Bilingualism 4 page

Bilingualism & Language Policy

Defning Bilingualism

• Though we talk about “bilingualism” here, everything we say is true of multilingualism as well.

• Defning bilingualism isn’t easy. Most bilinguals are not equally fuent in both languages.

Defining Bilingualism

1) Speakers can be more proficient in one language than in the other.

2) The two languages of a bilingual typically have different sets of functions. For example, one language might be used at home and in personal conversations, the other at work and in professional conversations.

Defning Bilingualism

How should we define it?

Defning Bilingualism

• Fluency/native-like control of both languages?

• Functional equivalency of both languages? • Regular use of both languages? • Speaking/comprehension/reading/writing

skills?

Defining Bilingualism

Since 1-2 especially would rule out the vast majority of people who use two languages, many prefer a more moderate definition, e.g.:

1) (Haugen 1969): “[T]he speaker of one language can produce complete, meaningful utterances in the other language.” (But how many?)

2) The speaker has at least minimal proficiency in either reading, writing, speaking, or understanding a second language. (But how minimal?)

Defning Bilingualism

• Bilingualism, like the defnition of “language” versus “dialect”, is a matter of degree.

• Further, since the reality for most bilinguals is that the two languages are not functionally equivalent, it is often not possible to compare someone’s fuency in one language with her fuency in another, without considering the functional contexts.

A History of Languages within the USA

• Before Europeans: up to 1,000 Native American languages spoken, ~300 in North America.

• Today: ~175 Native American languages spoken in U.S., possibly fewer than 20 viable (Krauss).

A History of Languages within the USA

Colonization...

A History of Languages within the USA

• English: the Eastern Seaboard • French: Louisiana and parts of Maine • Spanish: from Florida to California • German: Pennsylvania • Dutch: New York • Swedish: Delaware • Russian: Alaska and parts of California

A History of Languages within the USA

• English, Spanish, French, and German have persisted to this day.

• 1790 census: Germans were the largest linguistic minority-- 9%. (Note that Spanish and French speaking territories were not yet part of US.)

• Louisiana purchased in 1803 from Napoleon.

A History of Languages within the USA

• US invaded northern Mexico in Mexican- American War. Mexico gave it over by treaty in 1848: Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, California, Texas. (Spanish speakers and many Native Americans.)

A History of Languages within the USA

• Alaska (with its many native languages) purchased from Russia in 1867.

• US expands to current North American dimensions. (Many Native American languages.)

A History of Languages within the USA

Immigration...

A History of Languages within the USA

• Before 1880: mostly from Great Britain, Ireland, France, Scandinavia, Germany, Austria-Hungary. Mostly became farmers.

A History of Languages within the USA

• 1880-1924: a period of intense immigration-- about 28 million people. From Balkan countries, Italy, Poland, Austria-Hungary, Russia, Armenia. Mostly worked in urban industries in the northeastern and north central states.

A History of Languages within the USA

• Japan, Korea, and China: railroads, mines, and farms of the west coast.

A History of Languages within the USA

• 1924: National Origins Act bars immigration from the Far East, and limits immigration from every other country to 2% annually of the population born in that country that already resides in the US using the 1890 census fgures. Repealed 1965.

A History of Languages within the USA

• 1930-present: German Jews, Puerto Ricans, Hungarians (1956 Revolution), Cubans, Vietnamese…

• 1950s-present: immigration from Mexico, Cuba, Central and South America account for rise in Spanish-speaking population.

A History of Languages within the USA

• Because of this background, bilingualism in the US is very diverse.

Bilingual Education in the US

• Federal US policy toward bilingualism is sometimes described as one of “benign neglect”: no repression, but also little active support.

Bilingual Education in the US

• No repression: today people and organizations freely exercise their right to speak, publish, broadcast, worship, establish private schools, etc., in any language. (This hasn’t always been true.)

Bilingual Education in the US

• Little support: federal support for bilingual education is recent (see below), doesn’t reach the majority of eligible clients (perhaps only a quarter), and is designed to be transitional.

Bilingual Education in the US

• Transitional: programs are evaluated based on how quickly students can mainstream into English-only education. Compare this to a maintenance program, which is explicitly designed to maintain and develop a minority language.

Why is bilingualism supported less in the US than in (e.g.)

Canada or Belgium?

Some things to consider:

• The history of bilingualism in the US versus Canada or Belgium.

• To be “American” is (arguably) not ethnically defned. Some suggest that, because ethnic/cultural identity are less threatened here than in some countries, immigrants are more willing to give up their native languages.

Some things to consider:

• Americans’ attitudes toward bilingualism are often negative in comparison to those in other places, where bilingualism is seen as an asset. Why?

Some things to consider:

• Acts of hostility are more often reported against certain linguistic minorities, such as Spanish speakers, compared to others, such as French speakers. Why might this be? (Can any of this be related to what we learned about dialects?)

Bilingual Education in the US

• Before 1889 only 3 states required that private schools teach in English. Private schools with instruction entirely in German (Pennsylvania), French (Louisiana), Spanish (New Mexico), or combining these with English, were numerous.

Bilingual Education in the US

• From then through WWI more and more states curtailed teaching through languages other than English. Why during this period? (In 1923 the Supreme Court reafrmed the right of private schools to teach, or teach through, other languages.)

Bilingual Education in the US

• For much of the 20th century, it was “sink or swim” for non-English speakers in public schools. (Some bilingual schools had existed before WWI.)

• It wasn’t so diferent in other places, especially in Europe between the wars. Why?

Bilingual Education in the US

• In the 1960s, inspired by the civil rights movement, some groups, especially Hispanic, demanded change, charging that non-English speakers were denied equal educational opportunities.

Bilingual Education in the US

• In 1960, 87% of Puerto Ricans over 25 had not fnished high school.

• In 1971, 40% of Mexican-Americans.

Bilingual Education in the US

• There is a long history of belief that bilingualism is cognitively disadvantageous. (Hakuta reading.)

• But this view began to be challenged around this time.

• 1968: Bilingual Education Act (“Title VII”).

“In recognition of the special educational needs of the large numbers of children of limited English speaking ability in the United States, Congress hereby declares it to be the policy of the United States to provide fnancial assistance to local educational agencies to develop and carry out new and imaginative elementary and secondary school programs designed to meet these special educational needs.”

Bilingual Education in the US • This was “seed” funding given to local districts

through competitive grants for experimentation, meant to encourage local funding sources to follow suit. Many did.

• Much was left up to local decision. Simply teach English as a second language? General instruction through the native language? Both?

Bilingual Education in the US • A 1974 Supreme Court decision, Lau versus

Nichols: San Francisco school system violates the 1964 Civil Rights Act by failing to provide English instruction to Chinese- speaking students.

• The Civil Rights Act prohibits educational discrimination based on national origin.

Bilingual Education in the US • Result nationwide: a school district with 20

or more students speaking one non-English language must provide bilingual education.

Bilingual Education in the US

• Though federal support for bilingual education in the US is transitional, many local governments support more maintenance bilingualism.

• The two big controversies of bilingual education: Does it work? Should it be maintenance, or transitional only?

Bilingual Education in the US

• The No Child Left Behind Act (2002) changed things signifcantly.

• The competitive grant system has been efectively replaced by a system allocating money to states based on need.

Bilingual Education in the US

• This is good for regions like North Carolina with recent populations having limited English but little experience getting competitive grants.

Bilingual Education in the US

• The NCLB Act emphasizes transitional schooling even more than before.

• Any goal of developing non-English profciency has been dropped.

• The Bilingual Education Act is now the English Language Acquisition, Language Enhancement, and Academic Achievement Act.

Bilingual Education in the US

• In 1998 California voters passed Proposition 227, outlawing classes taught in languages other than English in public schools.

• This has led to a great increase in the number of “structured immersion” classes: classes in English for non-English-profcient.

Bilingual Education in the US

• Students are to have transitioned to English within one year.

• Exemptions are possible. Especially, if all parents of a class opt in.

• It’s not clear this change has succeeded even on its own terms: enrollment in programs for non-English-profcient students has not changed much.

Bilingual Education in the US

• Some fgures from a 2010 US Census report (Language Use in the United States: 2007), for population aged 5- years...

Bilingual Education in the US

Speak a language other than English at home (people > 5 years old, by thousands; 2007 data) AL = Another language at home LVW = % of AL who speak English less than “very well”

Total AL LVW

US 280,950 55,444 (19.7%) 44.1% CA 33,891 14,442 (42.6%) 46.8%

Prop 58 (2016 Election)

Essentially repeals Prop 227

Would bring back public funding of bilingual education

Prop 58 (2016 Election)

“Preserves requirement that public schools ensure students obtain English language proficiency. Requires school districts to solicit parent/community input in developing language acquisition programs. Requires instruction to ensure English acquisition as rapidly and effectively as possible. Authorizes school districts to establish dual- language immersion programs for both native and non- native English speakers. Fiscal Impact: No notable fiscal effect on school districts or state government.”

summary from Ballotpedia: <https://ballotpedia.org/California_Proposition_58,_Non- English_Languages_Allowed_in_Public_Education_(2016)