence what takes place?”

Relationships—“How close do people get?”

Processes—“Are con�licts likely to be upsetting?”

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 300/501

Scholar and consultant Edgar Schein points out that people may try to cope with individual entry problems in self-serving ways that may hinder team development and performance.11 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c08-note11) He identi�ies three behavior pro�iles that are common in such situations.

Tough Battler The tough battler is frustrated by a lack of identity in the new group and may act aggressively or reject authority. This person wants answers to this question: “Who am I in this group?” The best team response may be to allow the new member to share his or her skills and interests, and then have a discussion about how these qualities can best be used to help the team.

Friendly Helper The friendly helper is insecure, suffering uncertainties of intimacy and control. This person may show extraordinary support for others, behave in a dependent way, and seek alliances in subgroups or cliques. The friendly helper needs to know whether he or she will be liked. The best team response may be to offer support and encouragement while encouraging the new member to be more con�ident in joining team activities and discussions.

Objective Thinker The objective thinker is anxious about how personal needs will be met in the group. This person may act in a passive, re�lective, and even single-minded manner while struggling with the �it between individual goals and group directions. The best team response may be to engage in a discussion to clarify team goals and expectations, and to clarify member roles in meeting them.

Roles and Role Dynamics New and old team members alike need to know what others expect of them and what they can expect from others. A role (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo373) is a set of expectations associated with a job or position on a team. We know that teams tend to perform better when their members have clear and realistic expectations about one another’s tasks and responsibilities. When team members are unclear about their roles or face con�licting role demands, process problems are

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 301/501

likely and team effectiveness can suffer. Although this is a common situation, it can be managed with proper attention to role dynamics and their causes.

A role is a set of expectations for a team member or person in a job.

Role ambiguity (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo374) occurs when a person is uncertain about his or her role or job on a team. Role ambiguities may create problems as team members �ind that their work efforts are wasted or unappreciated. This can even happen in mature groups if team members fail to share expectations and listen to one another’s concerns.

Role ambiguity occurs when someone is uncertain about what is expected of him or her.

Being asked to do too much or too little as a team member can also create problems. Role overload (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo377) occurs when too much is expected and someone feels overwhelmed. Role underload (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo378) occurs when too little is expected and the individual feels underused. Both role overload and role underload can cause stress, dissatisfaction, and performance problems.

Role overload occurs when too much work is expected of the individual.

Role underload occurs when too little work is expected of the individual.

Role con�lict (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo375) occurs when a person is unable to meet the expectations of others. The individual understands what needs to be done but for some reason cannot comply. The resulting tension is stressful and can reduce satisfaction. It can affect an individual’s performance and relationships with other group members. People at work and in teams can experience four common forms of role con�lict:

Role con�lict occurs when someone is unable to respond to role expectations that con�lict with one another.

Types of role con�lict

Intrasender role con�lict occurs when the same person sends con�licting expectations. Example: Team leader—“You need to get the report written right away, but now I need you to help me get the PowerPoints ready.”

Intersender role con�lict occurs when different people send con�licting and mutually exclusive expectations. Example: Team leader (to you)—“Your job is to criticize our decisions so that we don’t make mistakes.” Team member (to you)—“You always seem so negative. Can’t you be more positive for a change?”

Person–role con�lict occurs when a person’s values and needs come into con�lict with role expectations. Example: Other team members (showing agreement with each other)—“We

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 302/501

didn’t get enough questionnaires back, so let’s each �ill out �ive more and add them to the data set.” You (to yourself)—“Mmm, I don’t think this is right.”

Inter-role con�lict occurs when the expectations of two or more roles held by the same individual become incompatible, such as the con�lict between work and family demands. Example: Team leader—“Don’t forget the big meeting we have scheduled for Thursday evening.” You (to yourself)—“But my daughter is playing in her �irst little-league soccer game at that same time.”

A technique known as role negotiation (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo376) is a helpful way of managing role dynamics. It’s a process whereby team members meet to discuss, clarify, and agree on the role expectations each holds for the other. Such a negotiation might begin, for example, with one member writing down this request of another: “If you were to do the following, it would help me to improve my performance on the team.” Her list of requests might include such speci�ics as “Respect it when I say that I can’t meet some evenings because I have family obligations to ful�ill”—indicating role con�lict; “Stop asking for so much detail when we are working hard with tight deadlines”—indicating role overload; and “Try to make yourself available when I need to speak with you to clarify goals and expectations”— indicating role ambiguity.

Role negotiation is a process for discussing and agreeing on what team members expect of one another.

Task and Maintenance Leadership Research in social psychology suggests that teams have both task needs and maintenance needs, and that both must be met for teams to be successful.12 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c08-note12) Even though a team leader should be able to meet these needs at the appropriate times, each team member is responsible as well. This sharing of responsibilities for making task and maintenance contributions to move a team forward is called distributed leadership (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo91) . And, it is well evidenced in high-performance teams.

Distributed leadership shares responsibility among members for meeting team task and maintenance needs.

Figure 8.2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec159#r�ig8-2) describes task activities (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo446) as what team members and leaders do that directly contribute to the performance of important group tasks. They include initiating discussion, sharing information, asking information of others, clarifying something that has been said, and summarizing the status of a deliberation.13 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c08-note13) A team will have dif�iculty accomplishing its objectives when task activities are not well performed. In an effective team, by contrast, all members pitch in to contribute important task leadership as needed.

Task activities directly contribute to the performance of important tasks.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 303/501

Figure 8.2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec159#r�ig8-2) also shows that maintenance activities (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo243) support the social and interpersonal relationships among team members. They help a team stay intact and healthy as an ongoing and well-functioning social system. A team member or leader can contribute maintenance leadership by encouraging the participation of others, trying to harmonize differences of opinion, praising the contributions of others, and agreeing to go along with a popular course of action. When maintenance leadership is poor, members become dissatis�ied with one another, the value of their group membership diminishes, and emotional con�licts may drain energies otherwise needed for task performance. In an effective team, by contrast, maintenance activities support the relationships needed for team members to work well together over time.

Maintenance activities support the emotional life of the team as an ongoing social system.

FIGURE 8.2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec159#�ig8-2) Task and maintenance leadership in team dynamics.

In addition to helping meet a group’s task and maintenance needs, team members share additional responsibility for avoiding and eliminating any disruptive behaviors (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo89) that harm the group process. These dysfunctional activities include bullying and being overly aggressive toward other members, showing incivility and disrespect, withdrawing and refusing to cooperate, horsing around when there is work to be done, using meetings as forums for self-confession, talking too much about irrelevant matters, and trying to compete for attention and recognition. Incivility or antisocial behavior by members can be especially disruptive of team dynamics and performance. Research shows that persons who are targets of harsh leadership, social exclusion, and harmful rumors often end up working less hard, performing less well, being late and absent more, and reducing their commitment.14 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c08-note14)

Disruptive behaviors in teams harm the group process and limit team effectiveness.

Research Insight

Demographic Faultlines Pose Implications for Leading Teams in Organizations

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 304/501

According to researchers Dora Lau and Keith Murnighan, strong “faultlines” occur in groups when demographic diversity results in the formation of two or more subgroups whose members are similar to and strongly identify with one another. Examples include teams with subgroups forming around age, gender, race, ethnic, occupational, or tenure differences. When strong faultlines are present, members are expected to identify more strongly with their subgroups than with the team as a whole. Lau and Murnighan predict that this will affect what happens with the team in terms of con�lict, politics, and performance.

Using subjects from ten organizational behavior classes at a university, the researchers randomly assigned students to casework groups based on sex and ethnicity. After working on their cases, group members completed questionnaires about group processes and outcomes. Results showed, as predicted, that members in strong faultline groups evaluated those in their subgroups more favorably than did members of weak faultline groups. Members of weak faultline groups also experienced less con�lict, more psychological safety, and more satisfaction than did those in strong faultline groups. More communication across faultlines had a positive effect on outcomes for weak faultline groups but not for strong faultline groups.

Do the Research See if you can verify these �indings. Be a “participant observer” in your work teams. Focus on faultlines and their effects. Keep a diary, make notes, and compare your experiences with this study in mind.

Source: Dora C. Lau and J. Keith Murnighan, “Interactions within Groups and Subgroups: The Effects of Demographic Faultlines,” Academy of Management Journal 48 (2005), pp. 645–659; and “Demographic Diversity and Faultlines: The Compositional Dynamics of Organizational Groups,” Academy of Management Review 23 (1998), pp. 325–340.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 305/501

Team Norms The entry issues, role dynamics, and task and maintenance needs we have just discussed all relate to what team members expect of one another and of themselves. This brings up the issue of team norms (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo277) —beliefs about how members are expected to behave. They can be considered as rules or standards of team conduct.15 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c08-note15) Norms help members to guide their own behavior and predict what others will do. When someone violates a team norm, other members typically respond in ways that are aimed at enforcing it and bring behavior back into alignment with the norm. These responses may include subtle hints, direct criticisms, and even reprimands. At the extreme, someone violating team norms may be ostracized or even expelled.

Norms are rules or standards for the behavior of group members.

WORTH CONSIDERING ...OR BEST AVOIDED?

Teammates May Know You Best. Should They Pay You As Well?

Picture this. A group of �ifteen co-workers is given a pool of 1,200 stock options to distribute among themselves as their annual bonuses. The only rule is you can’t give any to yourself. The idea is that teammates know one another best and know who deserves to be recognized at raise time. In fact, they may notice what managers don’t and thus reward people who would otherwise be missed. “Who knows better than employees themselves who the contributors are or [who is] the go-to person with a technical problem?” asks management professor Denise Rousseau.

This example is real. It’s from Coffee & Power, a San Francisco start-up. It was initiated by entrepreneur and co-founder Philip Rosedale. His notion is that workers should be allowed to invest in their co-workers and �inancially reward them for performance and contributions. Becky Neil, a marketing employee at the �irm, says the approach “lets me reward people that management may not always recognize.”

No one knows who gives who the options, but they do get a report on the highest and lowest options grants with no names attached. Neil points out that it was “nerve wracking” as she waited to �ind out what others gave her and was “psyched” to learn if her self-evaluation matched theirs. “You don’t always know what other people think of you,” she says.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 306/501

Helder Almeida/Shutterstock

Do the Analysis

Does theory support the practice in this case? What is your gut reaction to this approach to pay: positive or negative or in between? In what types of situations might this practice work best? When should it be avoided altogether? Could the Coffee & Power version be modi�ied in any way to make it a smoother �it elsewhere?

Types of Team Norms A key norm in any team setting is the performance norm (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo315) . It conveys expectations about how hard team members should work and what the team should accomplish. In some teams, the performance norm is high and strong. There is no doubt that all members are expected to work very hard and that high performance is the goal. If someone slacks off, they get reminded to work hard or end up removed from the team. In other teams, the performance norm is low and weak; members are left to work hard or not as they like, with little concern shown by the other members.

The performance norm sets expectations for how hard members work and what the team should accomplish.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 307/501

Many other norms also in�luence the day-to-day functioning of teams. Norms regarding attendance at meetings, punctuality, preparedness, criticism, and social behavior are important. So, too, are norms on how members deal with supervisors, colleagues, and customers, as well as norms about honesty and ethical behavior. Consider the following examples of norms that can have positive and negative implications for team processes and effectiveness:16 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c08-note16)

Common team norms

Ethics norms—“We try to make ethical decisions, and we expect others to do the same” (positive); “Don’t worry about in�lating your expense account; everyone does it here” (negative).

Organizational and personal pride norms—“It’s a tradition around here for people to stand up for the company when others criticize it unfairly” (positive); “In our company, they are always trying to take advantage of us” (negative).

High-achievement norms—“On our team, people always want to win or be the best” (positive); “No one really cares on this team whether we win or lose” (negative).

Support and helpfulness norms—“People on this committee are good listeners and actively seek out the ideas and opinions of others” (positive); “On this committee it’s dog-eat-dog and save your own skin” (negative).

Improvement and change norms—“In our department people are always looking for better ways of doing things” (positive); “Around here, people hang on to the old ways even after they have outlived their usefulness” (negative).

CHECKING ETHICS IN OB

Social Loa�ing May Be Closer Than You Think

Psychology study: A German researcher asked people to pull on a rope as hard as they could. First, they pulled alone. Second, they pulled as part of a group. Results showed that people pull harder when working alone than when working as part of a team. Such social loa�ing is the tendency to reduce effort when working in groups.

Faculty of�ice: A student wants to speak with the instructor about his team’s performance on the last group project. There were four members, but two did almost all of the work. The other two largely disappeared, showing up only at the last minute to be part of the formal presentation. His point is that the team was disadvantaged because the two free-riders caused reduced performance capacity for his team.

Telephone call from the boss: “John, I really need you to serve on this committee. Will you do it? Let me know tomorrow.” John thinks, “I’m overloaded, but I don’t want to turn down the boss. I’ll accept but let the committee members know about my limits. I’ll be active in discussions and try to offer viewpoints and perspectives that are helpful. However, I’ll tell them up front that I can’t be a leader or volunteer for any extra work.” Some might say this is an excuse to “slack off while still doing what the boss wants.” John views it as being honest.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 308/501

Tetra Images/Getty Images, Inc.

You Decide Whether you call it social loa�ing, free-riding or just plain old slacking off, the issue is the same: What right do some people have to sit back in team situations and let other people do all the work? Is this ethical? Does everyone on a team have an ethical obligation to do his or her fair share of the work? Why isn’t this always the norm? Regarding John, does the fact that he is going to be honest with the other committee members make any difference? Isn’t he still going to be a loafer, and yet earn credit with the boss for serving on the committee? Would it be more ethical for John to decline becoming a part of this committee?

How to In�luence Team Norms Team leaders and members can do several things to help their teams develop positive norms that foster high performance as well as membership satisfaction. The �irst thing is to always act as a positive role model. In other words, be the exemplar of the norm, always living up to the norm in everyday behavior. It is helpful to hold meetings where time is set aside to discuss team goals and also discuss team norms that can best contribute to their achievement. Norms are too important to be left to chance. The more directly they are discussed and confronted in the early stages of team development, the better.

It’s always best to select members who can and will live up to the desired norms. They should be given the right training and support, and their rewards should positively reinforce desired behaviors. Finally, teams should remember the power of team building and hold regular meetings to discuss team performance and plan how to improve it in the future. This is a full-cycle approach to developing positive team norms: select the right people, provide them support, give positive reinforcement for doing things right, and continuously review progress and make constructive adjustments.

BRINGING OB TO LIFE

“The ‘elephant room’ is where people go to work things out face to face. When you are in the room, nothing is to be held back and full transparency is expected.”

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 309/501

Welcoming the Elephant to the Conference Room

It’s called “passive aggression.” An example is walking away from a disagreement with a friend or colleague only to turn around and attack them via e-mail. The impersonal e-mail seems to be a more comfortable medium for engaging con�lict than face-to-face confrontation. However, the price may be bad problem solving, lost creativity, and poor interpersonal and team dynamics.

That price was too high for Paul English, chief technology of�icer at the travel website Kayak.com (http://www.Kayak.com) . Things were moving too fast at his growing �irm, and he couldn’t afford to have team members holding back with one another and failing to work through problems in real time. The open of�ice design wasn’t helping. So much public space seemed to make it harder to express and discuss disagreements. “So often at work,” he says, “people have issues they can’t resolve because they won’t talk about it.”

English realized people needed a space where uncomfortable disagreements could be addressed and resolved across the table. He responded by buying a stuffed elephant, naming her Annabelle, and putting her in a prominent place in a glass-walled conference room. Called “the elephant room,” it’s where people go to work things out face to face. English believes Annabelle “sends a positive signal to people that you are interested in sorting out problems.” When you are in the room, nothing is to be held back and full transparency is expected. After all, the elephant is in the room, not outside it.

Gualtiero Bof�i/Shutterstock

Teamwork isn’t easy and sometimes a simple structural solution like the elephant room can make it easier to engage in a bit of constructive con�lict. The insights of OB don’t only apply to training people to better deal with motives, emotions, and interpersonal relations. They also remind us that sometimes the best approach to dif�icult situations is to give people a better opportunity to do the right thing.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 310/501

Team Cohesiveness The cohesiveness (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo41) of a group or team is the degree to which members are attracted to and motivated to remain part of it.17 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c08-note17) We might think of it as the feel-good factor that causes people to value their membership on a team, positively identify with it, and strive to maintain positive relationships with other members. Feelings of cohesion can be a source of need satisfaction, often providing a source of loyalty, security, and esteem for team members. Because cohesive teams are such a source of personal satisfaction, their members tend to be energetic when working on team activities, less likely to be absent, less likely to quit the team, and more likely to be happy about performance success and sad about failures.

Cohesiveness is the degree to which members are attracted to a group and motivated to remain a part of it.

Team Cohesiveness and Conformity to Norms Even though cohesive teams are good for their members, they may or may not be good for the organization. The question is this: Will the cohesive team also be a high-performance team? The answer to this question depends on the match of cohesiveness with conformity to norms.

The rule of conformity (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo380) in team dynamics states that the greater the cohesiveness of a team, the greater the conformity of members to team norms. So when the performance norms are positive in highly cohesive teams, the resulting conformity to the norm should have a positive effect on both team performance and member satisfaction. This is a best-case situation for team members, the team leader, and the organization.

The rule of conformity is the greater the cohesiveness, the greater the conformity of members to team norms.

When the performance norms are negative in a highly cohesive team, as shown in Figure 8.3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec159#r�ig8-3) , the rule of conformity creates a worst-case situation for the team leader and the organization. Although the high cohesiveness leaves the team members feeling loyal and satis�ied, they are also highly motivated to conform to the negative performance norm. In between these two extremes are two mixed-case situations for teams low in cohesion. Because there is little conformity to either the positive or negative norms, team performance will most likely fall on the moderate or low side.

How to In�luence Team Cohesiveness What can be done to tackle the worst-case and mixed-case scenarios just described? The answer rests with the factors in�luencing team cohesiveness. Cohesiveness tends to be high in teams that are homogeneous in makeup—that is, when members are similar in age, attitudes, needs, and backgrounds. Cohesiveness also tends to be high in teams of small size, where members respect one another’s competencies, agree on common goals, and like to work together rather than alone on team tasks. Cohesiveness tends to rise when groups are physically isolated from others and when they experience performance success or crisis.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 311/501

FIGURE 8.3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec159#�ig8-3) How cohesiveness and conformity to norms in�luence team performance.

FIGURE 8.4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec159#�ig8-4) Ways to increase and decrease team cohesiveness.

Figure 8.4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec159#r�ig8-4) shows how team cohesiveness can be increased or decreased by making changes in goals, membership composition, interactions, size, rewards, competition, location, and duration. When the team norms are positive but cohesiveness is low, the goal is to take actions to increase cohesion and gain more conformity to the positive norms. When team norms are negative and cohesiveness is high, just the opposite may have to be done. If efforts to change the norms fail, it may be necessary to reduce cohesiveness and thus reduce conformity to the negative norms.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 312/501

Inter-Team Dynamics Organizations ideally operate as cooperative systems in which the various groups and teams support one another. In the real world, however, competition and inter-team problems often develop. Their consequences can be good or bad for the host organization and the teams themselves. This raises the issue of what happens between, not just within, teams. We call this inter-team dynamics (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo198) .

Inter-team dynamics occur as groups cooperate and compete with one another.

On the positive side of inter-team dynamics, competition among teams can stimulate them to become more cohesive, work harder, become more focused on key tasks, develop more internal loyalty and satisfaction, or achieve a higher level of creativity in problem solving. This effect is demonstrated at virtually any intercollegiate athletic event, and it is common in work settings as well.18 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c08-note18) On the negative side, such as when manufacturing and sales units don’t get along, inter-team dynamics may drain and divert work energies. Members may spend too much time focusing on their animosities or con�licts with another team and too little time focusing on their own team’s performance.19 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c08-note19)

A variety of steps can be taken to avoid negative and achieve positive effects from inter-team dynamics. Teams engaged in destructive competition, for example, can be refocused on a common enemy or a common goal. Direct negotiations can be held among the teams. Members can be engaged in intergroup team building that encourages positive interactions and helps members of different teams learn how to work more cooperatively together. Reward systems can also be refocused to emphasize team contributions to overall organizational performance and on how much teams help out one another.

FINDING THE LEADER IN YOU Amazon’s Jeff Bezos Harnesses Teamwork to Drive Innovation

Amazon.com (http://www.Amazon.com) ’s founder and CEO Jeff Bezos is considered one of America’s top businesspersons and a technology visionary. He’s also a great fan of teams. Bezos coined a simple rule when it comes to sizing the �irm’s product development teams: If two pizzas aren’t enough to feed a team, it’s too big.

The business plan for Amazon originated while Bezos was driving cross-country. He started the �irm in his garage, and even when his Amazon stock grew to $500 million, he was still driving a Honda and living in a small apartment in downtown Seattle. Clearly, he’s a unique personality and also one with a great business mind. His goal with Amazon was to “create the world’s most customer-centric company, the place where you can �ind and buy anything you want online.”

If you go to Amazon.com (http://www.Amazon.com) and click on the “Gold Box” at the top, you’ll be tuning in to his vision. It’s a place for special deals, lasting only an hour and offering everything from a power tool to a new pair of shoes. Such online innovations don’t just come out of the blue. They’re part and parcel of the management philosophy Bezos has instilled at the �irm. The Gold Box and many of Amazon’s successful innovations are products of many “two-pizza teams.” Described as “small,” “fast-moving,” and

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 313/501

“innovation engines,” these teams typically have �ive to eight members and thrive on turning new ideas into business potential.

Don’t expect to spot a stereotyped corporate CEO in Jeff Bezos. His standard of�ice attire is still blue jeans and blue-collared shirt. A family friend describes him and his wife as “very playful people.” Bezos views Amazon’s small teams as a way of �ighting bureaucracy and decentralizing, even as a company grows large and very complex. He is also a fan of what he calls fact-based decisions. He says they help to “overrule the hierarchy. The most junior person in the company can win an argument with the most senior person with fact-based decisions.”

David Strick/Redux Pictures

What’s the Lesson Here?

Do you need to be in control as a team leader, or are you comfortable delegating? Do you consider yourself more informal or formal in your approach to leadership? How would you feel if a person junior to you had more say in a decision than you did?

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 314/501

8.3 Improving Team Communications LEARNING ROADMAP

INTERACTION PATTERNS AND COMMUNICATION NETWORKS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec166#sec167)

PROXEMICS AND USE OF SPACE (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec166#sec168)

COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec166#sec169)

It is important in teams to make sure that every member is strong and capable in basic communication and collaboration skills. In addition, however, teams must address questions like these: What communication networks are being used by the team and why? How does space affect communication among team members? Is the team making good use of the available communication technologies?

Interaction Patterns and Communication Networks Three interaction patterns are common when team members work with one another on team tasks. We call these patterns the interacting team, the co-acting team, and the counteracting team as shown in Figure 8.5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec166#r�ig8-5) .

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 315/501

FIGURE 8.5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec166#�ig8-5) Interaction patterns and communication networks found in teams.

One of the most common teamwork mistakes is that members are not using the right interaction patterns. An example might be a student project team whose members believe every member must always be present when any work gets done on the project; in other words, no one works on his own and everything is done together. Team effectiveness requires that the interaction pattern should �it the task at hand. Because tasks vary, a team ideally shifts among the alternative interaction patterns as task demands emerge and change over time.

Figure 8.5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec166#r�ig8-5) links interaction patterns with team communication networks.20 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c08-note20) Tasks that require intense interaction among team members are best done with a decentralized communication network (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo79) . Also called the star network or all-channel network, it operates with everyone communicating and sharing information with everyone else. Information �lows back and forth constantly, with no one person serving as the center point.21 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c08-note21) Decentralized communication networks work well when team tasks are complex and nonroutine, perhaps tasks that involve uncertainty and require creativity. Member satisfaction on such interacting teams is usually high.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 316/501

In decentralized communication networks amembers communicate directly with one another.

Tasks that allow team members to work independently are best done using a centralized communication network (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo31) . Also called the wheel network or chain network, it operates with a central hub through which one member —often a formal or informal team leader—collects and distributes information. Members of such coacting teams work on assigned tasks independently while the hub keeps everyone and everything coordinated. Work is divided among members, and results are pooled to create the �inished product. The centralized network works well when team tasks are routine and easily subdivided. It is usually the hub member who experiences the most satisfaction on successful co-acting teams.

Centralized communication networks link group members through a central control point.

Counteracting teams form when subgroups emerge within a team due to issue-speci�ic disagreements, such as a temporary debate over the best means to achieve a goal, or emotional disagreements, such as personality clashes. This creates a restricted communication network (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo367) in which the subgroups contest each other’s positions and restrict interactions with one another. The poor communication often creates problems but can be useful at times. Counteracting teams might be set up to stimulate con�lict and criticism to help improve creativity or double-check decisions about to be implemented.

Restricted communication networks link subgroups that disagree with one another’s positions.

When Team Members Stand Up, Team Decisions May Speed Up

Did you ever wonder what it would take to move decisions along a lot faster in a team meeting? One solution is simple: Take away the seats. At the software �irm Atomic Object, seats are out and speed is in. At the regular team meeting that starts each workday, everyone stands up. They also have to be on time and are expected to stay on task; no playing Angry Birds or chit-chatting. Even tables are out at many Atomic Object meetings. A vice president declares, “They make it too easy to lean or rest laptops.” Stand- up meetings are popular in the tech industry, where some call them “agile meetings.” At Atomic Object, agile they are; the typical meeting lasts less than �ive minutes.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 317/501

GlobalStock/iStockphoto

Proxemics and Use of Space An important but sometimes neglected part of communication in teams involves proxemics (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo349) , or the use of space as people interact.22 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c08-note22) We know, for example, that of�ice or workspace architecture is an important in�luence on communication behavior. It only makes sense that communication in teams might be improved by arranging physical space to best support it. This might be done by moving chairs and tables closer together, or by choosing to meet in physical spaces that are most conducive to communication. Meeting in a small conference room at the library, for example, may be a better choice than meeting in a busy coffee shop.

Proxemics involves the use of space as people interact.

Some architects and consultants specialize in of�ice design for communication and teamwork. When Sun Microsystems built its facility in San Jose, California, public spaces were designed to encourage communication among persons from different departments. Many meeting areas had no walls, and most walls were glass.23 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c08-note23) At Google headquarters, often called Googleplex, specially designed of�ice “tents” are made of acrylics to allow both the sense of private personal space and transparency.24 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c08-note24)

Communication Technologies It hardly seems necessary in the age of Facebook, Twitter, and Skype to mention that teams now have access to many useful technologies that can facilitate communication and reduce the need to be face to face. We live and work in an age of instant messaging, tweets and texting, online discussions, video chats, videoconferencing, and more. We are networked socially 24/7 to the extent we want, and there’s no reason the members of a team can’t utilize the same technologies to good advantage.

Think of technology as empowering teams to use virtual communication networks (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo477) in which members communicate electronically all or most of the time. Technology in virtual teamwork acts as the “hub member” in the centralized communication network and as an ever-present “electronic router” that links

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 318/501

members in decentralized networks on an as-needed and always-ready basis. New developments with social media keep pushing these capabilities forward. General Electric, for example, started a “Tweet Squad” to advise employees how social networking could be used to improve internal collaboration. The insurer MetLife has its own social network, Connect MetLife, which facilitates collaboration through a Facebook-like setting.25 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c08-note25) Of course, certain steps need to be taken to ensure that virtual teams and communication technologies are as successful as possible. This means doing things like online team building so that members get to know one another, learn about and identify team goals, and otherwise develop a sense of cohesiveness.26 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c08-note26)

Virtual communication networks link team members through electronic communication.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 319/501

8.4 Improving Team Decisions LEARNING ROADMAP

WAYS TEAMS MAKE DECISIONS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec170#sec171)

ASSETS AND LIABILITIES OF TEAM DECISIONS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec170#sec172)

GROUPTHINK SYMPTOMS AND REMEDIES (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec170#sec173)

TEAM DECISION TECHNIQUES (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec170#sec174)

One of the most important activities for any team is decision making (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo80) , the process of choosing among alternative courses of action. The quality and timeliness of decisions and the processes through which they are made can have an important impact on how teams work and what they achieve.

Decision making is the process of choosing among alternative courses of action.

Ways Teams Make Decisions Consider the many teams of which you have been and are a part. Just how do major decisions get made? Most often there’s a lot more going on than meets the eye. Edgar Schein has worked extensively with teams to identify, analyze, and improve their decision processes.27 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c08-note27) He observes that teams may make decisions through any of the six methods shown in Figure 8.6 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec170#r�ig8-6) . Although Schein doesn’t rule out any method, he does point out their advantages and disadvantages.

Lack of Response In decision by lack of response, one idea after another is suggested without any discussion taking place. When the team �inally accepts an idea, all others have been bypassed and discarded by simple lack of response rather than by critical evaluation. This may happen early in a team’s development when new members are struggling for identities and con�idence. It’s also common in teams with low-performance norms and when members just don’t care enough to get involved in what is taking place. Whenever lack of response drives decisions, it’s relatively easy for a team to move off in the wrong, or at least not the best, direction.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 320/501

FIGURE 8.6 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec170#�ig8-6) Alternative ways that teams can make decisions.

Authority Rule In decision by authority rule, the chairperson, manager, or leader makes a decision for the team. This is very time ef�icient and can be done with or without inputs by other members. Whether the decision is a good one or a bad one depends on whether or not the authority �igure has the necessary information and if other group members accept this approach. When an authority decision is made without expertise or member commitment, problems are likely.

Minority Rule In decision by minority rule, two or three people are able to dominate, or railroad, the group into making a decision with which they agree. This is often done by providing a suggestion and then forcing quick agreement. The railroader may challenge the group with statements such as “Does anyone object? . . . No? Well, let’s go ahead then.” Although such forcing and bullying may get the team moving in a certain direction, member commitment to making the decision successful will probably be low. Kickback and resistance, especially when things get dif�icult, aren’t unusual in these situations.

Majority Rule One of the most common ways that groups make decisions is through decision by majority rule. This usually takes place as a formal vote to �ind the majority viewpoint. When team members get into disagreements that seem irreconcilable, for example, voting is seen to be an easy way out of the situation. Nonetheless, majority rule is often used without awareness of its potential problems. The very process creates coalitions, especially when votes are taken and results are close. Those in the minority—the “losers”—may feel left out or discarded without having had a fair say. They may not be enthusiastic about implementing the decision of the “winners.” Lingering resentments may hurt team effectiveness in the future if they become more concerned about winning the next vote than doing what is best for the team.

Consensus Another of the decision alternatives is consensus (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo56) . It results when discussion leads to one alternative being favored by most team members and other members agree to support it. When a consensus is reached, even those who may have opposed the chosen course of action know that they have been listened to and have had a fair chance to in�luence the outcome. Consensus does not require unanimity. What it does require is the opportunity for any dissenting members to feel that they have been able to speak and that their voices have been heard.28

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 321/501

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c08-note28) Because of the extensive process involved in reaching a consensus decision, it may be inef�icient from a time perspective. Still, consensus is very powerful in terms of generating commitments among members to making the �inal decision work best for the team.

Consensus is a group decision that has the expressed support of most members.

Unanimity A decision by unanimity may be the ideal state of affairs. Here, all team members wholeheartedly agree on the course of action to be taken. This “logically perfect” decision situation is extremely dif�icult to attain in actual practice. One reason that teams sometimes turn to authority decisions, majority voting, or even minority decisions, in fact, is the dif�iculty of managing the team process to achieve decisions by consensus or unanimity.

When in Doubt, Follow the Seven Steps for Consensus

It’s easy to say that consensus is good. It’s a lot harder to achieve consensus, especially when tough decisions are needed. Here are some tips for how members should behave in consensus-seeking teams:

Don’t argue blindly; consider others’ reactions to your points.

Be open and �lexible, but don’t change your mind just to reach quick agreement.

Avoid voting, coin tossing, and bargaining to avoid or reduce con�lict.

Act in ways that encourage everyone’s involvement in the decision process.

Allow disagreements to surface so that information and opinions can be deliberated.

Don’t focus on winning versus losing; seek alternatives acceptable to all.

Discuss assumptions, listen carefully, and encourage participation by everyone.

Assets and Liabilities of Team Decisions The best teams don’t limit themselves to any one of the decision methods just described. Instead, they move back and forth among them. Each method is used in circumstances for which it is a best �it. As professors, for example, we never complain when a department head makes an authority decision to have a welcome reception for new students at the start of the academic year or calls for a faculty vote on a proposed new travel policy. Yet we’d quickly disapprove if a department head made an authority decision to hire a new faculty member—something we believe should be made by faculty consensus.

It’s important for any team leader to use the right decision method for the situation at hand. Without doubt, there are many times when the best choice is to go with the more team-oriented decisions. However, even they have potential disadvantages as well as advantages.29 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c08-note29) On the positive side, team decisions by consensus and unanimity offer the advantages of bringing more information, knowledge, and expertise to

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 322/501

bear on a problem. Extensive discussion tends to create broader understanding of the �inal decision, and this increases acceptance. It also strengthens the commitments of members to follow through and support the decision.

On the negative side, we all know that team decisions can be imperfect. It usually takes a team longer to make a decision than it does an individual. Then too, social pressures to conform might make some members unwilling to go against or criticize what appears to be the will of the majority. Furthermore, in the guise of a so-called team decision, a team leader or a few members might railroad or force other members to accept their preferred decision.

Groupthink Symptoms and Remedies One important problem that sometimes occurs when teams try to make decisions is groupthink (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo160) —the tendency of members in highly cohesive groups to lose their critical evaluative capabilities.30 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c08-note30) As identi�ied by social psychologist Irving Janis, groupthink is a property of highly cohesive teams, and it occurs because team members are so concerned with harmony that they become unwilling to criticize each other’s ideas and suggestions. Desires to hold the team together, feel good, and avoid unpleasantries bring about an overemphasis on agreement and an underemphasis on critical discussion. This often results in a poor decision.

Groupthink is the tendency of cohesive group members to lose their critical evaluative capabilities.

By way of historical examples, Janis suggests that groupthink played a role in the U.S. forces’ lack of preparedness at Pearl Harbor before the United States entered World War II. It has also been linked to �lawed U.S. decision making during the Vietnam War, to events leading up to the space shuttle disasters, and, most recently, to failures of American intelligence agencies regarding the status of weapons of mass destruction in Iraq. Perhaps you can think of other examples from your own experiences where otherwise well-intentioned teams end up doing the wrong things.

The following symptoms of teams displaying groupthink should be well within the sights of any team leader and member:31 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c08-note31)

Symptoms of groupthink

Illusions of invulnerability—Members assume that the team is too good for criticism or beyond attack.

Rationalizing unpleasant and discon�irming data—Members refuse to accept contradictory data or to thoroughly consider alternatives.

Belief in inherent group morality—Members act as though the group is inherently right and above reproach.

Stereotyping competitors as weak, evil, and stupid—Members refuse to look realistically at other groups.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 323/501

Applying direct pressure to deviants to conform to group wishes—Members refuse to tolerate anyone who suggests the team may be wrong.

Self-censorship by members—Members refuse to communicate personal concerns to the whole team.

Illusions of unanimity—Members are quick to accept consensus prematurely, without testing its completeness.

Mind guarding—Members try to protect the team from hearing disturbing ideas or outside viewpoints.

Even though groupthink is a serious threat to teams at all levels and in all types of organizations, it can be managed. To do so, team leaders and members must stay alert to the preceding symptoms and be quick to take action when they are spotted.32 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c08-note32) The sidebar offers a number of steps that can be taken to prevent or minimize groupthink. During the Cuban missile crisis, for example, President John F. Kennedy chose to absent himself from certain strategy discussions conducted by his cabinet. This made it easier for them to engage in critical discussion and avoided tendencies for cabinet members to try to �igure out what the president wanted and then give it to him. The result was an open and expansive decision process, and the crisis was successfully resolved.

Team Decision Techniques What can be done to improve decision making in teams that are having problems? It’s not just things like groupthink and premature rush to agreement that can harm decision making. Decision de�icits often occur, for example, when meetings are poorly structured or poorly led as members try to work together. Decisions can easily get bogged down or go awry when tasks are complex, information is uncertain, creativity is needed, time is short, “strong” voices are dominant, and debates turn emotional and personal. These are times when special team decision techniques can be helpful.33 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c08-note33)

Brainstorming In the time-tested technique of brainstorming (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo28) , team members actively generate as many ideas and alternatives as possible. They are supposed to do so relatively quickly and without inhibitions. But scholar Leigh Thompson points out that you have to be careful because brainstorming doesn’t always work as intended. She recommends a period of “solo thinking” before brainstorming begins, keeping the brainstorming groups small, and making sure that rules are clear and followed.34 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c08-note34)

brainstorming involves generating ideas through freewheeling and without criticism.

You are surely familiar with the rules of brainstorming. First, all criticism is ruled out. No one is allowed to judge or evaluate any ideas until they are all on the table. Second, freewheeling is welcomed. The emphasis is on creativity and imagination; the wilder or more radical the ideas, the better. Third, quantity is a goal. The assumption is that the greater the number, the more likely a superior idea will appear. Fourth, piggybacking is good. Everyone is encouraged to suggest how others’ ideas can be turned into new ideas or how two or more ideas can be joined into still another new idea.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 324/501

Remedies to Help Teams Avoid Groupthink

Assign the role of critical evaluator to each team member.

Have the leader avoid seeming partial to one course of action.

Create subgroups that each work on the same problem.

Have team members discuss issues with outsiders and report back.

Invite outside experts to observe and react to team processes.

Assign someone to be a “devil’s advocate” at each team meeting.

Hold “second-chance” meetings after consensus is apparently achieved.

Nominal Group Technique At times teams get so large that open discussion and brainstorming are awkward to manage. It’s also common for teams to get into situations where the opinions of members differ so much that discussions become antagonistic and argumenative. In such cases, using the structured nominal group technique (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo273) for face-to-face or virtual decision making may be helpful.35 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c08-note35)

The nominal group technique involves structured rules for generating and prioritizing ideas.

OB IN POPULAR CULTURE

Groupthink and Madagascar

In the movie Madagascar, four animals try to escape from the New York Central Zoo. Local residents complain about the danger, so the animals are shipped to Africa when they are captured. The animals’ crates are tossed overboard during a storm, and they end up in Madagascar.

Local King Julian, leader of the lemurs, hatches a plan to make friends with the mysterious animals that arrive on the island. He suggests that Alex, the lion, might be helpful in protecting them from other predators on the island. When Maurice, Julian’s assistant, asks why predators are scared of Alex, he is quickly silenced. All the other lemurs are quick to agree with King Julian. Alex is later discovered to be a hungry carnivore and banished from the lemur colony.

This movie segment shows how easy it is for dissension to be squelched in highly cohesive groups. King Julian, for example, demeans individuals that question his ideas or offer contrasting views. The scene also shows mind guarding. Acknowledging that Alex is a dangerous predator might force the lemurs to deal with an unpleasant reality, so they pretend it does not exist.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 325/501

Dreamworks/Photofest

Get to Know Yourself Better Take Assessment 21, Work Team Dynamics, in the OB Skills Workbook. It can be a good gauge of whether one of your groups or teams is working effectively or might be susceptible to groupthink. It’s also a chance to think about your role in such situations. Take a minute and assess a group to which you currently belong. If you are the leader, what can you do to guard against groupthink? If you are not the leader, what actions would you take if your team was heading toward groupthink?

The nominal group technique begins by asking team members to respond individually and in writing to a nominal question, such as “What should be done to improve the effectiveness of this work team?” Everyone is encouraged to list as many alternatives or ideas as they can. Next, participants in round-robin fashion are asked to read or post their responses to the nominal question. Each response is recorded on large newsprint or in a computer database as it is offered. No criticism is allowed. The recorder asks for any questions that may clarify speci�ic items on the list, but no evaluation is allowed. The goal is simply to make sure that everyone fully understands each response. A structured voting procedure is then used to prioritize responses to the nominal question and identify the choice or choices having most support. This procedure allows ideas to be evaluated without risking the inhibitions, hostilities, and distortions that may occur in an open and less structured team meeting.

Delphi Technique The Delphi technique (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo83) has evolved as a useful decision-making technique when team members are unable to meet face to face. It’s virtual version basically collects online responses to a set of questions posed to a panel of decision makers. A coordinator summarizes responses, then sends the summary plus follow-up questions back to the panel. This process is repeated until a consensus is reached and a clear decision emerges.

The Delphi technique involves generating decision-making alternatives through a series of survey questionnaires.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 326/501

8 Study Guide

Key Questions and Answers What are high-performance teams?

Team building is a collaborative approach to improving group process and performance.

High-performance teams have core values, clear performance objectives, the right mix of skills, and creativity.

Team building is a data-based approach to analyzing group performance and taking steps to improve performance in the future.

Team building is participative and engages all group members in collaborative problem solving and action.

How can team processes be improved?

Individual entry problems are common when new teams are formed and when new members join existing teams.

Task leadership involves initiating, summarizing, and making direct contributions to the group’s task agenda; maintenance leadership involves gate-keeping, encouraging, and supporting the social fabric of the group over time.

Distributed leadership occurs when team members step in to provide helpful task and maintenance activities and discourage disruptive activities.

Role dif�iculties occur when expectations for group members are unclear, overwhelming, underwhelming, or con�licting.

Norms are the standards or rules of conduct that in�luence the behavior of team members; cohesiveness is the attractiveness of the team to its members.

Members of highly cohesive groups value their membership and are very loyal to the group; they also tend to conform to group norms.

The best situation is a team with positive performance norms and high cohesiveness; the worst is a team with negative performance norms and high cohesiveness.

Inter-team dynamics are forces that operate between two or more groups as they cooperate and compete with one another.

How can team communications be improved?

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 327/501

Effective teams vary their use of alternative communication networks and decision-making methods to best meet task and situation demands.

Interacting groups with decentralized networks tend to perform well on complex tasks; co- acting groups with centralized networks may do well at simple tasks.

Restricted communication networks are common in counteracting groups where subgroups form around disagreements.

Wise choices on proxemics, or the use of space, can help teams improve communication among members.

Information technology ranging from instant messaging, video chats, video conferencing, and more, can improve communication in teams, but it must be well used.

How can team decisions be improved?

Teams can make decisions by lack of response, authority rule, minority rule, majority rule, consensus, and unanimity.

Although team decisions often make more information available for problem solving and generate more understanding and commitment, their potential liabilities include social pressures to conform and greater time requirements.

Groupthink is a tendency of members of highly cohesive teams to lose their critical evaluative capabilities and make poor decisions.

Special techniques for team decision making include brainstorming, the nominal group technique, and the Delphi technique.

Terms to Know Brainstorming (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec170#key1)

Centralized communication network (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec166#key2)

Cohesiveness (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec159#key3)

Collective intelligence (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec155#key4)

Consensus (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec170#key5)

Decentralized communication network (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec166#key6)

Decision making (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec170#key7)

Delphi technique (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec170#key8)

Disruptive behaviors (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec159#key9)

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 328/501

Distributed leadership (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec159#key10)

Groupthink (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec170#key11)

Inter-team dynamics (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec159#key12)

Maintenance activities (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec159#key13)

Nominal group technique (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec170#key14)

Norms (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec159#key15)

Performance norm (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec159#key16)

Proxemics (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec166#key17)

Restricted communication network (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec166#key18)

Role (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec159#key19)

Role ambiguity (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec159#key20)

Role con�lict (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec159#key21)

Role negotiation (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec159#key22)

Role overload (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec159#key23)

Role underload (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec159#key24)

Rule of conformity (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec159#key25)

Task activities (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec159#key26)

Team or group dynamics (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec159#key27)

Team building (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec155#key28)

Virtual communication networks (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec166#key29)

Self-Test 8 Multiple Choice

1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c08str1) . One of the essential criteria of a true team is ____________.

a. (a) large size

b. (b) homogeneous membership

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 329/501

c. (c) isolation from outsiders

d. (d) collective accountability

2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c08str2) . The team- building process can best be described as participative, data based, and ____________.

a. (a) action oriented

b. (b) leader centered

c. (c) ineffective

d. (d) short term

3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c08str3) . A person facing an ethical dilemma involving differences between personal values and the expectations of the team is experiencing ____________ con�lict.

a. (a) person–role

b. (b) intrasender role

c. (c) intersender role

d. (d) interrole

4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c08str4) . The statement “On our team, people always try to do their best” is an example of a(n) ____________ norm.

a. (a) support and helpfulness

b. (b) high-achievement

c. (c) organizational pride

d. (d) personal improvement

5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c08str5) . Highly cohesive teams tend to be ____________.

a. (a) bad for organizations

b. (b) good for members

c. (c) good for social loa�ing

d. (d) bad for norm conformity

6 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c08str6) . To increase team cohesiveness, one would ____________.

a. (a) make the group bigger

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 330/501

b. (b) increase membership diversity

c. (c) isolate the group from others

d. (d) relax performance pressures

7 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c08str7) . A team member who does a good job at summarizing discussion, offering new ideas, and clarifying points made by others is providing leadership by contributing ____________ activities to the group process.

a. (a) required

b. (b) disruptive

c. (c) task

d. (d) maintenance

8 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c08str8) . Examples of ____________ that can harm team performance include when someone is being aggressive, makes inappropriate jokes, or talks about irrelevant matters in a group meeting.

a. (a) disruptive behaviors

b. (b) maintenance activities

c. (c) task activities

d. (d) role dynamics

9 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c08str9) . If you heard from an employee of a local bank “It’s a tradition here for us to stand up and defend the bank when someone criticizes it,” you could assume that the bank employees had strong ____________ norms.

a. (a) support and helpfulness

b. (b) organizational and personal pride

c. (c) ethical and social responsibility

d. (d) improvement and change

10 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c08str10) . What can be predicted when you know that a work team is highly cohesive?

a. (a) high-performance results

b. (b) high member satisfaction

c. (c) positive performance norms

d. (d) status congruity

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 331/501

11 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c08str11) . When two groups are in competition with one another, ____________ may be expected within each group.

a. (a) greater cohesiveness

b. (b) less reliance on the leader

c. (c) poor task focus

d. (d) more con�lict

12 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c08str12) . A co-acting group is most likely to use a(n) ____________ communication network.

a. (a) interacting

b. (b) decentralized

c. (c) centralized

d. (d) restricted

13 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c08str13) . A complex problem is best dealt with by a team using a(n) ____________ communication network.

a. (a) all-channel

b. (b) wheel

c. (c) chain

d. (d) linear

14 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c08str14) . The tendency of teams to lose their critical evaluative capabilities during decision making is a phenomenon called ____________.

a. (a) groupthink

b. (b) the slippage effect

c. (c) decision congruence

d. (d) group consensus

15 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c08str15) . When a team decision requires a high degree of commitment for its implementation, a(n) ____________ decision is generally preferred.

a. (a) authority

b. (b) majority rule

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 332/501

c. (c) consensus

d. (d) minority rule

Short Response

16 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c08str16) . Describe the steps in a typical team-building process.

17 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c08str17) . How can a team leader build positive group norms?

18 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c08str18) . How do cohesiveness and conformity to norms in�luence team performance?

19 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c08str19) . How can inter- team competition be bad and good for organizations?

Applications Essay

20 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/self#c08str20) . Alejandra Purón recently encountered a dilemma in working with his employer’s diversity task force. One of the team members claimed that a task force must always be unanimous in its recommendations. “Otherwise,” she said, “we will not have a true consensus.” Alejandro, the current task force leader, disagrees. He believes that unanimity is desirable but not always necessary to achieve consensus. You are a management consultant specializing in teams and teamwork. Alejandro asks for advice. What would you tell him and why?

Steps to Further Learning 8 Top Choices from The OB Skills Workbook

These learning activities from The OB Skills Workbook found at the back of the book are suggested for Chapter 8 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/ch8#ch8) .

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 333/501

Case for Critical Thinking Team and Experiential Exercises

Self-Assessment Portfolio

Teams Drive the Fast Cars

Scavenger Hunt Team Building

Work Team Dynamics

Identifying Team Norms

Work Team Culture

The Hot Seat

Team Effectiveness

Empowering Others

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 334/501

9 Decision Making and Creativity

The Key Point

When, how, and with whom we make choices is a key to success. But, we don’t always make good decisions or use the right decision-making approaches. There are times when it’s best to be quick, intuitive, and creative, and others when we should be slow, deliberative, and cautious. Sometimes it’s best to make choices alone and many times it’s best to involve others.

What’s Inside?

Bringing OB to LIFE

GETTING REAL TO MAKE THE RIGHT JOB CHOICE

Worth Considering . . . or Best Avoided?

NEED A BREAK? SOME WORKERS ARE SWAPPING CASH FOR TIME

Checking Ethics in OB

LIFE AND DEATH AT AN OUTSOURCING FACTORY

Finding the Leader in You

ARIANNA RUSSELL LEADS WITH INTUITION AT THE BODACIOUS BANDIT

OB in Popular Culture

INTUITION AND US AIRWAYS FLIGHT 1549

Research Insight

ANALYTICAL AND INTUITIVE DECISIONS: WHEN TO TRUST YOUR GUT

Chapter at a Glance

What Is Involved in the Decision-Making Process?

What Are the Alternative Decision-Making Models?

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 335/501

What Are the Key Decision-Making Traps and Issues?

What Can Be Done to Stimulate Creativity in Decision Making?

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 336/501

9.1 The Decision-Making Process LEARNING ROADMAP

STEPS IN THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec176#sec177)

THE DECISION TO DECIDE (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec176#sec178)

ETHICAL REASONING AND DECISION MAKING (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec176#sec179)

ALTERNATIVE DECISION ENVIRONMENTS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec176#sec180)

DECISIONS WITH EXTREME CONSEQUENCES (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec176#sec181)

The world of the manager is the world of choice. It is also no wonder that a Graduate Management Admissions Council survey reports that 25 percent of business school alumni would like more training in managing the decision-making process.1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c09-note1) Even in your �irst job, making the appropriate decisions to solve problems will be a key to success.

Steps in the Decision-Making Process A common de�inition of decision making is the process of choosing a course of action for dealing with a problem or an opportunity.2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c09-note2) The process is usually described in �ive steps that constitute the ideal or so-called rational decision model.

Decision making is the process of choosing a course of action to deal with a problem or opportunity.

Recognize and de�ine the problem or opportunity—gather information and deliberate in order to specify exactly why a decision is needed and what it should accomplish. Three mistakes are common in this critical �irst step in decision making. First, we may de�ine the problem too broadly or too narrowly. Second, we may focus on problem symptoms instead of causes. Third, we may choose the wrong problem to deal with.

Identify and analyze alternative courses of action—evaluate possible alternative courses of action and their anticipated consequences for costs and bene�its. Decision makers at this stage must be clear on exactly what they know and what they need to know. They should identify key stakeholders and consider the effects of each possible course of action on them.

Choose a preferred course of action—a choice is made to pursue one course of action rather than others. Criteria used in making the choice typically involve costs and bene�its, timeliness of

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 337/501

results, impact on stakeholders, and ethical soundness. Another issue is who makes the decision: team leader, team members, or some combination?

Implement the preferred course of action—actions are taken to put the preferred course of action into practice. This is a point where teams may suffer from lack-of-participation error (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo220) because they haven’t included certain people in the decision-making process whose support is necessary for its implementation. Teams that use participation and involvement successfully gather information and insights for better decision making, and commitments from team members to put choices into action. Some of the participation techniques are quite simple, such as a checklist for an emergency room surgery team.

Lack-of-participation error occurs when important people are excluded from the decision-making process.

Evaluate results and follow up as necessary—performance results are measured against initial goals and both anticipated and unanticipated outcomes are examined. This is where decision makers exercise control over their actions, being careful to ensure that the desired results are achieved and undesired side effects are avoided. It is a stage that many individuals and teams often neglect, with negative implications for their performance effectiveness.

Something to Read—The Checklist Manifesto: How to Get Things Right by Atul Gawande

In his book The Checklist Manifesto (Picador, 2011), physician and author Atul Gawande suggests that the old-fashioned checklist is a good way to make sure that what he calls “avoidable errors” aren’t made.

Bad decisions he says, often sometimes come from missing small things. The best checklists are short and focused on the essentials. If they are too long, they may not get used or key things may be skipped. In teams, such as a surgery team in a hospital emergency room, checklists are empowering because they allow every team member to be part of the control process.

Erik Jacobs/The New York Times

The Decision to Decide

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 338/501

The reality is that making and implementing the right choices is complicated. And one of the most critical aspects of the decision-making process is setting priorities. Not every problem requires an immediate response and the best decision may be the one not made. Asking and answering the following questions can sometimes help with the decision to decide.

Questions on decision immediacy

What really matters? Small and less signi�icant problems should not get the same time and attention as bigger ones.

Might the problem resolve itself? Putting problems in rank order leaves the less signi�icant for last. Surprisingly, many of these less important problems resolve themselves or are solved by others before you get to them.

Is this my, or our, problem? Many problems can be handled by other people. These should be delegated to people who are best prepared to deal with them. Ideally, they should be delegated to people whose work they most affect.

Will time spent make a difference? A really effective decision maker recognizes the difference between problems that realistically can be solved and those that are simply not solvable.

Ethical Reasoning and Decision Making Choices at each step in the decision-making process often have moral issues that can easily be overlooked. Figure 9.1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec176#r�ig9-1) links the steps in the decision-making process with corresponding issues of ethical reasoning.3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c09-note3) As suggested in the �igure, we are advocating that an ethical reasoning approach be followed when decisions are made and that this approach be linked with steps in the decision-making process. In other words, decision making is incomplete without including ethical analysis.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 339/501

FIGURE 9.1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec176#�ig9-1) The decision-making process and ethical reasoning model.

Moral Problems and Dilemmas Ethics (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo120) is the philosophical study of morality or standards regarding good character and conduct.4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c09-note4) When we apply ethical reasoning to decisions made by individuals and teams in organizations, the focus is on moral problems and dilemmas that are associated with the decision-making process.

Ethics is the philosophical study of morality.

A moral problem (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo260) poses major ethical consequences for the decision maker or for others. It is possible to address a personal, management, or business problem and not properly consider any moral problems that might be associated with it, but the preferred approach is to carefully examine the ethics of each alternative for all stakeholders, and make choices that minimize negative impact and maximize respect for everyone’s rights.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 340/501

A moral problem poses major ethical consequences for the decision maker or others.

During the recession, for example, job layoffs were commonplace. For the manager or executive teams involved, layoffs may seem straightforward and necessary solutions to a business problem—there are insuf�icient sales to justify the payroll and some jobs must be cut. But this situation also involves a moral problem. The people who lose their jobs may have families, debts, and perhaps limited alternative job options. They will be hurt even if the business bene�its from lowering its costs. Although addressing the moral problem might not change the business decision, it might change how the business decision is reached and implemented. This includes addressing whether or not better alternatives to job eliminations exist and what support is offered to those who do lose jobs.

Sometimes decision makers face moral dilemmas (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo258) and need to decide between two or more ethically uncomfortable alternatives. An example might be having to make the decision to sign an outsourcing contract with a less expensive supplier in a country where employment discrimination exists but where the country is poor and new jobs are necessary for economic development, or contracting a local supplier whose high cost will affect the bottom line. A situation like this involves the uncomfortable position of choosing between alternatives that contain both potential bene�its and harm.

A moral dilemma involves choosing among alternatives that contain both potential bene�its and harm.

Although such moral dilemmas are dif�icult to resolve, ethical reasoning helps ensure that the decisions will be made with rigor and thoughtful consideration. A willingness to pause to examine the ethics of a proposed decision may well result in a better decision, preservation of respect and reputation, and avoidance of costly litigation.

Ethics Double-Checks In the preceding example of job layoffs, business executives who have been criticized for making job cuts might scramble to provide counseling and job search help to affected employees. This is after the fact, and moral conduct does not result from after-the-fact embarrassment. As ethicist Stephen Fineman suggests, “If people are unable to anticipate shame or guilt before they act in particular ways, then moral codes are invalid.”5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c09-note5) When you are the decision maker, decision making is not just a process followed for the good of the organization; it involves your values and your morality, and potential adverse impact on them should be anticipated.6 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c09-note6)

If you look at Figure 9.1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec176#r�ig9-1) , you will see that “ethics double-checks” are built into the ethical reasoning framework. This is a way of testing to make sure our decisions meet personal moral standards. The recommended ethics double- checks ask and answer two sets of questions: criteria questions and spotlight questions. Ethicist Gerald Cavanagh and his associates identify these four criteria questions (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo72) for assessing ethics in decision making:7 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c09-note7)

Criteria questions assess a decision in terms of utility, rights, justice, and caring.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 341/501

Utility—Does the decision satisfy all constituents or stakeholders?

Rights—Does the decision respect the rights and duties of everyone?

Justice—Is the decision consistent with the canons of justice?

Caring—Is the decision consistent with my responsibilities to care?

CHECKING ETHICS IN OB

Life and Death at an Outsourcing Factory

Over 500,000 people work, and many employees live in dormitories, at the huge Foxconn complex in Shenzen, China that includes its own downtown, swimming pool, �ire department and hospital. The company is not only known as a major outsourcing �irm that makes products for Apple, Dell and Hewlett Packard, among others, but for labor unrest, industrial accidents and worker suicides.

Most workers are young and away from their homes for the �irst time. “Without their families,” says a supervisor, “they’re left without direction.” The �irm has been criticized for working conditions and labor practices that led to a rash of employee suicides. At one point the �irm installed netting on the dormitories to prevent suicides by workers jumping from the roofs.

One Foxconn worker complains that the work is meaningless, no conversation is allowed on the production lines, and the bathroom breaks are limited. Another says, “I do the same things every day. I have no future.”

In recent years, Foxconn has been working to improve conditions for workers and increase their pay. A supervisor points out that the �irm provides counseling services. “We try to provide them with direction and help.”

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 342/501

REUTERS/Jason Lee/Landov LLC

One Foxconn worker complains that the work is meaningless, no conversation is allowed on the production lines, and bathroom breaks are limited. Another says: “I do the same thing every day. I have no future.” A supervisor points out that the �irm provides counseling services since most workers are young and this is the �irst time they are away from their homes. “Without their families,” says the supervisor, “they’re left without direction. We try to provide them with direction and help.”

How Should We Act? People sometimes work in situations that are harmful to their health and well being. They face abuse in the form of sexual harassment, supervisor mistreatment, co-worker incivility, unsafe conditions, overly long hours, and more. What ethical responsibilities do the �irms that contract for outsourcing in foreign plants have when it comes to the conditions under which the employees work? Whose responsibility is it to make sure workers are well treated? And when it comes to consumers, should we support bad practices by continuing to buy products from �irms whose outsourcing partners have been revealed to treat workers poorly?

The spotlight questions (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo423) expose a decision to public scrutiny and force us to consider a decision in the context of full transparency.8 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c09-note8) They include:

Spotlight questions expose a decision to public scrutiny and full transparency.

“How would I feel if my family found out about this decision?”

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 343/501

“How would I feel if this decision were published in the local newspaper or posted on the Internet?”

“What would the person you know or know of who has the strongest character and best ethical judgment do in this situation?”

Alternative Decision Environments Decisions in organizations are typically made under the three conditions or environments—uncertainty, risk, and certainty—providing the decision maker with nonprogrammed or programmed types of decisions.9 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c09-note9) Combinations of these environments and types of decision are depicted in Figure 9.2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec176#r�ig9-2) . A quick examination of these combinations reveals interesting differences in the speed, accuracy, and ef�iciency of decision making.

FIGURE 9.2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec176#�ig9-2) Combinations of decision environments and types of decisions.

Certain Environments and Programmed Decisions Certain environments (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo32) exist when information is suf�icient to predict the results of each alternative in advance of implementation. When a person invests money in a savings account, for example, absolute certainty exists about the interest that will be earned on that money in a given period of time.

Certain environments provide full information on the expected results for decision-making alternatives.

Programmed decisions (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo345) are choices made as standardized responses to recurring situations and routine problems. They deal with things a decision maker or team already has experience with. Although it appears the choice has been made, there remains the question of implementation and tailoring the implementation to the exact problem at hand. For instance, even programmed decisions that deal with employee absences, compensation, or other standard human resource issues call for care in implementation.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 344/501

Programmed decisions implement solutions that have already been determined by past experience.

The combination of a certain decision environment and programmed decisions appears trivial because it represents well established standard operating practice in a well-known setting. Choices should be activated when a choice is made for fast, accurate, and ef�icient choices. The astute manager also realizes there is an opportunity to delegate implementation, simplify decision rules, and/or investigate if new alternatives have arisen.

Uncertain Environments and Nonprogrammed Decisions Uncertain environments (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo464) exist when managers have so little information that they cannot even assign probabilities to various alternatives and their possible outcomes. This is the most dif�icult decision environment. As we will see in the rest of this chapter, uncertainty forces decision makers to rely heavily on unique, novel, and often totally innovative alternatives. This environment calls on managers to use their intuition, educated guesses, and even hunches to develop nonprogrammed decisions.

Uncertain environments provide no information to predict expected results for decision- making alternatives.

Nonprogrammed decisions (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo274) are speci�ically crafted or tailored to �it a unique situation. They address novel or unexpected problems that demand a special response—one not available from a decision inventory. An example is a marketing team that has to respond to the introduction of a new product by a foreign competitor. Although past experience may help deal with this competitive threat, the immediate decision requires a creative solution based on the unique characteristics of the present market situation.

Nonprogrammed decisions are created to deal with a unique problem or opportunity at hand.

Risk Environments and Programmed Decisions Risk environments (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo369) exist when decision makers are aware of the probabilities associated with their likely occurrence. Decision makers often attempt to eliminate uncertainty by assigning probabilities to alternatives. The assignment can be made through objective statistical procedures or through personal intuition. For instance, a senior production manager can make statistical estimates of quality rejects in production runs or make similar estimates based on personal past experience. Managers believe risk is a common decision environment.

Risk environments provide probabilities regarding expected results for decision-making alternatives.

More Employers Use Computer Programs to Take the Guesswork Out of Hiring

It used to be that managers and human resource staffers followed job candidates from the point of application through the interview and into �inal job placement. Things are changing—fast. Computer

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 345/501

software is replacing the human being in some aspects of hiring decisions. All call-center jobs at Xerox, for example, are �illed by software that screens applications and responses to key job-related questions.

Software is often used to scan résumés for key words and phrases that are linked to the employer’s hiring preferences. Personalities and decisions in simulated situations can easily be assessed by a variety of programs that organize the data and assign applicants to action categories such as reject, hire, and consider further. It’s all part of what is called “talent management software.” Users �ind that it takes the “hunch” factor out of hiring decisions and makes everything more data based.

Frances M. Roberts/NewsCom

In risk environments, decision makers often implement programmed decisions to gain speed and the appearance of ef�iciency. However, to the degree that the risk is manufactured from managerial estimates of conditions that are really uncertain, the accuracy of the choices could decline substantially.

Decision Environment and Decision Type Mismatches The presence of unusual combinations of decision environments and types signals potentially serious decision-making de�iciencies. When organizations rely on unprogrammed decisions in certain and risk environments, there is a potential loss of ef�iciency. Conversely, use of programmed decisions in an uncertain environment often fails because choices made don’t solve the problem or match the opportunity. The use of programmed decisions in uncertain environments is perhaps more common than you might �irst think. This combination indicates that decision makers are unresponsive to changing, dynamic conditions.

Decisions with Extreme Consequences Where the potential consequences of a decision are extreme, organizations often engage in planning to ensure their survival. One common type of planning involves systematic risk management and another focuses on responses to potential disasters.

Risk Management in Decision Making Because so many decisions are made in risk and uncertain environments, there is heightened interest in risk management

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 346/501

(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo370) , often associated with insurance and �inance. We use the term in general management as well, focusing on anticipating risk in situations and factoring risk alternatives into the decision-making process.10 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c09-note10) Risk management involves identifying critical risks and then developing strategies and assigning responsibilities for dealing with them.

Risk managemen involves anticipating risks and factoring them into decision making.

KPMG, one of the world’s largest consulting �irms, has a large practice in enterprise risk management. It is designed to help executives identify risks to their �irms and plan how to best deal with them.11 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c09-note11) KPMG consultants systematically ask managers to separately identify strategic risks—threats to overall business success; operational risks— threats inherent in the technologies used to reach business success; and reputation risks—threats to a brand or to the �irm’s reputation. Although they also note the importance of threats from regulatory sources, KPMG consultants pay special attention to �inancial threats, challenges to information systems, and new initiatives from competitors, in addition to change in the competitive setting such as economic recession or natural disasters.

Crisis Planning The most extreme type of nonprogrammed decision is the crisis decision (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo71) where an unexpected problem threatens major harm and disaster if it is not resolved quickly and appropriately.12 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c09-note12) Acts of terrorism, workplace violence, IT failures and security breaches, ethical scandals, and environmental catastrophes are all examples. The ability to handle crises could well be the ultimate decision-making test. Unfortunately, research indicates that we sometimes react to crises by doing exactly the wrong things.13 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c09-note13) Managers err in crisis situations when they isolate themselves and try to solve the problem alone or in a small, closed group. Teams do the same when they withdraw into the isolation of groupthink. In both instances, the decision makers cut themselves off from access to crucial information at the very time that they need it most.

A crisis decision occurs when an unexpected problem can lead to disaster if not resolved quickly and appropriately.

Especially in our world of economic uncertainty, global crises, and IT security breaches, many organizations are developing formal crisis-management programs. They train managers in crisis, assign people to crisis-management teams, and develop crisis-management plans to deal with various contingencies. Just as �ire and police departments, the Red Cross, and community groups plan ahead and train people how to best handle civil and natural disasters, and airline crews train for �light emergencies, so, too, can managers and work teams plan ahead and train to handle organizational crises. These preparedness programs often stress key points like the following on how to identify and respond to a crisis:14 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c09-note14)

Crisis preparedness tips

Take the time to understand what’s happening and the conditions under which the crisis must be resolved.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 347/501

Attack the crisis as quickly as possible, before it gets unmanageable.

Know when to back off and wait for a better opportunity to make progress with the crisis.

Understand the danger of all-new territory.

Value the skeptic—don’t look for and get too comfortable with agreement. Appreciate skeptics and let them help you see things differently.

When things are going wrong and no one seems to care, you may have to start a crisis to get people’s attention.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 348/501

9.2 Decision-Making Models LEARNING ROADMAP

CLASSICAL DECISION MODEL (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec182#sec183)

BEHAVIORAL DECISION MODEL (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec182#sec184)

SYSTEMATIC AND INTUITIVE THINKING (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec182#sec185)

Historically, �ield of organizational behavior has emphasized two alternative approaches to decision making as shown in Figure 9.3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec182#r�ig9- 3) —classical and behavioral.15 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c09-note15) The classical decision model views rational people acting in a world of complete certainty, whereas the behavioral decision model accepts the notion of bounded rationality and suggests that people act only in terms of what they perceive about a given situation.

FIGURE 9.3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec182#�ig9-3) Decision making viewed from the classical and behavioral perspectives.

Classical Decision Model

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 349/501

The classical decision model (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo36) views the manager or team as acting rationally and in a fully informed manner. In a certain environment, the problem is clearly de�ined, all possible action alternatives are known, and their consequences are clear. This allows for an optimizing decision (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo283) that gives the best solution to the problem. This model �its the �ive-step decision-making process described earlier. It is an ideal situation of complete information where the decision maker moves through the steps one by one in a logical fashion. And it nicely lends itself to various forms of quantitative decision analysis as well as to computer- based applications.16 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c09-note16)

Classical decision model views decision makers as acting in a world of complete certainty.

Optimizing decisions give the absolute best solution to a problem.

Behavioral Decision Model As Nobel laureate Herbert Simon noted, the reality is that many, perhaps most, decision situations faced by individuals and teams in organizations don’t �it the assumptions of the model. Recognizing this, the premise of the alternative behavioral decision model (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo24) is that people act only in terms of their perceptions, which are frequently imperfect.17 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c09-note17)

The behavioral decision model views decision makers as acting only in terms of what they perceive about a given situation.

Behavioral scientists recognize that human beings have cognitive limitations—limits on what we are able to know at any point in time. These limitations restrict our information-processing capabilities. The result is that information de�iciencies and overloads compromise the ability of decision makers to operate according to the classical model. Instead, they end up acting with bounded rationality, where things are interpreted and made sense of as perceptions and only within the context of the situation. They engage in decision making within the box of a simpli�ied view of a more complex reality.

Armed with only partial knowledge about the available action alternatives and their consequences, decision makers in the behavioral model are likely to choose the �irst alternative that appears satisfactory to them. Herbert Simon calls this the tendency to make satis�icing decisions (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo382) . He states, “Most human decision making, whether individual or organizational, is concerned with the discovery and selection of satisfactory alternatives; only in exceptional cases is it concerned with the discovery and selection of optimal decisions.”18 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c09-note18)

Satis�icing decisions choose the �irst alternative that appears to give an acceptable or satisfactory resolution of the problem.

WORTH CONSIDERING ...OR BEST AVOIDED?

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 350/501

Need a Break? Some Workers Are Swapping Cash for Time

If employers offer vacation, sick and personal days as incentives to employees, will allowing workers to either buy more time off or sell back unused days motivate them even more?

USAA is one of America’s largest �inancial services companies and is consistently ranked as one of the best places to work. At last count 48 percent of the �irm’s employees had taken advantage of the opportunity to purchase additional time off. The Society for Human Resource Management reports that these programs are gaining popularity, with some 51 percent of organizations offering the option.

On the other hand, many employees don’t use all their vacation or personal days. While the average U.S. employee gets 2.6 weeks of vacation each year, research �irm Harris Interactive notes that 57 percent don’t use all of their days. Selling unused days is a way for many to boost their paycheck.

Most plans that allow purchasing of time off use payroll deductions to make the �inancial impact less painful. At the building-materials maker USG, the program became so popular that management had to limit the purchases of vacation time to a maximum of one week a year.

Muharrem Oner/iStockphoto

Do the Analysis

Does it make sense that workers should be able to sell back and buy more time off? Does the practice hold up to real scrutiny? Are there disadvantages that must be considered? Can the practice be justi�ied in terms of employee motivation and engagement? What is the cost of workers not taking enough vacation time?

Systematic and Intuitive Thinking

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 351/501

Individuals and teams may be described as using both comparatively slow “systematic” and quick “intuitive” thinking as they make decisions and try to solve problems. Systematic thinking (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo444) is consistent with the rational model where a decision is approached in step-by-step and analytical fashion. You might recognize this style in a team member who tries to break a complex problem into smaller components that can be addressed one by one. Teams engaged in systematic thinking will try to make a plan before taking action, and to search for information and proceed with problem solving in a fact-based and logical fashion. Systematic thinking is also known as an analytical approach and is often recommended for superior decision making.19 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c09-note19)

Systematic thinking approaches problems in a rational and analytical fashion.

We think of intuition as the ability to know or recognize quickly and readily the possibilities of a given situation.20 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c09-note20) Individuals and teams using intuitive thinking (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo210) are more �lexible and spontaneous in decision making.21 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c09-note21) You might observe this pattern in someone who always seems to come up with an imaginative response to a problem, often based on a quick and broad evaluation of the situation. Decision makers in this intuitive mode tend to deal with many aspects of a problem at once, search for the big picture, jump quickly from one issue to another, and act on hunches from experience or on spontaneous ideas. This approach is common under conditions of risk and uncertainty. Because intuitive thinkers take a �lexible and spontaneous approach to decision making, their presence on a team adds potential for creative problem solving and innovation.

Intuitive thinking approaches problems in a �lexible and spontaneous fashion.

OB IN POPULAR CULTURE

Intuition and US Airways Flight 1549

During the afternoon of January 15, 2009, television news anchors began reporting about a plane in the Hudson River. The �irst reaction was “not another tragic plane crash.” This incident, however, was different. Captain Chesley “Sully” Sullenberger successfully crash-land US Airways Flight 1549 in the river and save the lives of all passengers and crew.

In an interview with Greta van Susteren of Fox News, Sullenberger was asked to recount what happened. van Susteren commented, “It probably took about twenty seconds to explain; you had to make that decision like [snaps her �ingers] that.” Sullenberger responded, “It was sort of an instinctive move based upon my experience and my initial read of the situation.”

What Captain Sullenberger describes is an intuitive decision. Think about it. If you had been a passenger on that plane, would you want him making a systematic decision under those circumstances? The plane would have been at the bottom of the Hudson River by the time he completed step 2. This is precisely why

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 352/501

pilots spend considerable time in �light simulators: to develop the experience necessary for dealing with problems that may only occur once, if ever, in a career.

Steven Day/© AP/Wide World Photos

Most descriptions of the decision-making process begin with the rational model. Systematic or rational thinking is often viewed as the most effective way to make decisions. By contrast, intuition involves being able to quickly size up a situation and make a decision. In some situations, like Sullenberger’s, it may be a better way to approach a problem.

Get to Know Yourself Better Take a look at Assessment 16, Intuitive Ability, in the OB Skills Workbook to determine the extent to which you use intuition in decision making. If your score suggests that you are uncomfortable with an intuitive decision style, you may need to work on it. Or perhaps you may simply need to rely on your experience and trust your judgment a little more.

When US Airways Flight 1549 hit a �lock of birds on takeoff from LaGuardia Airport, lost engine power, and was headed for a crash, Pilot Chesley “Sully” Sullenberger III made the decision to land in the Hudson River. The landing was successful, and no lives were lost. Called a hero for his efforts, Sullenberger described his thinking this way.22 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c09-note22)

I needed to touch down with the wings exactly level. I needed to touch down with the nose slightly up. I needed to touch down at . . . a descent rate that was survivable. And I needed to touch down just above our minimum �lying speed but not below it. And I needed to make all these things happen simultaneously.

Sullenberger did the right thing—he made the decision himself, betting on his training and experience and, stood behind it with his own life on the line.

Research Insight

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 353/501

Analytical and Intuitive Decisions: When to Trust Your Gut

Traditionally, managers have often been advised not to use intuitive decision making because it is often biased and may yield poor decisions. Managers have been advised by decisions experts to use analytical decision making. However, Dane and his colleagues noted recent work suggesting that this traditional recommendation might not hold for very experienced decision makers. For these individuals, intuitive heuristics might foster effective decision making.

The review of the literature suggested that intuition-based decision making might work well for experts facing tasks that could not be broken down into component parts. As they noted, “Experts are well equipped to capitalize on the potential bene�its of intuition because they possess . . . domain knowledge that foster[s] rapid . . . accurate” choices.

To test this theory, the authors conducted a series of lab experiments. In the �irst experiment, the researchers asked student subjects to rate the dif�iculty of basketball shots. First, they took photos from a recent game of basketball players taking shots. They asked coaches to rate the dif�iculty of these shots on a scale of one to ten. Then they gathered the student participants. The student participants were �irst separated into two groups: one group had expensive experience with basketball (e.g., played three years of high school basketball) and the other did not. For each experience group, some students were asked to develop an analytic model with speci�ic factors (e.g., the closeness of the defender) to make judgments about dif�iculty. The other students were asked to use their intuition. They then ran the experiment, giving all the students a limited amount of time to make the choices. So who do you think had the higher scores?

Results of the Basketball Experiment

Intuition Used Analysis Used

Low Expertise

21.34* (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec182#fn1)

24.89

High Expertise

30.09 26.46

* (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec182#fnr1) Higher score is better.

It turns out that the individuals with the highest scores were the students who had played basketball and used intuition. The lowest scores came from the students without basketball expertise who used intuition.

The researchers also ran a similar test with fake versus real designer brand handbags. Here, the experts were students who owned several of the real bags versus those who did not. The results were virtually

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 354/501

identical. They noted that their results might not hold for tasks, such as sequential statistical problems, that were decomposable.

Do the Research How much expertise do you think is necessary for intuition to be superior? Design a study with a non-decomposable task to examine this question.

Source: Erik Dane, Kevin W. Rockmann, and Michael G. Pratt, “When Should I Trust My Gut? Linking Domain Expertise to Intuitive Decision-Making Effectiveness,” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 119 (2012), pp. 187–194.

Does this mean that we should always favor the more intuitive and less systematic approach? Most likely not—teams, like individuals, should use and combine the two approaches to solve complex problems. In other words, there’s a place for both systematic and intuitive thinking in management decision making.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 355/501

9.3 Decision-Making Traps and Issues LEARNING ROADMAP

JUDGMENTAL HEURISTICS (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec186#sec187)

DECISION BIASES (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec186#sec188)

KNOWING WHEN TO QUIT (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec186#sec189)

KNOWING WHO TO INVOLVE (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/sec186#sec190)

The pathways to good decisions can seem like a mine�ield of challenging issues and troublesome traps. Whether working individually or as part of a team, it is important to understand the in�luence of judgmental heuristics and other potential decision biases, as well as be capable of making critical choices regarding if, when, and how decisions get made.

Judgmental Heuristics Judgment, or the use of intellect, is important in all aspects of decision making. When we question the ethics of a decision, for example, we are questioning the judgment of the person making it. Work by Nobel laureate Daniel Kahneman, his colleagues, and many others shows that people are prone to mistakes and biases that often interfere with the quality of decision making.23 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c09-note23) Many of these mistakes and biases can be traced back to the use of heuristics (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo164) . Heuristics serve a useful purpose by making it easier to deal with uncertainty and the limited information common to problem situations. However, they can also lead us toward systematic errors that affect the quality, and perhaps the ethical implications, of any decisions made.24 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c09- note24)

Heuristics are simplifying strategies or “rules of thumb” used to make decisions.

Availability Heuristic The availability heuristic (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo19) involves assessing a current event based on past occurrences that are easily available in one’s memory. An example is the product development specialist who decides not to launch a new product because of a recent failure launching another one. In this case, the existence of a past product failure has negatively, and perhaps inappropriately, biased judgment regarding how best to handle the new product.

The availability heuristic bases a decision on recent events relating to the situation at hand.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 356/501

Representativeness Heuristic The representativeness heuristic (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo364) involves assessing the likelihood that an event will occur based on its similarity to one’s stereotypes of similar occurrences. An example is the team leader who selects a new member, not because of any special qualities of the person but because the individual comes from a department known to have produced high performers in the past. In this case, the individual’s current place of employment—not job quali�ications—is the basis for the selection decision.

The representativeness heuristic bases a decision on similarities between the situation at hand and stereotypes of similar occurrences.

Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic The anchoring and adjustment heuristic (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo14) involves assessing an event by taking an initial value from historical precedent or an outside source and then incrementally adjusting this value to make a current assessment. An example is the executive who makes salary increase recommendations for key personnel by simply adjusting their current base salaries by a percentage. In this case, the existing base salary becomes an “anchor” that limits subsequent salary increases. This anchor may be inappropriate, such as in the case of an individual whose market value has become substantially higher than what is re�lected by the base salary plus increment approach.

The anchoring and adjustment heuristic bases a decision on incremental adjustments to an initial value determined by historical precedent or some reference point.

Decision Biases In addition to the common judgmental heuristics, decision makers are also prone to more general biases in decision making. One bias is con�irmation error (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo52) , whereby the decision maker seeks con�irmation for what is already thought to be true and neglects opportunities to acknowledge or �ind discon�irming information. A form of selective perception, this bias involves seeking only information and cues in a situation that support a preexisting opinion.

The con�irmation error is the tendency to seek con�irmation for what is already thought to be true and not search for discon�irming information.

A second bias is the hindsight trap (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo168) where the decision maker overestimates the degree to which he or she could have predicted an event that has already taken place. One risk of hindsight is that it may foster feelings of inadequacy or insecurity in dealing with future decision situations.

The hindsight trap is a tendency to overestimate the degree to which an event that has already taken place could have been predicted.

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 357/501

A third bias is the framing error (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/gloss#glo147) . It occurs when managers and teams evaluate and resolve a problem in the context in which they perceive it—either positive or negative. Suppose research data show that a new product has a 40 percent market share. What does this really mean to the marketing team? A negative frame views the product as de�icient because it is missing 60 percent of the market. Discussion and problem solving within this frame would likely focus on “What are we doing wrong?” If the marketing team used a positive frame and considered a 40 percent share as a success, the conversation might have been quite different: “How can we do even better?” By the way, we are constantly exposed to framing in the world of politics; the word used to describe it is spin.

Framing error is solving a problem in the context perceived.

BRINGING OB TO LIFE

“Only 51 percent of new hires end up thinking they made the right decision. The main reason is that they had unrealistic expectations about the job.”

Getting Real to Make the Right Job Choice

OB scholars have long talked about the importance of realistic recruitment or realistic job previews. Recruiters should provide job candidates with all relevant information about the prospective job and employer, including the possible downsides. This helps the candidates make better job choice decisions, avoiding job frustration and saving employers the cost of hiring again.

Injecting realism into job choice decisions makes good sense, but it’s not the norm. A survey by Development Dimensions International, Inc. (DDI), reports that only 51 percent of new hires think they made the right decision. Unrealistic expectations and disengagement cause some employees to want out.

In the DDI survey of 2,300 new hires, many said they missed important information during the recruiting process. In retrospect, they would have liked answers to questions like these before accepting the job:

What is the turnover rate? How often are you hiring for this position?

How much travel is required, and what type of travel will it be?

What are the actual hours of work, not just the of�icial ones?

How solid are the �inances of this organization?

Can I see the actual job description—the one my manager would be using?

What is the structure of the team I will be joining, and how does it operate?

Are there any team dynamics among existing members that I should know about?

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 358/501

Image Source/Corbis

From the OB point of view, everyone bene�its from realistic recruiting. New hires who believe their decisions were fully informed are more likely to feel good about their new jobs. Employers providing full information are more likely to hire engaged workers who stick around. So, why do the gaps revealed in the DDI data persist? Why aren’t more recruiters following OB and being fully open and transparent with job candidates?

Knowing When to Quit After the process of making a decision is completed and implementation begins, it can be hard for decision makers to change their minds and admit they made a mistake even when things are clearly not going well. Instead of backing off, the tendency is to press on to victory. This is called escalating commitment— continuing and renewing efforts on a previously chosen course of action, even though it is not working.25 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c09-note25) The tendency toward escalating commitment is re�lected in the popular adage “If at �irst you don’t succeed, try, try again.”

8/8/2018 Print

https://content.ashford.edu/print/Uhl.9641.17.1?sections=cover,title,copy,about,author,part1,ch1,sec1,sec4,sec7,sec11,sec16,sec20,part2,ch2,se… 359/501

Escalating commitment is the tendency to continue a previously chosen course of action even when feedback suggests that it is failing.

Escalating commitments are a form of decision entrapment that leads people to do things that the facts of a situation do not justify. This is one of the most dif�icult aspects of decision making to convey to executives because so many of them rose to their positions by turning losing courses of action into winning ones.26 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c09-note26) Managers should be proactive in spotting “failures” and more open to reversing decisions or dropping plans that are not working. But this is easier said than done.

The tendency to escalate commitments often outweighs the willingness to disengage from them. Decision makers may rationalize negative feedback as a temporary condition, protect their egos by not admitting that the original decision was a mistake, or characterize any negative results as a “learning experience” that can be overcome with added future effort.

Perhaps you have experienced an inability to call it quits or been on teams with similar reluctance. It’s hard to admit to a mistake, especially when a lot of thought and energy went into the decision in the �irst place; it can be even harder when one’s ego and reputation are tied up with the decision. Fortunately, researchers suggest the following to avoid getting trapped in escalating commitments:

How to avoid escalating commitment

Set advance limits on your involvement and commitment to a particular course of action; stick with these limits.

Make your own decisions; don’t follow the lead of others because they are also prone to escalation.

Carefully determine just why you are continuing a course of action; if there are insuf�icient reasons to continue, don’t.

Remind yourself of the costs of a course of action; consider saving these costs as a reason to discontinue.

Knowing Who to Involve In practice, good organizational decisions are made by individuals acting alone, by individuals consulting with others, and by people working together in teams.27 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c09-note27) In true contingency fashion, no one option is always superior to the others; who participates and how decisions are to be made should re�lect the issues at hand.28 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Uhl.9641.17.1/sections/notes#c09-note28)