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(the Dutch Republic), Sweden, and France expanded their author- ity. Spanish and Danish power diminished. In addition to recon- !guring territorial boundaries, the Peace of Westphalia in essence granted freedom of religious choice throughout Europe. "is agree- ment thus marked the abandonment of the idea of a united Chris- tian Europe, and accepted the practical realities of secular political systems. "e building of today’s nation-states was emphatically under way.

"e 17th century also brought heightened economic compe- tition to Europe. Much of the foundation for worldwide mercan- tilism—extensive voyaging and geographic exploration, improved mapmaking, and advances in shipbuilding—had been laid in the previous century. In the 17th century, however, changes in !nancial systems, lifestyles, and trading patterns, along with expanding colo- nialism, fueled the creation of a worldwide marketplace. In 1609, the Dutch founded the Bank of Amsterdam, which eventually became the center of European transfer banking, with Amsterdam usurping Antwerp as the richest center of commerce in Europe. By establish- ing a system in which merchant !rms held money on account, the bank relieved traders of having to transport precious metals as pay- ment. Trading practices became more complex. Rather than simple reciprocal trading, triangular trade (trade among three parties) facilitated access to a larger pool of desirable goods. Exposure to an ever-growing array of goods a#ected European diets and lifestyles. Tea (from China) and, later, co#ee (from island colonies) became popular beverages over the course of the 17th century. Equally explosive was the growth of sugar use. Sugar, tobacco, and rice were slave crops, and the slave trade expanded to meet the demand for these goods. Traders captured and enslaved Africans and shipped them to European colonies and the Americas to provide the requi- site labor force for producing these commodities.

"e resulting worldwide mercantile system permanently changed the face of Europe. "e prosperity generated by interna- tional trade a#ected social and political relationships, necessitat- ing new rules of etiquette and careful diplomacy. With increased disposable income, more of the newly wealthy spent money on art, signi!cantly expanding the market for artworks, especially small- scale paintings for private homes (see “"e Art Market in the Dutch Republic,” page 747).

FLANDERS In the 16th century, the Netherlands had come under the crown of Habsburg Spain when Emperor Charles V retired, leaving the Spanish kingdoms, their Italian and American possessions, and the Netherlandish provinces to his only legitimate son, Philip II (r. 1556–1598). (Charles bestowed his imperial title and German lands on his brother.) Philip’s repressive measures against the Protestants led the northern provinces to break from Spain and establish the Dutch Republic. "e southern provinces remained under Spanish control and retained Catholicism as their o$cial religion. "e polit- ical distinction between modern Holland and Belgium more or less re%ects this original separation, which in the 17th century signaled not only religious but also artistic di#erences.

Painting "e major artistic media of 17th-century Flanders (the Span- ish Netherlands) were prints and illustrated books and oil paint- ings. Flemish Baroque painters retained close connections to the

Baroque art of Catholic Europe. By contrast, the Dutch schools of painting developed their own subjects and styles, consistent with their reformed religion and the new political, social, and economic structure of the Dutch Republic.

Peter Paul Rubens. "e greatest 17th-century Flemish painter was Peter Paul Rubens (1577–1640), a towering !gure in the his- tory of Western art. Rubens built on the innovations of the Italian Renaissance and Baroque masters to formulate the !rst truly pan- European painting style. Rubens’s art is an original and powerful synthesis of the manners of many masters, especially Michelangelo, Titian, Carracci, and Caravaggio. His style had wide appeal, and his in%uence was international. Among the most learned individuals of his time, Rubens possessed an aristocratic education and a cour- tier’s manner, diplomacy, and tact, which, with his facility for lan- guage, made him the associate of princes and scholars. He became court painter to the dukes of Mantua (descended from Mantegna’s patrons); friend of King Philip IV (r. 1621–1665) of Spain and his adviser on collecting art; painter to Charles I (r. 1625–1649) of England and Marie de’ Medici (1573–1642) of France; and perma- nent court painter to the Spanish governors of Flanders. Rubens also won the con!dence of his royal patrons in matters of state. "ey o/en entrusted him with diplomatic missions of the highest importance.

To produce a steady stream of paintings for a rich and powerful inter- national clientele, Rubens employed scores of assistants. He also became a highly successful art dealer, buying and selling contemporary artworks and classical antiquities for royal and aristocratic clients throughout Europe, who competed with each other in amassing vast collections of paintings and sculptures. One of those collections became the subject of a painting by Rubens and Jan Brueghel the Elder (1568–1625): Allegory of Sight (fig. 25-1A). Rubens’s many enterprises made him a rich man, able to a#ord a magni!cent townhouse in Antwerp and a castle in the countryside. Rubens, like Raphael, was a successful and renowned artist, a con- sort of kings, a shrewd man of the world, and a learned philosopher.

Elevation of the Cross. When he was 23 years old, Rubens departed Flanders for Italy and remained there from 1600 until 1608. During these years, he studied the works of Italian Renais- sance and Baroque masters and laid the foundations of his mature style. Shortly a/er returning home, he painted Elevation of the Cross (fig. 25-2) for the church of Saint Walburga in Antwerp. Later moved to the city’s cathedral, the altarpiece in the form of a triptych is one of numerous commissions for religious works that Rubens received at this time. By investing in sacred art, Flemish churches sought to a$rm their allegiance to Catholicism and Span- ish Habsburg rule a/er a period of Protestant iconoclastic fervor in the region.

Rubens’s interest in Italian art, especially the works of Michel- angelo and Caravaggio, is evident in the Saint Walburga triptych. "e choice of this episode from the passion cycle provided Rubens with the opportunity to depict heavily muscled men in unusual poses straining to li/ the heavy cross with Christ’s body nailed to it. Here, as in his Lion Hunt (fig. I-14), Rubens, deeply impressed by Michelangelo’s heroic twisting sculpted and painted nude male

25-1A BRUEGHEL and RUBENS, Allegory of Sight, ca. 1617–1618.

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