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Neuroscience Neuroscience and and the the Aging Aging Brain Brain 5151

Roberts, Roberts, 2022). 2022). WWe e will will consider consider these these issues issues in in moremore detail detail in in Chapter Chapter 10.10.

HoHow w do do age-related age-related structural structural and and functionalfunctional changes changes in in the the brain brain affect affect processing processing of of emotion? emotion? TheThe short short answer answer is is that that it it depends depends (F(Fossati, ossati, 2012; 2012; McEMcEwen wen et et al., al., 2016; 2016; Lemaire, Lemaire, 2022; 2022; Ziaei Ziaei & & FFisherisher, , 2016). 2016). OOlderlder adults adults exhibit exhibit more more brain brain activity activity between between the the prprefrontalefrontal cortex cortex and and the the medial medial temporal temporal lobe lobe than than younger younger adultsadults do, do, regarregardless dless of of whether whether the the content content is is emotionally emotionally posiposi-- tive tive or or negative. negative. These These increases increases in in connections connections may may bebe due due to to age-relaage-related ted changes changes that that occur occur in in the the prprefrontalefrontal cortex cortex that that make make it it necessarnecessary y for for older older adults adults to to use use moremore connections connections to to process process the the information information (Kensinger (Kensinger && FFord, ord, 2020, 2020, 2022). 2022). When When disordisorders ders such such as as mild mild cognicogni-- tive tive impairment impairment (MCI) (MCI) occuroccur, , these these connection connection patternspatterns are are disrupted disrupted and and begin begin to to exhibit exhibit loss loss (Hampstead (Hampstead etet al., al., 2016). 2016). MMore ore important, important, fMRI fMRI evidence evidence suggests suggests thatthat different different memory memory retrieval retrieval pathways pathways are are invoked invoked in in olderolder adults adults with with MCI, MCI, perhaps perhaps indicating indicating tthat hat the the brain brain isis attempting attempting a a way way around around the the structural structural changes, changes, but but oneone that that is is much much less less effectiveffective e (W(Weigard eigard et et al., al., 2020). 2020). WWee’ll’ll return return to to this this need need for for and and roles roles of of extra extra connections connections a a bitbit later later when when we we consider consider whether whether older older adults adults compensatecompensate for for brain brain changes.changes.

Link ing Link ing StrStructura l uctura l ChangChanges es with with Socia l -Socia l - Emotional Emotional Cognition.Cognition. What What happens happens in in the the brainbrain when when things things get get even even more more complicated, complicated, such such as as whenwhen we we have have to to process process complex complex situations situations that that invinvolveolve socia l socia l judgments, judgments, when when memorymemory, , emotion, emotion, andand previously previously learned learned information information come come together? together? TheThe story story begins begins in in the the early early 2000s, 2000s, when when researchers researchers first first suggested suggested a a social social cognitive cognitive neuroscience neuroscience approachapproach to to attributional attributional inferences, inferences, that that is, is, hohow w people people makemake causal causal judgments judgments about about why why social social situations situations occuroccur (Lieberman (Lieberman et et al., al., 2002). 2002). That That work work identified identified a a socialsocial judgment judgment process process that that involves involves a a rrelatively elatively automaticautomatic system system in in which which people people read read cues cues in in the the environmentenvironment quickly quickly and and easilyeasily, , without without deliberation, deliberation, and and thenthen make make social social judgments.judgments.

FFor or example, example, if if someone someone is is staggering staggering down down aa hallwayhallway, , we we may may automatically automatically assume assume the the person person maymay be be intoxicated intoxicated without without taking taking into into consideration consideration manymany other other factors factors that that might might cacause use someone someone to to staggerstagger (e.g., (e.g., the the person person is is injured injured or or is is experiencing experiencing a a medical medical emergency). emergency). IIn n other other wordwords, s, we we have have a a tetendency ndency toto automatically automatically put put the the person person into into a a preexisting preexisting sociosocio-- cultural cultural categorycategory. . WWe e base base tthis his judgment judgment on on easily easily activated, activated, well-practiced well-practiced categories categories of of information information basedbased on on our our past past experiences experiences and and current current goals, goals, and and we we dodo this this most most prominently prominently when when the the situation situation is is ambiguous.ambiguous.

information information (Halfmann (Halfmann et et al., al., 2021). 2021). These These differencesdifferences tend tend to to be be interpreted interpreted as as reflecting reflecting incrincreased eased emotionalemotional regulation regulation with with age; age; in in other other worwords, ds, older older adults adults tend tend to to bebe able able to to regulate regulate their their emotions emotions better better than than yyounger ounger adults.adults. IIt t may may be be the the reason reason that that older older adults adults seemed seemed to to fare fare betterbetter emotionally emotionally during during the the COCOVID-19 VID-19 pandemic pandemic than than diddid younger younger adults adults (F(Ford ord et et al., al., 2021). 2021). PPart art of of the the reason reason maymay be be due due to to a a desire desire as as people people age age to to develop develop closercloser, , moremore meaningful meaningful relationships relationships that that generate generate positive positive emotions,emotions, while while avoiding avoiding people people and and situations situations that that generate generate negativenegative ones. ones. WWe e will will return return to to this this issue issue of of the the ““positivity positivity effect”effect” later later in in this this chapter chapter and and in in Chapters Chapters 8 8 and and 9.9.

Considered Considered togethertogether, , the the results results indicate indicate that that cognicogni-- tion tion and and emotion emotion interact interact in in complex complex ways, ways, and and thethe prefrontal prefrontal cortex cortex and and amygdala amygdala are are the the key key brain brain strucstruc-- tures tures involvinvolved. ed. Kensinger Kensinger and and colleagues colleagues (Kensinger(Kensinger,, 2012; 2012; Kensinger Kensinger & & FFord, ord, 2020, 2020, 2021) 2021) propose propose that that aa specific specific area area in in the the prefrprefrontal ontal cortex cortex controls controls behaviorsbehaviors ranging ranging from from actions actions to to emotions emotions to to social social cognition—cognition— extracting extracting meaning meaning from from events events and and the the control control ofof memories, memories, particularly particularly emotional emotional memories. memories. Its Its rolerole begins begins during during the the encoding encoding of of emotional emotional experiences,experiences, continues continues through through their their stabilization, stabilization, and and enduresendures during during the the retrieval retrieval of of memory memory content. content. At At each each phase,phase, this this area area of of the the prefrprefrontal ontal cortex cortex participates participates in in thethe integration integration of of emotional emotional and and cognitive cognitive components components ofof memories, memories, setting setting up up networks networks and and framings framings that that eithereither emphasize emphasize or or de-emphasize de-emphasize emotional emotional content.content.

AdditionallyAdditionally, , two two distinct distinct cognitive cognitive and and neuralneural processes processes contribute contribute to to emotional emotional processing processing andand memorymemory. . The The difference difference depends depends upon upon how how emotionemotion-- ally ally arousing arousing the the information information is. is. PProcessing rocessing of of negative negative high-arousal high-arousal information information for for memory memory is is relativelyrelatively automatic automatic in in naturnature e and and is is linked linked to to activactivation ation ofof the the amygdala amygdala as as it it interacts interacts with with the the hippocampus hippocampus toto support support memormemory y performperformance. ance. FFor or memormemory y processingprocessing ofof neneggaatitiveve lolow-w-arousal arousal stimuli, stimuli, more more activation activation of of thethe prprefefrorontantal l ccorortextex–hippocampus –hippocampus network network is is necessarynecessary..

Kensinger Kensinger (2012; (2012; Kensinger Kensinger & & FFord, ord, 2020, 2020, 2021)2021) argues argues that that whether whether emotemotional ional arousal arousal enhanceenhancess memory memory depends depends on on the the engagement engagement in in emotion-specifemotion-specifiic c processes processes that that are are linked linked to to these these distinct distinct neuralneural processes. processes. So So when when a a person person accurately accurately rremembers emembers neganega-- tive tive high-arousal high-arousal items, items, this this corresponds corresponds to to incrincreasedeased activation activation of of the the amygdala amygdala and and prefrontal prefrontal cortex. cortex. OtherOther studies studies support support this this conclusion. conclusion. FFor or instance, instance, if if thethe amygdala amygdala is is damaged, damaged, individuals individuals do do not not attend attend toto arousing arousing stimuli. stimuli. AdditionallyAdditionally, , the the central central role role that that thethe prefrontal prefrontal cortex cortex plays plays in in processing processing emotion emotion has has alsoalso become become a a focus focus of of research research on on the the causes causes of of emotion-emotion- related related mental mental disordisorders, ders, such such as as depression depression (Pizzagalli (Pizzagalli &&

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52 52 Chapter Chapter 2 2 | | Neuroscience Neuroscience as as a a Basis Basis for for Adult Adult Development Development and and AgingAging

for for age-related age-related changes changes in in patterns patterns of of brain brain activityactivity.. There There are are additional, additional, and and interesting, interesting, nuances nuances to to thesethese findings. findings. FFor or example, example, it it turns turns out out that that it it is is not not simplysimply that that older older adults adults show show reduced reduced activactivation ation in in regionsregions associated associated with with a a particular particular cognitive cognitive task. task. RatherRather,, studies studies focusing focusing on on verbal verbal working working memory memory and and long-long- term term memorymemory, , for for instance, instance, show show focused, focused, unilateralunilateral activity activity in in the the left left prefrontal prefrontal rregion egion in in younger younger adultsadults but but activation activation in in both both the the left left and and right right prefrprefrontalontal areas areas in in ololder der adults adults when when performing performing the the same same tasks,tasks, and and connection connection patterns patterns are are reconfigurreconfigured ed (Reuter-(Reuter- Lorenz Lorenz & & PPark, ark, 2014; 2014; Reuter-LorReuter-Lorenz enz et et al., al., 2021;2021; Rieck Rieck et et al., al., 2021).2021).

These These findings findings surprised surprised researchers researchers and and usherushered ed inin much much discussion discussion and and research research as as to to what what this this meant meant for for thethe aging aging brain. brain. Is Is the the older older brain brain worworking king to to compensate compensate forfor deterioration deterioration in in these these focal focal regions regions related related to to the the cognitivecognitive task? task? Is Is the the older older brain brain worworking king harder harder and and recruiting recruiting mormoree brain brain structures? structures? Or Or is is the the activation activation mermerely ely the the ineffectiveineffective attempt attempt to to inhibit inhibit irrelevant irrelevant information information that that rresults esults in in the the interference interference of of optimal optimal functioning functioning (Andrews-Hanna(Andrews-Hanna et et al., al., 2019; 2019; Marcotte Marcotte et et al., al., 2022)?2022)?

The The answer answer appears appears to to be be that that older older adults adults areare compensating. compensating. Researchers Researchers concluded concluded that that this this addiaddi-- tional tional activation activation in in older older adults adults may may serve serve a a functionalfunctional and and supportive supportive role role in in their their cognitive cognitive functioningfunctioning (R(Reuteeuter-Lorr-Lorenz enz et et al., al., 2021). 2021). Supportive Supportive evidenceevidence comes comes from from the the association association between between additional additional activaactiva-- tion tion in in older older adults adults and and higher higher performance, performance, evidenceevidence not not found found in in younger younger adults, adults, across across several several differdifferentent tasks, tasks, including including category category learning, learning, visual visual field, field, andand various various memory memory tasks.tasks.

FFigure igure 2.7 2.7 indicates indicates that that there there is is greater greater prprefrontalefrontal bilateral bilateral activity activity in in older older adults adults during during workingworking memory memory tasks tasks than than in in younger younger adults. adults. (W(We e delvedelve into into working working memorymemory, , a a limited limited capacity capacity aspect aspect ofof memory memory processing, processing, in in detail detail in in Chapter Chapter 6.) 6.) On On thethe top top left left side side of of the the figurfigure e is is the the typical typical left-lateralleft-lateralizedized prefrontal prefrontal activation activation pattern pattern observed observed in in youngeryounger adults. adults. On On the the bottom bottom left left side side is is the the typical typical patternpattern found found in in older older adults—notice adults—notice how how they they engage engage bothboth left left and and right right prefrontal prefrontal arareas. eas. The The right right side side demondemon-- strates strates that that younger younger adults adults and and low-performing low-performing olderolder adults adults show show right-lright-lateralized ateralized activatioactivation n during during a a long-long- term term memory memory task. task. In In contrast, contrast, high-performing high-performing olderolder adults adults still still shoshow w bilateral bilateral preprefrontal frontal engagement. engagement. IItt may may be be that that high-functioning high-functioning older older adults adults are are moremore adept adept at at compensating compensating for for normative normative deterioration deterioration inin the the brain brain by by figuring figuring out out how how to to utilizutilize e other other relatedrelated and and available available areas areas of of the the brain.brain.

In In such such situations, situations, we we arare e unlikely unlikely to to consider consider alternalternaa-- tive tive explanations.explanations.

What’What’s s intr iguing intr iguing is is tha t tha t rresea rchers esea rchers havehave presented presented compcompelling elling evidence evidence that that drawingdrawing these these kinds kinds of of quick quick conclusions conclusions in in ambiguous ambiguous situations situations isis probably probably a a result result of of hohow w our our brains brains are are wired. wired. IIt t turnsturns out out we we have have specialized specialized arareas eas in in the the brain, brain, such such as as the the orbitofrontal orbitofrontal cortex, cortex, lateral lateral temporal temporal cortex, cortex, amygdala, amygdala, and and basal basal ganglia, ganglia, that that are are associated associated with with automaticautomatic social social cognition cognition (Platt (Platt et et al., al., 2016; 2016; TTestard estard et et al.,al., 2021). 2021). HHumans umans are are hard-wired hard-wired to to quick-processquick-process certain certain social social cognitive cognitive information information in in particularparticular ways ways that that reflecreflect t well-rehearwell-rehearsed sed prior prior learning, learning, soso attempting attempting to to do do it it in in other other ways ways takes takes tremendoustremendous focusing focusing and and effort. effort. As As we we will will consider consider in in Chapter Chapter 6,6, this this is is how how bias bias operates.operates.

But But suppose suppose wwe e need need to to be be more more deliberate deliberate in in ourour processing. processing. ResearResearchers chers also also have have identified identified another another systemsystem that that underlies underlies a a form form of of socisocial al cognitive cognitive judgmentsjudgments that that employs employs symbolic symbolic logic logic and and reflectivreflective e awareness. awareness. TheThe neural neural basis basis of of these these more more reflectivreflective e judgments judgments appearsappears to to reside reside in in the the prefrprefrontal ontal cortex, cortex, the the anterior anterior cingulatecingulate cortex, cortex, and and the the hippocampus hippocampus (Lee (Lee & & Siegle, Siegle, 2012).2012).

HoHow w do do these these different different brain brain pathways pathways change change withwith age, age, and and what what difference difference does does that that make? make? The The brainbrain structures structures involved involved in in mormore e automatic automatic processing processing (e.g.,(e.g., the the amygdala) amygdala) have have less less age-related age-related deterioration, deterioration, wherwhereaseas those those involved involved in in more more rreflective eflective processing processing (e.g., (e.g., thethe prefrontal prefrontal cortex) cortex) have have mormore e severe severe deterioration. deterioration. BBasedased on on these these findings, findings, we we would would expect expect that that older older adultsadults might might tend tend to to rely rely mormore e on on automatic automatic processes. processes. WWe’e’llll find find out out in in Chapters Chapters 6, 6, 7, 7, and and 8 8 whether whether they they do.do.

AgAge-Related e-Related Change Change and and Evidence Evidence of of CompensaCompensa-- tion. tion. WWe e have have noted noted that that there there is is substantial substantial evidenceevidence

The The categories categories into into whicwhich h we we tend tend to to place place the the perperson son drivingdriving this this car car reflect reflect automatic automatic processing.processing.

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Copyright Copyright 2024 2024 Cengage Cengage Learning. Learning. All All RightRights s Reserved. Reserved. May May not not be be copied, copied, scanned, scanned, or or duplicated, duplicated, in in whole whole or or in in part. part. Due Due to to electronic electronic rights, rights, some some third third party party content content may may be be suppressed suppressed from from the the eBook eBook and/or and/or eChapter(s).eChapter(s).

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Neuroscience Neuroscience and and the the Aging Aging Brain Brain 5353

activity activity was was not not seen seen in in all all situations, situations, leading leading researchersresearchers to to conclude conclude that that task task factors factors probably probably led led to to the the develdevel-- opment opment of of the the more more effective effective and and efficient efficient processing.processing. In In this this case case at at least, least, older older adults adults appear appear to to apply apply thethe repeated repeated experiences experiences of of picture picture naming naming to to rreconfigureeconfigure their their brains brains to to operate operate betterbetter. . Contrary Contrary to to stereotype,stereotype, older older adultsadults’ ’ brains brains do do have have the the ability ability to to improve. improve. WWee’ll’ll explore explore this this further further in in the the final final section section of of this this chapterchapter..

Adult Adult DevDevelopment elopment in in ActionAction

YYou ou are are a a healthcare healthcare workworker er and and a a specialist specialist inin geriatric geriatric medicine. medicine. One One of of your your clients clients exhibitsexhibits significant significant declines declines in in memory memory and and executiveexecutive functioning. functioning. What What brain brain structures structures and and processesprocesses might might you you want want to to examine examine closely closely for for evidence evidence ofof age-related age-related cchange?hange?

TTo o make make matters matters even even more more interesting, interesting, therthere e isis evidence evidence that that under under some some circumstances circumstances researchers researchers fail fail toto find find evidence evidence of of either either reduced reduced specialization specialization of of functionsfunctions in in the the brain brain or or of of compensatcompensation. ion. When When CamCampbell pbell andand colleagues colleagues (2016) (2016) separated separated the the different different processes processes neededneeded to to complete complete a a task task (e.g., (e.g., attention, attention, decision decision making),making), they they found found consistent consistent patterns patterns of of brain brain activity activity in in bothboth younger younger and and older older adults. adults. The The question question is is whether whether thesethese results results arare e simply simply a a matter matter of of whicwhich h task task was was examined examined oror evidence evidence that that challenges challenges the the conventional conventional view view of of broaderbroader activation activation as as compensation compensation in in older older adults.adults.

IIt t appears appears that that it’it’s s both. both. FFerré erré and and colleagues colleagues (2020)(2020) reported reported that that older older adults adults are are actually actually more more efficientefficient than than younger younger adults adults in in processing processing on on certain certain picturepicture naming naming tasks tasks because because they they have have devdeveloped eloped a a moremore efficient efficient strategystrategy, , relying relying on on a a more more experienced, experienced, specialspecial-- ized, ized, and and segregated, segregated, naminnaming g pathwaypathway. . MMore ore frontal frontal lobelobe

Figure Figure 2.7 2.7 Prefrontal Prefrontal bilateral bilateral activation activation increases increases with with ageage Source: Source: Park, Park, DD. . C., C., & & ReuterReuter-Lorenz, -Lorenz, PP. . (2009). (2009). The The adaptive adaptive brain: brain: Aging Aging and and neurocognitive neurocognitive scafscaffolding. folding. AnnualAnnual RevieReview w of of PsychologyPsychology, , 60, 60, 1173–196. 73–196. wwwwww.annualrevie.annualreviews.org/URL.ws.org/URL.

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Review Review QuestionsQuestions 2.2 2.2 Neuroscience Neuroscience and and the the Aging Aging BrBrainain • • Describe Describe the the basic basic structures structures in in the the brain. brain. WhatWhat

age-related age-related cchanges hanges are are observed observed in in neurons?neurons? What What happens happens to to dopamine dopamine functioning functioning in in thethe aging aging brain? brain? What What age-related age-related cchanges hanges occur occur inin other other neurotransmitters?neurotransmitters?

• • What What age-related age-related cchanges hanges occur occur in in brainbrain structures? structures? What What structures structures play play major major roles roles in in thethe aging aging process?process?

• • What What are are the the difdifferences ferences in in brain brain activation activation duringduring cognitive cognitive tasks tasks for for younger younger and and older older adults?adults?

What What key key differences differences have have been been identified identified inin activity activity in in the the prefrontal prefrontal cortex cortex between between youngeryounger and and older older adults?adults?

• • What What age-related age-related differences differences have have beenbeen documented documented in in executive executive processing?processing?

• • What What evidence evidence is is there there that that older older adultsadults compensate compensate for for age-related age-related cchanges hanges in in the the brain?brain?

• • What What differences differences are are there there in in memory memory with with age age asas they they relate relate to to brain brain activation?activation?

• • How How do do younger younger and and older older adults adults processprocess emotionally emotionally related related material?material?

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54 54 Chapter Chapter 2 2 | | Neuroscience Neuroscience as as a a Basis Basis for for Adult Adult Development Development and and AgingAging

in in older older adults. adults. Which Which of of these these outcomes outcomes occurs occurs notnot only only has has important important consequences consequences for for performance performance onon research research tasks tasks but but also also in in hohow w well well older older adults adults mightmight adapt adapt to to challenges challenges in in their their daily daily lives.lives.

The The research research we we will will consider consider in in this this sectionsection will will proprovide vide insights insights into into BBarbaraarbara’’s s concerns. concerns. WhatWhat age-related age-related changes changes occur? occur? Are Are older older adults adults able able toto compensate compensate for for normative normative declines declines that that occur?occur?

TheorTheories ies and and Models Models of of Brain–BehaBrain–Behaviorvior Changes Changes AAcross cross AAdulthooddulthood As As noted noted previouslypreviously, , several several studies studies have have shoshown wn evidenceevidence for for age-related age-related differences differences in in patterns patterns of of brain brain activity activity inin specific specific brain brain regions, regions, especially especially in in the the prprefrontal efrontal area,area, across across numerous numerous cognitive cognitive tasks tasks (B(Betzel, etzel, 2022; 2022; GallenGallen et et al., al., 2016; 2016; GGrady rady et et al., al., 2016; 2016; Marcotte Marcotte et et al., al., 2022).2022). Researchers Researchers wanted wanted to to figurfigure e out out whether whether additionaladditional age-related age-related neural neural activation activation (especially (especially in in prprefrontalefrontal areas) areas) may may be be adaptive adaptive and and improimprove ve performance performance asas people people grow grow olderolder. . What What they they learned, learned, as as we we discodiscovv-- ered ered in in earlier earlier sections, sections, suggsuggests ests that that these these activationactivation patterns patterns may may reflect reflect an an adaptive adaptive brain brain that that functionallyfunctionally reorganizes reorganizes and and compensates compensates for for age-rage-related elated changeschanges (Aron (Aron et et al., al., 2022; 2022; Betzel, Betzel, 2022; 2022; MMarcotte arcotte et et al.,al., 2022). 2022). This This possibility possibility relates relates to to the the principle principle of of plasplas-- ticity ticity that that we we encountered encountered in in Chapter Chapter 1.1.

One One of of the the most most important important people people who who dedidedi-- cated cated their their life life to to understunderstanding anding and and documenting documenting thethe mapping mapping of of behaviors behaviors to to specific specific areas areas of of the the brain brain waswas Oliver Oliver SSacks. acks. In In addition addition to to being being a a brilliant brilliant scientist,scientist, Sacks Sacks had had another another gift—the gift—the ability ability to to explain explain vveryery complicated complicated research research to to the the public. public. HHe e accomplishedaccomplished this this through through a a series series of of books books and and a a regular regular column column inin the the NNew ew YYork ork TTimesimes newspaper newspaper, , including including a a set set of of artiarti-- cles cles documenting documenting his his own own struggles struggles with with brain brain and and liverliver cancercancer. . The The Real Real PPeople eople feature feature provides provides more more informatioinformationn about about SacksSacks’’s s insightful insightful contributions.contributions.

Several Several theories theories and and models models havhave e been been proposedproposed to to organize organize and and explain explain the the researresearch ch findings. findings. ThreeThree of of the the most most prominent prominent are are the the parieto-frparieto-frontontal al inteinte-- gration gration theory theory (P-FIT(P-FIT; ; Haier Haier & & JJung, ung, 2018; 2018; JJung ung && HaierHaier, , 2007), 2007), the the CRUNCH CRUNCH model model ((Reuter-LorReuter-Lorenz,enz, 2002; 2002; Reuter-LorReuter-Lorenz enz & & Mikels, Mikels, 2006), 2006), and and the the STSTAC-rAC-r model model (Reuter-Lorenz (Reuter-Lorenz & & PPark, ark, 2014). 2014). These These modelsmodels make make a a common common assumption: assumption: The The primary primary reason reason forfor greater greater activactivation ation in in differdifferent ent brain brain regioregions, ns, such such as as thethe different different patterns patterns within within the the prefrprefrontal ontal cortex, cortex, is is thethe need need for for the the recruitment recruitment and and involvement involvement of of additionaladditional brain brain structures structures and and prprocesses ocesses in in order order tto o successfullysuccessfully execute execute cognitive cognitive functions functions as as one one grgrows ows olderolder..

2.32.3 Making Making Sense Sense ofof Neuroscience Neuroscience Research:Research: Explaining Explaining Changes Changes in in Brain–Behavior Brain–Behavior RelationsRelations

KeKey y QuestionsQuestions • • What What are are the the major major differences differences among among the the

parieto-frontal parieto-frontal integration integration theorytheory, , the the CRUNCH CRUNCH model,model, and and the the STSTAC-r AC-r model model of of brain brain activation activation and and aging?aging?

• • How How does does the the concept concept of of brain brain plasticity plasticity help help explainexplain age-related age-related cchanges hanges in in brain brain actiactivation vation and and behavior?behavior?

RecentlyRecently, , Barbara Barbara read read an an ararticle ticle on on a a majormajor news news website website describing describing researcresearch h on on brain brain aging.aging. The The article article described described in in detail detail several several aspects aspects ofof negative negative cchanges hanges in in the the brain brain that that made made BarbaraBarbara wonderwonder. . ApproacApproaching hing 90, 90, Barbara Barbara wonderedwondered whether whether all all of of the the cchanges hanges happening happening reflectedreflected potential potential problems.problems.

WWe e have have considered considered evidence evidence that that structural structural and and neuroneuro-- chemical chemical changes changes occur occur in in the the brain brain as as we we grogrow w olderolder,, and and that that these these changes changes in in the the brain brain relate relate to to changeschanges in in cognitive cognitive and and emotional emotional functioning. functioning. WWith ith that that asas background, background, letlet’’s s now now reconsider reconsider rresearch esearch that that is is basedbased on on functional functional brain brain imaging imaging techniques, techniques, such such as as fMRI,fMRI, that that we we noted noted earlierearlier. . In In this this module module we we wwill ill considerconsider ways ways to to organize organize these these data data into into theories theories and and modelsmodels that that help help explain explain what what is is going going on, on, and and consider consider whatwhat these these theories theories and and findings findings mean mean in in terms terms of of normativenormative and and nonnormative nonnormative change. change. These These models models and and theoriestheories draw draw attention attention to to how how the the brain brain develops develops into into adultadult-- hood, hood, organizes organizes itself, itself, operates operates at at maximum maximum efficiencyefficiency and and effectiveness, effectiveness, and and deals deals with with age-related age-related change.change.

A A second second aim aim of of this this work, work, and and the the other other mainmain focus focus of of this this module, module, is is to to identify identify ways ways that that the the brain brain isis sometimes sometimes ableable to to compensate compensate for for negative negative age-relatedage-related changes changes by by activating activating different different or or additional additional rregionsegions under under certain certain circumstances. circumstances. This This research research is is based based onon age age differences differences in in the the structures structures and and regions regions of of the the brainbrain that that are are involvinvolved ed in in processing processing the the same same information.information. In In other other worwords, ds, older older and and younger younger adults adults may may differdiffer in in terms terms of of which which regions regions of of the the brain brain are are used used in in ororder der toto perform perform cognitive cognitive tasks tasks more more effectivelyeffectively. . On On one one hand,hand, these these compensation compensation strategies strategies could could result result in in roughlyroughly equivalent equivalent performance performance despite despite other other differences differences in in age.age. On On the the other other hand, hand, these these compensation compensation strategies strategies couldcould be be ineffective ineffective and and could could rreveal eveal the the neurological neurological underunder-- pinnings pinnings of of certain certain forms forms of of cognitive cognitive decline decline observedobserved

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Making Making Sense Sense of of Neuroscience Neuroscience ResearResearch: ch: Explaining Explaining ChangChanges es in in Brain–BehaBrain–Behavior vior Relations Relations 5555

recruitment recruitment of of the the appropriate appropriate prefrprefrontal ontal regions, regions, and and sometimes sometimes exhibit exhibit the the same same or or more more recruitmentrecruitment compared compared to to younger younger adults adults depending depending on on the the taskstasks they they are are doing doing at at the the time, time, meaning meaning that that the the brainbrain somehow somehow reconfigurreconfigures es the the connection connection pathways pathways withwith age age (Deng (Deng et et al., al., 2021; 2021; Gallen Gallen et et al., al., 2016).2016).

Given Given the the pivpivotal otal role role played played by by the the prprefrontal efrontal cortexcortex and and parietal parietal lobe lobe in in such such a a wide wide range range of of cognitive cognitive tasks,tasks, and and the the evidence evidence for for age-related age-related reconfigurations reconfigurations ofof connections, connections, researchers researchers got got exexcited. cited. The The wide wide range range ofof tasks tasks appeared appeared quite quite similar similar to to the the kinds kinds of of tasks tasks that that areare represented represented on on intelligence intelligence tests tests (described (described in in Chapter Chapter 7). 7). Because Because of of this, this, reseresearchers archers began began searsearching ching for for ways ways toto

The The PParietarieto-Fro-Frontal ontal IntegrIntegration ation TheoryTheory.. As As notednoted earlier earlier in in this this chapterchapter, , the the frontal frontal and and parietal parietal lobes lobes araree involved involved in in a a wide wide variety variety of of cognitivcognitive e and and emotionalemotional processes. processes. A A typical typical finding finding is is age-related age-related changes changes inin activity activity in in specific specific areas areas of of the the prefrprefrontal ontal cortex cortex andand related related brain brain regions regions (e.g., (e.g., the the parietal parietal lobe) lobe) duringduring certain certain tasks, tasks, specifically specifically memormemory y for for emotional emotional matemate-- rial. rial. ThereThere’’s s more, more, though. though. GGrady rady (2012) (2012) pointspoints out out that that on on certain certain tasks tasks older older adultadults s show show rreducededuced prefrontal prefrontal activity activity in in specific specific arareas eas of of the the prefrontal prefrontal cortex cortex and and increased increased activity activity in in other other areas. areas. GGrady’rady’s s rresearchesearch noted noted that that these these patternpatterns s are are context context depedependent. ndent. ThatThat is, is, older older adults adults sometimes sometimes exhibit exhibit reduced reduced activation activation oror

recognize recognize faces), faces), his his recorecovery very from from a a seriousserious muscle muscle tear tear in in his his leg, leg, and and ocular ocular melanoma melanoma andand his his loss loss of of stereoscopic stereoscopic vision vision as as a a result result of of thethe treatment.treatment.

When When he he was was diagnosed diagnosed with with metastatic metastatic cancercancer in in December December 202014 14 (the (the melanoma melanoma tumor tumor in in hishis eye eye had had spread spread to to his his liver liver and and brain), brain), he he wrote wrote aa series series of of deeply deeply personal personal articles articles that that expressedexpressed his his intent intent to to “li“live ve in in the the ricrichest, hest, deepest, deepest, mostmost productive productive way way I I can” can” (S(Sacks, acks, 202015). 15). SacSacks ks camecame out out in in 202015 15 when when he he first first revealed revealed that that he he was was gaygay and and in in a a committed committed relationship. relationship. His His leglegacy acy willwill be be his his determination determination to to shine shine a a light light on on the the manymany conditions conditions that that result result in in people people having having differentdifferent patterns patterns of of activity activity in in their their brains brains that that result result inin different different life life experiences experiences and and normalizing normalizing them.them. When When he he died died in in 202015, 15, the the man man who who could could notnot recognize recognize his his own own face face had had become become one one of of thethe most most recognized recognized medical medical figures figures in in historyhistory..

Real Real PeoplePeople Oliver Oliver SacSacks, ks, Brain Brain MapperMapper

It It was was the the interesting interesting cases cases that that atattracted tracted andand intrigued intrigued Oliver Oliver SacSacks ks (1(1933–20933–2015), 15), a a man man whowho the the New New YYork ork TTimesimes called called “the “the poet poet laureate laureate ofof contemporary contemporary medicine” medicine” (Marshall, (Marshall, 11986). 986). OneOne sucsuch h case case involved involved a a man man who who had had visual visual agnosia agnosia (an (an inability inability to to recognize recognize visual visual objects objects due due toto damage damage in in the the parietal parietal lobes) lobes) who who mistook mistook hishis wife wife for for a a hat. hat. This This recognition recognition error error became became thethe ttitle itle of of one one of of his his most most popular popular books.books.

SacSacks ks explored explored numerous numerous aspects aspects of of brain–behavior brain–behavior relations relations in in individuals individuals who who had had brain brain disorderdisorders,s, sucsuch h as as TTouretourette te syndrome, syndrome, achromatopsia achromatopsia (total(total colorblindness), colorblindness), dementia, dementia, PParkinson’arkinson’s s disease,disease, and and amyotrophic amyotrophic lateral lateral sclerosis sclerosis (L(Lou ou Gehrig’Gehrig’ss disease). disease). His His successful successful work work with with a a group group ofof survivors survivors of of the the 11920s 920s sleeping sleeping sicsickness kness epidemicepidemic encephalitis encephalitis lethargicalethargica became became the the basis basis of of thethe book book and and OscarOscar-nominated -nominated movie movie AAwakeningswakenings that that starred starred RRobert obert DeNiro DeNiro and and Robin Robin Williams.Williams.

SacSacks’ks’s s contribution contribution to to neuroscience neuroscience was was notnot through through researcresearch, h, or or even even through through his his clinicalclinical practice. practice. It It was was his his ability ability to to tell tell stories, stories, toto translate translate the the complex complex world world of of neuroscienceneuroscience into into language language that that even even the the casual casual reader reader couldcould not not only only understand understand but but find find fascinating. fascinating. SacSacksks was was able able to to bring bring atattention tention to to a a wide wide range range ofof conditions conditions and and to to provide provide outlets outlets for for people people toto share share what what it it is is like like to to experience experience them.them.

But But SacSacks’ks’s s interests interests were were mucmuch h broader broader thanthan neuroscience, neuroscience, too. too. He He was was insatiably insatiably curiouscurious about about many many things, things, and and he he brought brought a a scientist’scientist’ss mind mind to to eaceach. h. He He looklooked ed at at music music and and musicmusic therapy therapy in in his his book book Musicophilia: Musicophilia: TTales ales of of MusicMusic and and the the BrainBrain. . He He wrote wrote of of his his own own personalpersonal experience experience with with prosopagnosia prosopagnosia (the (the inability inability toto

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56 56 Chapter Chapter 2 2 | | Neuroscience Neuroscience as as a a Basis Basis for for Adult Adult Development Development and and AgingAging

would would likely likely cause cause challenges. challenges. Because Because such such changeschanges occur occur normatinormatively vely with with age, age, we we would would expect expect to to findfind some some degree degree of of prpredictable edictable patterns patterns of of change change in in cognicogni-- tion. tion. WWe e will will pursue pursue this this idea idea in in detail detail in in Chapters Chapters 66 and and 7. 7. WWe e will will also also consider consider more more serious serious changes, changes, suchsuch as as those those in in dementia, dementia, in in Chapter Chapter 10.10.

The The CRUNCH CRUNCH Model.Model. TheThe CRUNCH CRUNCH modelmodel standsstands for for compensation-relatcompensation-related ed utilization utilization of of neural neural circuits circuits hhypothesisypothesis and and describes describes how how the the aging aging brainbrain adapts adapts to to neurological neurological decline decline by by recruiting recruiting addiaddi-- tional tional neural neural circuits circuits (in (in comparison comparison to to youngeryounger adults) adults) to to perform perform tasks tasks adequatelyadequately (Cabeza (Cabeza et et al., al., 2018; 2018; Reuter-LorReuter-Lorenz enz & & Cappell, Cappell, 2008). 2008). The The CRUNCHCRUNCH model model incorporates incorporates the the fact fact that that the the brain brain has has activationactivation happening happening in in both both the the left left and and right right hemispherhemispheres, es, andand that that brain brain functions functions that that cause cause behavior behavior are are controlledcontrolled in in both. both. This This notion notion is is referred referred to to as as bilaterality bilaterality of of actiacti-- vation. vation. The The fact fact that that we we have have two two hemispheres hemispheres opensopens the the possibility possibility that that older older adults adults might might compensate compensate forfor age-related age-related changes changes by by rrecruiting ecruiting brain brain power power from from thethe other other hemisphere. hemisphere. The The CRCRUNCH UNCH model model goes goes furtherfurther by by noting noting that that bilatbilaterality erality is is not not the the only only possiblpossible e formform of of compensation. compensation. AccorAccording ding to to the the CRCRUNCH UNCH model,model, for for example, example, the the amount amount of of task-related task-related brain brain activactiv-- ity ity directly directly parallels parallels task task demands demands (i.e., (i.e., the the harharder der thethe task, task, the the more more brain brain activity) activity) until until a a personperson’’s s cognitivecognitive resource resource limit limit is is rreached, eached, at at which which point point (termed (termed thethe ““crunch crunch point”) point”) the the activity activity cannot cannot increase increase and and so so willwill plateau plateau or or drop drop off, off, and and task task performance performance will will suffersuffer.. The The CRCRUNCH UNCH model model predicts predicts that that older older adults adults willwill reach reach this this ““crunch crunch point” point” limit limit on on rresources esources at at lowlowerer levels levels of of task task demand demand than than will will young young adults.adults.

Going Going a a bit bit deeperdeeper, , we we can can understand understand better better whatwhat exactly exactly the the CRCRUNCH UNCH model model is is proposing. proposing. CRCRUNCHUNCH suggests suggests that that the the older older brain brain has has two two options options to to performperform tasks: tasks: and and more more of of the the same same supplementary supplementary processes. processes. MorMoree of of the the same same means means that that when when task task demands demands are are increased,increased, more more activation activation can can be be found found in in the the same same brain brain rregionegion that that is is activated activated for for processing processing easier easier tasks. tasks. This This optionoption is is the the one one younger younger adults adults use use most most of of the the time, time, as as dodo older older adults, adults, to to a a point. point. HoHoweverwever, , because because older older adultsadults’’ neural neural efficiency efficiency declines, declines, these these additional additional neneuronaluronal circuits circuits in in the the same same area area aare re recruited recruited earlier earlier than than theythey are are in in younger younger adults. adults. This This is is what what pushes pushes older older adultsadults to to the the ““crunch crunch point” point” more more quicklyquickly..

Supplementary Supplementary processes processes take take place place when when differentdifferent brain brain regions regions are are activated activated to to compensate compensate for for lackinglacking or or insufficient insufficient processing processing resources. resources. The The first first choice choice isis to to recruit recruit additional additional resources resources that that mirror mirror those those alreadyalready

link link basic basic understandings understandings of of intelligence intelligence with with the the patternspatterns of of brain brain changes changes they they observed observed as as a a way way to to explain explain intelliintelli-- gence gence at at a a holistic holistic level level (Haier (Haier & & JJung, ung, 2018).2018).

Based Based on on large large number number of of studies studies using using variousvarious types types of of neuroimaging neuroimaging techniques, techniques, JJung ung and and HaierHaier (2007; (2007; Haier Haier & & JJung, ung, 2018) 2018) offered offered such such a a theory: theory: thethe parieto-frontal parieto-frontal integration integration theorytheory..The The parparieto-frontalieto-frontal integrintegration ation theory theory (P(P-FIT) -FIT) proposes proposes that that intelligenceintelligence comes comes from from a a distributed distributed and and integrated integrated network network ofof neurons neurons in in the the parietal parietal and and frontal frontal areas areas of of the the brain.brain. FFigure igure 2.8 2.8 depicts depicts these these key key brain brain areas. areas. In In general,general, P-FIT P-FIT accounts accounts for for individual individual differences differences in in intelligenceintelligence as as having having their their origins origins in in individual individual differdifferences ences in in brainbrain structure structure and and function. function. FFor or example, example, research research indicatesindicates that that the the P-FIT P-FIT predicts predicts a a ttype ype of of intelligence intelligence termedtermed fluid fluid intelligenceintelligence (discussed (discussed in in Chapter Chapter 7) 7) that that includesincludes such such skills skills as as spatial spatial and and matrix matrix reasoning reasoning (F(Fraenz raenz et et al.,al., 2021; 2021; NNikolaidis ikolaidis et et al., al., 2017; 2017; Pineda-PPineda-Pardo ardo et et al., al., 2016).2016).

The The P-FIT P-FIT model model is is an an example example of of theories theories basedbased on on neuroscience neuroscience research research and and has has been been tested tested andand supported supported in in several several studies. studies. It It is is clear clear that that performanceperformance on on specific specific measures measures of of intelligence, intelligence, including including many many ofof those those that that we we will will consider consider in in detail detail in in Chapter Chapter 7, 7, asas well well as as how how efficiently efficiently such such information information is is prprocessed,ocessed, are are quite quite likely likely rrelated elated to to connections connections in in the the prefrontalprefrontal cortex cortex and and parieta l parieta l lobe lobe (Haier (Haier & & JJung, ung, 2018;2018; Pineda-PPineda-Pardo ardo et et al., al., 2016). 2016). EEvidence vidence also also points points toto reconfiguration reconfiguration of of these these connections connections as as people people age,age, which which accounts accounts for for changes changes in in performance performance andand behavior behavior (Deng (Deng et et al., al., 2021; 2021; Gallen Gallen et et al., al., 2016).2016). ClearlyClearly, , any any impairment impairment in in frontal frontal lobe lobe processingprocessing

PParietal arietal lobelobe

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Figure Figure 2.8 2.8 The The PP-FIT -FIT model model indicates indicates that that integration integration of of thethe parietal parietal and and frontal frontal lobes lobes underlies underlies intelligenceintelligence

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The The CRCRUNCH UNCH model model has has considerable considerable supportsupport (Cabeza (Cabeza et et al., al., 2018; 2018; PPark ark & & FFestini, estini, 2017). 2017). HoHoweverwever,, the the point point at at which which older older adults adults are are no no longer longer able able toto compensate compensate is is not not well well established established (H(Horne orne et et al., al., 2021;2021; JJamadaramadar, , 2020).2020).

The The STSTAAC-r C-r Model.Model. HoHow w do do we we explain explain the the specificspecific patterns patterns of of age-related age-related changes changes in in prefrprefrontal ontal activityactivity and and resolve resolve interprinterpretive etive dilemmas? dilemmas? TTo o answer answer thatthat question, question, ReReuter-Lorenz uter-Lorenz and and PPark ark (2(2014) 014) proposedproposed the the STSTAC-r AC-r model, model, shown shown in in FFigure igure 2.9.2.9. TheThe scaffscaffolding olding theory theory of of cognitive cognitive aging–raging–revised evised (ST(STAC-r)AC-r) modelmodel is is based based on on the the idea idea that that age-relaage-relatteded cha changngeses in in one’one’s s ability ability to to function function reflect reflect a a life-long life-long processprocess

being being used used in in the the other other hemisphere, hemisphere, taking taking advantage advantage ofof the the fact fact that that in in seveseveral ral cases cases the the brain brain has has some some builtbuilt-in-in redundancy redundancy by by having having similar similar arareas eas in in both both hemisphereshemispheres perform perform the the same same functions, functions, creating creating a a brain brain backupbackup system system of of sorts. sorts. In In addition, addition, howevhoweverer, , compared compared toto younger younger adultsadults’ ’ brains, brains, older older adultsadults’ ’ brains brains also also go go intointo ovoverdriverdrive e and and show show ooveractivation veractivation in in differdifferent ent brainbrain regions regions that that may may not not usually usually be be used used for for performing performing thethe tasks tasks that that are are currcurrently ently in in playplay. . This This is is reflected reflected in in brainbrain scans scans when when the the picture picture of of activation activation level level in in older older adultsadults’’ brains brains occurs occurs in in the the same same regions regions as as in in yyounger ounger adultsadults’’ brains, brains, but but at at a a significantlysignificantly higher higher level, level, or or in in differdifferentent regions regions altogetheraltogether. . These These patterns patterns suggest suggest that that compencompen-- sation sation can can take take different different forms forms in in the the aging aging brain.brain.

Figure Figure 2.9 2.9 A A life life courcourse se model model of of the the scaffolding scaffolding theory theory of of aging aging and and cognition cognition (S(STTAC-r)AC-r) Source: Source: ReuterReuter-Lorenz, -Lorenz, PP. . A., A., & & PPark, ark, D. D. C. C. (20(20114). 4). How How does does it it STSTAAC C up? up? Revisiting Revisiting the the scafscaffolding folding theory theory of of aging aging and and cognition. cognition. NeuropsycNeuropsychologyhology ReviReviewew, , 355–370. 355–370. https://doi.org/1https://doi.org/10.10.10007/s107/s111065-0065-0114-9270-9, 4-9270-9, Figure Figure 2.2.24,24,

BiologicalBiological agingaging

CompensatCompensatoryory scafscafffoldingolding

InterventionIntervention

LevelLevel

of of cognitivecognitive functionfunction

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changechange

• • APOEAPOE

• • StressStress • • VVascular ascular diseasedisease

• • Low Low SESSES

• • DepressionDepression • • NeuroticismNeuroticism

• • Head Head traumatrauma • • TToxin oxin exposureexposure

• • Neural Neural specificityspecificity

• • MTL MTL activityactivity • • Network Network connectivityconnectivity

• • Default Default networknetwork modulationmodulation

• • Bilateral Bilateral recruitmentrecruitment

• • Enhanced Enhanced fronto-parietalfronto-parietal

recruitmentrecruitment • • Strengthened Strengthened connectivityconnectivity

• • Recruitment Recruitment of of new new regionsregions • • NeurogenesisNeurogenesis

• • New New learninglearning • • Social/intellectualSocial/intellectual

engagementengagement

• • ExerciseExercise • • Cognitive Cognitive trainingtraining

• • MeditationMeditation

• • Intellectual Intellectual engagementengagement

• • EducationEducation • • FitnessFitness

• • MultilingualismMultilingualism • • Higher Higher abilityability

• • Amyloid/TAmyloid/Tau au burdenburden • • Dopaminergic Dopaminergic activityactivity

• • Cortical Cortical thicknessthickness • • Brain Brain volumevolume

• • White White matter matter integrityintegrity

BrainBrain

structurestructure

BrainBrain

functionfunction

NeuralNeural

resourresourcece depletiondepletion

NeuralNeural

resourresourcece enrichmentenrichment

LifeLife

coursecourse experienceexperience

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58 58 Chapter Chapter 2 2 | | Neuroscience Neuroscience as as a a Basis Basis for for Adult Adult Development Development and and AgingAging

works works like like this. this. When When yyou ou learn learn a a new new task, task, learninglearning mmoves oves frfrom om effortful effortful processing processing (new (new learning learning is is hardhard work!) work!) to to ovoverlearning erlearning (more (more automatic, automatic, less less effortfuleffortful processing). processing). The The result result of of ooverlearning verlearning is is that that your your brainbrain operates, operates, essentiallyessentially, , on on autopilot. autopilot. The The neurological neurological shiftshift from from effortful effortful processing processing to to ovoverlearning erlearning that that happenshappens in in a a young young adult adult results results from from a a temporary temporary broaderbroader dispersed dispersed network network (which (which Reuter-LorReuter-Lorenz enz and and PPark ark callcall the the scaffoldscaffold) ) used used while while learning learning something something new new to to aa more more focal, focal, efficient, efficient, and and optimal optimal neural neural circuit circuit that that isis the the outcome outcome of of overlearning. overlearning. IIn n older older adults, adults, though,though, the the initial initial scaffolding scaffolding remains remains available available as as a a secondarysecondary,, backup backup circuit circuit that that can can be be counted counted on on when when necessarynecessary.. IIt t is is never never dismantled. dismantled. ScafScaffolded folded networks networks arare e less less effieffi-- cient cient than than the the honed, honed, focal focal ones ones they they used used as as youngyoung adults, adults, so so on on average average poorer poorer (and (and sloslower) wer) performanceperformance is is the the result. result. But But enough enough of of the the time, time, information information isis remembered remembered eveventuallyentually, , so so in in everyday everyday life life this this is is notnot usually usually a a major major problem. problem. The The trade-off trade-off is is that that withoutwithout the the scaffolding, scaffolding, performance performance would would be be even even worseworse because because older older adults adults would would have have to to rely rely on on the the mormoree focal focal areas areas that that may may not not be be fully fully developed.developed.

The The elegance elegance of of the the STSTAC-r AC-r model model is is that that olderolder adultsadults’ ’ performance performance can can be be understood understood in in terms terms ofof factors factors that that explain explain both both decline decline in in performance performance andand those those that that explain explain compensatory compensatory processes. processes. The The STSTAC-rAC-r model model includes includes two two concepts concepts that that accomplish accomplish this.this. The The first first concept, concept, neurneural al resource resource enrichmentenrichment, , refers refers toto any any influence influence that that serves serves to to enhance enhance brain brain structure structure oror function. function. FFor or example, example, as as we we will will explore explore in in ChapterChapter 14, 14, remaining remaining active active is is rrelated elated to to better better cognitive cognitive funcfunc-- tioning tioning in in middle middle and and old old age. age. The The second second concept,concept, neurneural al resource resource depletiondepletion, , refers refers to to those those influences influences on on thethe brain brain that that are are harmful. harmful. FFor or example, example, the the APOE-4 APOE-4 genegene puts puts one one at at much much higher higher riskrisk of of AlzheimerAlzheimer’’s s disease. disease. AsAs Reuter-Lorenz Reuter-Lorenz and and PPark ark (2014) (2014) argue, argue, combining combining bothboth concepts concepts in in an an integrativintegrative e approach approach embracembraces es a a lifelonglifelong potential potential for for plasticity plasticity and and the the ability ability to to adaadapt pt to to age-age- related related changes.changes.

FFinallyinally, , the the STSTAC-r AC-r model model indicates indicates that that BarbaBarba-- rara’’s s concerns, concerns, noted noted in in the the vvignette ignette that that began began thisthis section, section, can can be be countered countered with with evidence evidence of of both both declinedecline and and compensation. compensation. The The STSTAC-r AC-r model model prpredicts edicts andand accounts accounts for for both both outcomes.outcomes.

Plasticity Plasticity and and the the Aging Aging BrBrainain In In Chapter Chapter 1, 1, we we encounterencountered ed the the concept concept of of plasticityplasticity,, which which in in that that context context related related to to the the belief belief that that capacitycapacity

of of compensating compensating for for cognitive cognitive decline decline by by recruitingrecruiting additional additional brain brain areas, areas, and and takes takes life-courlife-course se facfac-- tors tors that that enhance enhance or or deplete deplete neural neural resources resources intointo account.account. IIt t is is based based on on an an earlier earlier version version of of the the modelmodel (P(Park ark & & Reuter-LorReuter-Lorenz, enz, 2009) 2009) that that did did not not includeinclude the the life life course course variables.variables.

As As we we will will consider consider in in Chapters Chapters 6 6 and and 7, 7, aging aging isis associated associated with with both both decline decline as as well well as as preservation preservation ofof various various cognitive cognitive abilities. abilities. The The STSTAC-r AC-r model model explainsexplains neuroimaging neuroimaging studies studies that that note note selective selective changes changes in in thethe aging aging brain brain that that reflect reflect neural neural decline decline as as well well as as compencompen-- satory satory neural neural recruitment, recruitment, especially especially in in the the prefrontalprefrontal cortex. cortex. TTaking aking this this life-span life-span view view makes makes STSTAC-r AC-r uniqueunique among among the the models models of of cognitive cognitive aging aging based based on on neuroneuro-- science science (Reuter-Lorenz (Reuter-Lorenz et et al., al., 2021).2021).

FFrom rom the the perspective perspective of of the the STSTAC-r AC-r model, model, what’what’ss the the purpose purpose of of the the compensation compensation in in the the brain? brain? FForor one one thing, thing, there there is is grogrowing wing evidence evidence that that the the increaseincrease in in prefrontal prefrontal cortex cortex activity activity in in older older adults adults may may be be aa response response to to decreased decreased efficiency efficiency of of neural neural prprocessingocessing in in the the perceptual perceptual areas areas of of the the brain brain and and normativnormativee neurophysiological neurophysiological deterioration deterioration (Liem (Liem et et al., al., 2021;2021; Reuter-Lorenz Reuter-Lorenz et et al., al., 2021; 2021; RReuter-Lorenz euter-Lorenz & & PPark, ark, 2014).2014).

ThereThere’’s s another another reason, reason, too. too. Remember Remember hohow w thethe prefrontal prefrontal rregion egion helps helps suppress suppress irrelevirrelevant ant informainforma-- tion tion that that may may interfere interfere wwith ith the the task task one one is is actuallyactually performing? performing? It It turns turns out out that that older older adults adults have have troubletrouble suppressing suppressing whatwhat’’s s referred referred to to as as the the default default network network ofof the the brain.brain. The The default default netwnetwork ork of of the the brbrain ain referrefers s toto regions regions of of the the brain brain that that are are most most active active when when one one isis at at rest.rest.One One example example of of this this would would be be the the brain brain activityactivity occurring occurring when when an an individual individual lies lies quietly quietly and and is is notnot directly directly engaged engaged in in a a cognitive cognitive task task (Andr(Andrews-Hanna,ews-Hanna, 2012) 2012) or or in in the the spontaneous spontaneous generation generation and and evaluationevaluation of of creative creative ideas ideas (Beaty (Beaty et et al.al., , 2016).2016).

When When a a younger younger adult adult begins begins a a demanding demanding cognicogni-- tive tive task, task, this this default default network network is is supprsuppressed. essed. But But olderolder adults adults display display less less suppression suppression of of this this default default network,network, resulting resulting in in poorer poorer performance performance (Andrews-Hanna,(Andrews-Hanna, 2012; 2012; Andrews-Hanna Andrews-Hanna et et al., al., 2019). 2019). Thus, Thus, this this failurefailure to to shift shift from from a a resting resting state state to to a a mormore e active active state state toto engage engage in in cognitive cognitive processing processing may may be be another another reasonreason for for increased increased frontal frontal activity activity in in older older adults adults as as a a wayway to to ““work work around” around” the the lack lack of of supprsuppression ession (Aron (Aron et et al.,al., 2022; 2022; Reuter-Lorenz Reuter-Lorenz et et al., al., 2021).2021).

The The STSTAC-r AC-r model model (Reuter-Lorenz (Reuter-Lorenz & & PPark, ark, 2014)2014) suggests suggests that that the the reason reason older older adults adults continue continue to to performperform at at high high levels levels despite despite neuronal neuronal deterioration deterioration is is becausebecause they they create create and and rely rely on on a a backup backup neural neural pathwaypathway. . IItt

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compensation compensation proceprocesses sses at at the the level level of of braibrain n strucstruc-- tures tures (e.g., (e.g., the the ““work work aroundsarounds” ” created created in in the the brain,brain, additional additional brain brain regions regions recruited recruited for for dealing dealing withwith cognitive cognitive tasks), tasks), wwe e close close this this chapter chapter at at the the levlevel el ofof the the brain brain where where we we began—we began—we focus focus herhere e on on plasplas-- ticity ticity at at the the level level of of neurons.neurons.

FFrom rom a a neural neural plasticity plasticity perspective, perspective, research research onon neural neural stem stem cells cells has has revealed revealed compelling compelling evidenceevidence that that the the brain brain is is capable capable of of generating generating new new neuronsneurons and and related related cells cells when when needed needed (H(Ho o et et al., al., 2018; 2018; PPardalardal & & Barneo, Barneo, 2016).2016). Neural Neural ststem em cells cells (also (also known known asas neuneural ral progenitors progenitors or or neural neural precurprecursor sor cells) cells) areare cells cells in in the the brain brain and and spinal spinal cord cord (the (the central central nervousnervous system, system, CNS) CNS) that that are are thought thought to to give give rise rise to to thethe broad broad array array of of specialized specialized cells cells of of the the CNS, CNS, includingincluding both both neurons neurons and and glial glial cells.cells. The The discovery discovery of of neuralneural stem stem cells cells provproved ed wrong wrong the the long-standing long-standing belief belief thatthat neurogenesis neurogenesis (i.e., (i.e., the the development development of of new new neurons)neurons) stops stops at at the the end end of of embryonic embryonic development development duringduring pregnancypregnancy. . In In practical practical terms, terms, it it means means that that yyou ou notnot only only can can teach teach a a person person ““new new tricks,tricks,” ” they they are are capablecapable of of growing growing new new neurons neurons in in ororder der to to do do them. them. NotNot only only that, that, but but neural neural stem stem cells cells are are the the focus focus of of muchmuch research research rrelating elating to to potential potential cures cures for for various various brainbrain diseases, diseases, such such as as ParParkinsonkinson’’s s disease disease (F(Faour aour & & Ashok,Ashok, 2021) 2021) and and Alzheimer’Alzheimer’s s disease disease (P(Pinto into et et al., al., 2021).2021).

All All of of this this research research adds adds a a new new level level of of underunder-- standing standing to to what what happens happens to to individuals individuals as as they they growgrow olderolder. . FFor or example, example, even even though though aging aging is is associated associated withwith an an ovoverall erall decrease decrease in in the the number number of of new new neurons neurons (in(in fact, fact, neurons neurons are are continually continually pruned pruned throughout throughout mostmost of of life), life), this this differs differs a a lot lot across across regions regions of of the the brain, brain, andand alteration alteration and and expansion expansion of of neural neural connections connections maymay continue continue as as long long as as the the person person lives.lives.

The The big big question, question, of of course, course, is is whethewhether r thethe discovery discovery of of neural neural stem stem cells cells and and the the fact fact that that neuronsneurons can can regenerateregenerate even even in in late late life life means means tthat hat neuroscienceneuroscience researcresearch h could could be be used used to to curcure e brain brain diseases diseases and and essenessen-- tially tially create create ““nenew w brainsbrains” ” (Kazanis, (Kazanis, 2012). 2012). PPerhaps erhaps thatthat may may be be possible possible years years from from nonoww. . In In the the meantime, meantime, whatwhat we we do do know know is is that that brain brain cells cells can can rregenerate egenerate on on theirtheir own, own, even even in in late late life, life, under under the the right right circircumstances,cumstances, and and that that the the brain brain has has considerable considerable plastplasticity icity to to createcreate ways ways for for people people to to compensate compensate with with age-related age-related declinesdeclines in in functioning. functioning. BBut ut just just because because we we ccouldould perfect perfect neurogenesis neurogenesis to to curcure e disease, disease, we? we? This This is is a a veryveryshouldshould controvcontroversial ersial question, question, as as discussed discussed in in the the ControControversiesversies feature.feature.

is is not not fixed fixed but but can can be be learned learned or or imprimproved oved with with pracprac-- tice. tice. WWe e noted noted there there that, that, for for example, example, people people can can learnlearn ways ways to to help help themselves themselves remember remember information, information, whichwhich in in turn turn may may help help them them dedeal al with with declining declining short-termshort-term memory memory ability ability with with age.age.

As As discussed discussed earlier earlier in in this this chapterchapter, , there there araree certain certain situations situations in in which which the the brain brain compensates compensates forfor agagee-related -related changes changes in in processing processing bby y reconfiguring reconfiguring neuneurarall pathways pathways and and enlisting enlisting additional additional brain brain structures structures inin processing. processing. These These changes changes reflect reflect another another aspect aspect ofof plasticity—in plasticity—in this this case case focused focused on on changes changes in in the the brainbrain that that are are mapped mapped to to behavioral behavioral change change across across the the adultadult life life span.span.

When When these these notions notions of of plasticity plasticity are are consideredconsidered togethertogether, , plasticity plasticity becomes becomes a a defining defining notion notion in in adultadult development development and and aging aging that that underlies underlies the the process process byby which which people people (and (and their their brains) brains) live live in in the the world world andand accumulate accumulate information information and and knowledge knowledge from from experiexperi-- ences ences over over time.time.

PlasticityPlasticity, , then, then, proprovides vides a a way way to to understandunderstand compensatory compensatory changes changes in in both both the the more more obserobservablevable behavior behavior and and the the less less observable observable (without (without neuroimaging,neuroimaging, anyway) anyway) reorganization reorganization of of neural neural circuitry circuitry in in the the brain.brain. Many Many attempts attempts have have been been made made to to assess assess the the potential potential forfor plasticity plasticity in in cognitive cognitive functioning functioning by by focusing focusing on on ways ways toto improvimprove e cognitive cognitive performance performance through through training.training.

Baltes Baltes and and colleaguescolleagues’ ’ now now classic classic researresearch ch set set thethe standard standard for for documenting documenting the the range range of of plasticity plasticity inin older older adultsadults’ ’ cognitive cognitive performance performance (Baltes (Baltes & & Kliegl,Kliegl, 1992; 1992; WWillis illis et et al., al., 1981). 1981). They They found found that that whereaswhereas older older adults adults are are able able to to improimprove ve cognitive cognitive ability ability inin memory memory tasks tasks through through tailored tailored strategy strategy training training beyondbeyond the the level level of of untrained untrained younger younger adults, adults, this this is is highlyhighly task-specific, task-specific, and and the the ability-level ability-level gains gains are are very very narrownarrow in in focus.focus.

Since Since these these groundbrgroundbreaking eaking findings, findings, researchresearch demonstrates demonstrates that that basic basic cognitive cognitive processes processes affectedaffected by by aging aging can can indeed indeed be be improimproved ved through through trainingtraining under under certain certain conditions, conditions, and and that that they they transfer transfer toto multiple multiple other other kinds kinds of of functioning functioning as as long long as as thethe tasks tasks are are based based on on the the same same basic basic underlying underlying funcfunc-- tioning. tioning. TTraining raining has has also also been been showshown n to to increaseincrease the the level level of of activity activity in in the the prefrontal prefrontal cortex, cortex, thethe strength strength of of connections connections betwbetween een the the prefrontal prefrontal andand parietal parietal cortex, cortex, and and structural structural changes changes in in neneuronaluronal dendritic dendritic connections connections (Constantinidis (Constantinidis & & Klingberg,Klingberg, 2016; 2016; Schmidt Schmidt et et al., al., 2021). 2021). Because Because we we have have aalrlreadyeady considered considered aspects aspects of of plasticity plasticity as as exemplified exemplified byby

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60 60 Chapter Chapter 2 2 | | Neuroscience Neuroscience as as a a Basis Basis for for Adult Adult Development Development and and AgingAging

ControversiesControversies The The Neuroethics Neuroethics of of Interventions Interventions to to Address Address Brain Brain AgingAging

and and states states of of spiritual spiritual transcendence transcendence that that lead lead toto interventions interventions to to “improve” “improve” humans.humans.

The The questions questions raised raised by by neuroethical neuroethical analysesanalyses of of various various situations situations are are many many and and farfar-ranging.-ranging. How How should should incidental incidental clinical clinical findings findings bebe handled handled when when a a presumed presumed healthy healthy researcresearchh participant participant is is scanned scanned for for neuroscience neuroscience researcresearchh and and the the scan scan reveals reveals a a tumortumor, , for for instance? instance? HowHow safe safe are are the the drugs drugs used used to to enhance enhance normal normal brainbrain function?function?

Neuroethics Neuroethics reminds reminds us us that that the the researcresearchh considered considered in in this this cchapter hapter requires requires that that thethe human human brain brain be be used used as as an an experimental experimental objectobject of of study study and and be be manipulated manipulated in in specific specific ways.ways. CertainlyCertainly, , any any sucsuch h intervention, intervention, whether whether it it isis a a treatment treatment for for a a disease disease or or a a replacement replacement ofof malfunctioning malfunctioning or or nonfunctioning nonfunctioning brain brain cells,cells, requires requires the the highest highest level level of of ethical ethical principles.principles. PPerhaps erhaps the the most most difficult difficult issue issue is is that that justjust because because an an intervention intervention be be done, done, does does notnotcan can necessarily necessarily mean mean that that it it be be done.done.should should

But But who who gets gets to to make make these these decisions?decisions?

The The public public policy policy that that flows flows from from neuroscienceneuroscience researcresearch h must must go go to to great great lengths lengths to to analyze analyze thethe ethical ethical implications implications of of every every researcresearch h projectproject invinvolving olving neural neural stem stem cells, cells, along along with with anyany potential potential clinical clinical applications applications and and outcomes. outcomes. TheThe usual usual medical medical standard standard oof f “causing “causing no no harm” harm” isis especially especially important important in in neuroscience neuroscience researcresearchh and and the the interventions interventions that that derive derive from from it, it, as as isis a a very very careful careful assessment assessment of of the the risk–benefitrisk–benefit balance. balance. But But most most important important is is keeping keeping in in thethe forefront forefront of of everything everything the the fact fact that that the the researcresearchh invinvolves olves a a human human and and a a human human brain.brain.

Imagine Imagine if if you you could could replace replace brain brain cells cells that that hadhad either either died died or or had had been been damaged damaged through through anan accident accident or or disease? disease? That’That’s s a a goal goal of of researchersresearchers who who study study neural neural stem stem cells. cells. ClearlyClearly, , thisthis researcresearch h would would fundamentally fundamentally cchange hange ourour understanding understanding of of aging, aging, brain brain injuryinjury, , and and brainbrain disease.disease.

ResearcResearch h on on the the potential potential of of neural neural stem stem cells cells tooktook a a major major leap leap forward forward in in 2007 2007 with with the the founding founding ofof the the Neural Neural Stem Stem Cell Cell Institute Institute by by DrDr. . Sally Sally TTempleemple and and DrDr. . JefJeffrey frey Stern. Stern. The The Institute’Institute’s s mission mission isis “developing “developing regenerative regenerative stem stem cell cell therapiestherapies for for diseases diseases of of the the central central nervous nervous system system (CNS):(CNS): the the brain, brain, spinal spinal cord cord and and retina.retina.” ” OngoingOngoing researcresearch h programs programs include include identifying identifying potentialpotential uses uses of of neural neural stem stem cells cells in in treating treating sucsuchh diseases diseases as as AlzheimerAlzheimer’’s s disease, disease, brain brain injury injury andand stroke, stroke, macular macular degeneration, degeneration, autism, autism, ParkinsonParkinson’’ss disease, disease, retinitis retinitis pigmentosa, pigmentosa, and and spinal spinal cordcord injuryinjury, , among among otherothers.s.

The The National National Human Human Neural Neural Stem Stem Cell Cell ResourceResource supplies supplies researcresearcherhers s with with reliable reliable sources sources ofof neural neural stem stem cells cells obtained obtained from from the the postnatal,postnatal, postmortem postmortem human human brain. brain. They They encourageencourage researcresearch h to to study study the the cells cells “as “as potentialpotential transplantable transplantable tissue tissue for for addressing addressing damage damage fromfrom stroke stroke or or brain brain injuryinjury, , and and for for curing curing diseases.diseases.””

These These and and other other similar similar researcresearch h centercenters s playplay a a critical critical role role in in brain brain researcresearch. h. Despite Despite thethe great great promise promise of of this this researcresearch h to, to, for for instance,instance, offer offer potential potential cures cures for for fatal fatal and and degenerativedegenerative diseases, diseases, this this work work is is controversial. controversial. A A basicbasic question question some some ask ask is is whether whether this this researcresearchh should should be be done done at at all. all. Several Several key key ethicalethical questions questions arise arise that that many many argue argue need need to to bebe addressed addressed before before the the results results of of this this researcresearchh areare imp implemented lemented (Ramos-Zúñiga, (Ramos-Zúñiga, 202015; 15; WWexlerexler & & Sullivan, Sullivan, 22021)021)..

The The field field of of neuroethics neuroethics encompasses encompasses the the manymany ways ways in in whicwhich h developments developments in in basic basic and and clinicalclinical neuroscience neuroscience intersect intersect with with social social and and ethicethicalal issues. issues. Neuroethics Neuroethics focuses focuses on on two two generalgeneral categories categories of of issues: issues: those those emerging emerging fromfrom what what we we can can do do and and those those emerging emerging from from whatwhat we we know. know. In In the the first first category category are are the the ethicalethical problems problems raised raised by by advances advances in in functionalfunctional neuroimaging, neuroimaging, psycpsychopharmacologyhopharmacology, , brainbrain implants, implants, and and brain–macbrain–machine hine interfaces interfaces in in thethe service service of of “treating” “treating” or or “curing” “curing” diseases. diseases. In In thethe second second category category are are the the ethical ethical problems problems raisedraised by by our our growing growing understanding understanding of of the the neuralneural bases bases of of behaviorbehavior, , perpersonalitysonality, , consciousness,consciousness,

Should Should neural neural stem stem cells cells be be used used to to potentially potentially cure cure this this person person who who has has dementia?dementia?

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Making Making Sense Sense of of Neuroscience Neuroscience ResearResearch: ch: Explaining Explaining ChangChanges es in in Brain–BehaBrain–Behavior vior Relations Relations 6161

Adult Adult DevDevelopment elopment in in ActionAction

YYou ou are are an an actiactivity vity therapist therapist at at a a senior senior centercenter and and want want to to design design activities activities for for the the membersmembers that that will will help help them them compensate compensate for for typicaltypical age-related age-related cognitive cognitive cchanges. hanges. Using Using the the theoriestheories described described in in this this section, section, what what would would an an exampleexample of of a a good good activity activity be?be?

Review Review QuestionsQuestions 2.3 2.3 Making Making Sense Sense of of Neuroscience Neuroscience ResearResearch:ch: Explaining Explaining Changes Changes in in BrBrain-Behavior ain-Behavior RelationsRelations

• • Compare Compare and and contrast contrast the the PP-FIT -FIT theorytheory, , CRUNCHCRUNCH model, model, and and STSTAC-r AC-r model. model. What What does does eaceachh explain?explain?

• • What What is is neural neural plasticity? plasticity? How How might might neural neural stemstem cells cells be be used used to to increase increase neural neural plasticity?plasticity?

Social Social Policy Policy ImplicationsImplications Neuroscience Neuroscience Influences Influences on on Social Social PPolicyolicy

makermakers s to to obtainobtain a a more more complete complete and and accurateaccurate picture picture of of aging. aging. Why?Why?

ResearcResearch h in in neuroscience neuroscience and and aging aging is is extremelyextremely important important for for a a wide wide range range of of social social policiespolicies from from what what sorts sorts of of cocoverage verage are are included included inin basic basic healthcare healthcare insurance insurance to to laws laws pertaining pertaining toto renewing renewing driverdrivers’ s’ licenses licenses and and the the age age at at whichwhich people people should should be be eligible eligible for for retirement retirement benefits,benefits, among among others. others. Some Some have have already already been been putput into into place, place, sucsuch h as as increasing increasing the the age age at at whicwhich h aa person person becomes becomes fully fully eligible eligible for for Social Social SecuritySecurity benefits benefits (a (a point point we we will will examine examine in in Chapter Chapter 114).4). Federal Federal agencies agencies sucsuch h as as the the National National InstitutesInstitutes of of Health Health have have shifted shifted funding funding priorities priorities to to focusfocus mucmuch h of of their their efforefforts ts onto onto better better ways ways to to assessassess and and understand understand cchanges hanges in in the the brain brain and and otherother key key issues issues in in aging. aging. As As we we will will explore explore in in ChapterChapter 12, 12, orgorganizations anizations are are adapting adapting to to having having moremore older older workerworkers, s, and and to to take take advantage advantage of of theirtheir special special skills skills and and knowledge.knowledge.

What’What’s s at at stake stake regarding regarding policy? policy? WWe e are are nownow working working on on extending extending the the vitality vitality of of olderolder adulthood. adulthood. Evidence Evidence from from neuroimaging neuroimaging researcresearchh provides provides a a platform platform from from whicwhich h new new interventionsinterventions might might be be developed developed to to make make this this a a realityreality..

In In Chapter Chapter 1, 1, we we faced faced the the reality reality of of a a globalglobal aging aging human human population population and and the the fundamentalfundamental social social cchanges hanges that that will will bring bring about. about. In In this this cchapterhapter,, we we faced faced the the complexities complexities of of the the aging aging of of thethe human human brain, brain, and and the the fact fact that that under under somesome conditions conditions those those cchanges hanges are are beneficial beneficial andand compensatory compensatory and and under under others others they they resultresult in in diseases diseases sucsuch h as as dementia. dementia. As As the the world’world’ss population population of of older older adults adults continues continues to to rise, rise, bothboth outcomes outcomes will will be be more more visible. visible. ConsequentlyConsequently,, social social policies policies will will need need to to respond.respond.

Many Many have have made made mucmuch h of of the the possibility possibility that that thethe increased increased numbers numbers of of people people with with brain-basedbrain-based disorders disorders could could result result in in a a massimassive ve cchallenge hallenge toto global global health health care, care, not not to to mention mention presentingpresenting an an enormous enormous financial financial cchallenge hallenge to to families families andand governments governments alike. alike. But But is is that that opinion opinion realistic?realistic? The The good good news news is is that that advanced advanced researcresearchh in in neuroscience neuroscience tells tells us us that that researcresearcherhers s areare identifying identifying ways ways in in whicwhich h sucsuch h brain brain disordersdisorders can can be be reduced reduced or or perhaps perhaps even even reversed. reversed. InIn addition, addition, researcresearcherhers s have have identified identified arareas eas ofof the the brain brain that that are are relatively relatively preserved preserved and and maymay even even show show growth, growth, and and that that certain certain activities,activities, sucsuch h as as exercise, exercise, may may at at least least delay delay decreasesdecreases in in performance. performance. Thus, Thus, it it is is important important for for policypolicy

62 62 Chapter Chapter 2 2 | | Neuroscience Neuroscience as as a a Basis Basis for for Adult Adult Development Development and and AgingAging

cercerebellumebellum The The part part of of the the brain brain that that is is associatedassociated with with motor motor functioning functioning and and balance balance equilibrium.equilibrium.4242

cercerebral ebral corcortextexThe The outermost outermost part part of of the the brainbrain consisting consisting of of two two hemispheres hemispheres (left (left and and right).right).4242

compensation-rcompensation-related elated utilization utilization of of neurneural al circuitscircuits hhypothesis ypothesis (CRUNCH) (CRUNCH) modelmodelA A model model thatthat describes describes how how the the aging aging brain brain adapts adapts to to neurologicalneurological decline decline by by recruiting recruiting additional additional neural neural circuits circuits (in(in comparison comparison to to younger younger adults) adults) to to perform perform taskstasks adequatelyadequately.. 5656

compensatory compensatory cchangeshangesChanges Changes that that allow allow older older adultsadults to to adapt adapt to to the the inevitable inevitable behavioral behavioral decline decline resultingresulting from from changes changes in in specific specific areas areas of of the the brain.brain.4040

corcorpus pus callosumcallosumA A thick thick bundle bundle of of neurons neurons thatthat connects connects the the left left and and right right hemispheres hemispheres of of thethe cerebral cerebral cortex.cortex. 4242

defdefault ault networnetwork k of of the the brainbrainThe The regions regions of of the the brainbrain that that are are most most active active at at rrest.est.5858

dendrdendritesitesA A structural structural feature feature of of a a neuron neuron that that actsacts like like antennas antennas to to receive receive signals signals from from other other nearbnearbyy neurons.neurons. 4141

diffusion diffusion ttensor ensor imaging imaging (DTI)(DTI)A A type type of of magneticmagnetic resonance resonance imaging imaging that that measures measures the the diffusion diffusion ofof water water molecules molecules in in tissue tissue to to study study connections connections ofof neural neural pathways pathways in in the the brain.brain.4343

dopaminedopamineA A neurotransmitter neurotransmitter associated associated withwith higher-level higher-level cognitive cognitive functioning.functioning. 4343

dopaminergic dopaminergic systsystemem Neur Neuronal onal systems systems that that useuse dopamine dopamine as as their their major major neurotransmitterneurotransmitter..4343

executivexecutive e functionsfunctionsInclude Include the the ability ability to to make make andand carry carry out out plans, plans, switch switch between between tasks, tasks, and and maintainmaintain attention attention and and focus.focus. 4242

functional functional neuroimagingneuroimagingPProvides rovides an an indication indication ofof brain brain activity activity but but not not high high anatomical anatomical detail.detail.3838

hippocampushippocampusLocated Located in in the the medial-temporal medial-temporal lobe,lobe, this this part part of of the the brain brain plays plays a a major major role role in in memorymemory and and learning.learning.4242

limbic limbic systemsystemA A set set of of brain brain structures structures involved involved withwith emotion, emotion, motivation, motivation, and and long-term long-term memorymemory,, among among other other functions.functions. 4242

neural neural ststem em cellscells(Also (Also known known as as neural neural progenitorsprogenitors or or neural neural precursor precursor cells) cells) Cells Cells in in the the brain brain andand spinal spinal cord cord (the (the central central nervous nervous system, system, CNS)CNS) that that are are thought thought to to give give rise rise to to the the broad broad array array ofof specialized specialized cells cells of of the the CNS, CNS, including including both both neuronsneurons and and glial glial cells.cells. 5959

neuroanatneuroanatomyomyThe The study study of of the the structure structure of of thethe brain.brain. 3636

In In ReviewReview YYour our summary summary of of Chapter Chapter 2 2 could could be be organized organized intointo three three paragraphs, paragraphs, each each one one corresponding corresponding to to one one of of thethe chapter chapter modules. modules. The The first first paragraph paragraph should should provideprovide descriptions descriptions of of the the basic basic tools tools and and techniques techniques used used inin neuroscience, neuroscience, such such as as the the different different types types of of brain brain imagimag-- ing. ing. YYou ou should should also also describe describe what what is is unique unique about about thethe neuroscience neuroscience perspective.perspective.

PParagraph aragraph two two should should describe describe the the main main structuresstructures of of the the brain brain and and what what functions functions and and processes processes they they areare most most involved involved in. in. Describe Describe also also the the basic basic age-rage-relatedelated changes changes that that brain brain structures, structures, neurons, neurons, and and neurotransneurotrans-- mitters mitters undergoundergo. . PProvide rovide descriptions descriptions of of tthe he variousvarious examples examples of of brain–behavior brain–behavior mapping, mapping, such such as as theory theory ofof mind, mind, memorymemory, , and and emotion.emotion.

YYour our thirthird d paragraph paragraph should should describe describe the the threethree major major theories theories and and models models explaining explaining brain brain processesprocesses and and age-related age-related change. change. Describe Describe the the evidence evidence forfor compensation compensation in in the the brains brains of of older older adults. adults. Describe Describe thethe evidence evidence for for brain brain plasticity plasticity across across adulthood. adulthood. DiscussDiscuss how how neuroethics neuroethics prprovides ovides an an interprinterpretive etive lens lens for for neuroneuro-- science science research research and and intervention.intervention.

Integrating Integrating Concepts Concepts inin DevelopmentDevelopment • • Which Which of of the the theories theories or or models models of of brainbrain

processes processes makes makes the the most most sense sense to to you? you? Why?Why?

• • What What would would you you say say about about the the stereotypestereotypes s ofof aging aging now now that that you you understand understand the the plasticity plasticity ofof brain brain functioning?functioning?

• • What What does does the the work work on on brain brain plasticity plasticity imply imply forfor therapies therapies to to address address brain brain disorders?disorders?

• • How How would would you you plan plan a a cogniticognitive ve trainingtraining program program to to take take advantage advantage of of age-relatedage-related cchanges hanges in in brain brain structures structures and and plasticity?plasticity?

Key Key TTermserms activactivationation imaging imaging approacapproachh Attempts Attempts to to directly directly linklink

functional functional brain brain activity activity with with cognitive cognitive behavioralbehavioral data.data. 4040

amamygdalaygdala The The region region of of the the brain, brain, located located in in thethe medial-temporal medial-temporal lobe, lobe, believed believed to to play play a a key key role role inin emotion.emotion. 4242

axonaxonA A structure structure of of the the neuron neuron that that containscontains neurofibers.neurofibers. 4242

KeKey y TTerms erms 6363

scaffscaffolding olding theory theory of of cognitive cognitive aging–raging–revisedevised (ST(STAAC-r) C-r) modelmodelA A model model based based on on the the idea idea thatthat age-related age-related changes changes in in oneone’’s s ability ability to to functionfunction reflect reflect a a life-long life-long process process of of compensating compensating forfor cognitive cognitive decline decline by by recruiting recruiting additional additional brain brain arareaseas and and takes takes life-course life-course factors factors that that enhance enhance or or depletedeplete neural neural resources resources into into account.account.5757

strstructural uctural neurneuroimagingoimagingA A set set of of techniques techniques thatthat provides provides highly highly detailed detailed images images of of anatomicalanatomical features features in in the the brain.brain.3838

synapsesynapseThe The gap gap between between neurons neurons across across whichwhich neurotransmitters neurotransmitters travel.travel.4242

terterminal minal brancbrancheshesThe The endpoints endpoints in in a a neuron neuron thatthat help help transmit transmit signals signals across across the the synapse.synapse.4242

theory theory of of mind mind (T(ToM)oM)The The ability ability that that helps helps usus understand understand that that other other people people have have beliefs, beliefs, desires,desires, ideas, ideas, feelings, feelings, intentions, intentions, and and viewpoints viewpoints that that areare different different from from our our oown.wn.4747

white white matmatterterNNeurons eurons that that are are covercovered ed by by myelinmyelin that that serve serve to to transmit transmit information information from from one one part part ofof the the cerebral cerebral cortex cortex to to another another or or from from the the cerebralcerebral cortex cortex to to other other parts parts of of the the brain.brain.4343

white white matmatter ter hhyperintyperintensities ensities (WMH)(WMH)AbnormalitiesAbnormalities in in white white matter matter determined determined by by the the observation observation ofof high high signal signal intensity intensity or or a a bright, bright, spotty spotty appearanceappearance on on MRI MRI images images which which indicate indicate brain brain pathologies.pathologies.4343

neurocorneurocorrrelational elational approachapproachAn An approach approach thatthat attempts attempts to to relate relate measures measures of of cognitivcognitive e performanceperformance to to measures measures of of brain brain structure structure or or functioning.functioning.4040

neurofibersneurofibersSStructures tructures in in the the neuron neuron that that carrycarry information information inside inside the the neuron neuron from from the the dendrites dendrites toto the the terminal terminal branches.branches.4242

neuroimagingneuroimagingA A set set of of techniques techniques in in which which picturespictures of of the the brain brain are are taken taken in in various various ways ways to to proprovidevide understanding understanding of of both both normal normal and and abnormalabnormal cognitive cognitive aging.aging. 3838

neuronneuronA A brain brain cell. cell. 4141 neuropsyneuropsychological chological apprapproachoachCompares Compares brainbrain

functioning functioning of of healthy healthy older older adults adults with with adultsadults displaying displaying various various pathological pathological disorders disorders in in the the brain.brain.3939

neuroscienceneuroscienceThe The study study of of the the brain. brain. 3636 neurotrneurotransmittansmittersersChemicals Chemicals that that carry carry informationinformation

signals signals between between neurons neurons across across the the synapse.synapse.4242 parparieto-frontal ieto-frontal intintegration egration theory theory (P(P-FIT)-FIT)A A theorytheory

that that proposes proposes that that intelligence intelligence comes comes from from aa distributed distributed and and integrated integrated network network of of neurons neurons in in thethe parietal parietal and and frontal frontal areas areas of of the the brain.brain.5656

positivity positivity effeffectectWhen When an an individual individual rremembersemembers more more positive positive information information rrelative elative to to negativenegative information.information. 4646

prprefrontal efrontal and and frfrontal ontal cortcortexexPPart art of of the the frontal frontal lobelobe that that is is involved involved in in exexecutive ecutive functioning.functioning.4242