4D1

38187753 - Pearson Education Limited ©

The specific steps in clinical supervision vary from model to model. For example, Goldhammer’s (1969) model had five steps, and Cogan’s (1973) model had eight steps. Our own model, which is consistent with other models in its overall structure, has six steps:

1. Preconference with teacher 2. Observation of classroom 3. Analysis of observation data and planning for postconference 4. Postconference with teacher 5. Critique of previous four steps 6. Follow-up

Step 1: Preconference

At the preconference, the supervisor, having selected an initial interpersonal approach, sits with the teacher to determine (1) the purpose of the observation, (2) the focus of the observation, and (3) the method and form of observation to be used. These determinations are made before the actual observation, so that both supervisor and teacher are clear about what will transpire. The purpose of the observation, as mentioned in Chapter 12 , is to provide the criteria for making the remaining decisions on focus, method, and time of observation.

Step 2: Observation

The next step, observation, is the time to follow through with the understandings of the preconference. The observer might use any one observation method or a combination of methods. Examples of observation methods include categorical frequencies, performance indicators, visual diagramming, verbatim, detached open-ended narratives, participant observation, focused questionnaire, and tailored observation systems. The observer should keep in mind the difference between descriptions of events and interpretations. The purpose of observation is description.

Step 3: Analysis and Planning

38187753 - Pearson Education Limited ©

The analysis of the observation and planning for the postconference are now possible. The supervisor leaves the classroom with observations and lays out the recorded pages of observations and studies the information. The task might be counting up frequencies, looking for recurring patterns, isolating a major occurrence, or discovering which performance indicators were present and which were not. Regardless of the instrument, questionnaire, or open-ended form used, the supervisor must make sense out of a large mass of information.

A case study might help to clarify data analysis. Supervisor A has completed a verbal interaction instrument for students and teacher. She reviews the observation data, totals observed behaviors, and records the results.

1. The teacher asked 27 questions and received 42 answers. 2. Out of 276 total verbal moves, 6 were student to student; the other 270

were teacher to student or student to teacher. 3. The teacher asked 21 of the 25 students in the class at least one question.

Let’s examine one more case, this time of Supervisor B doing a participant observation. The supervisor reads through his brief classroom notes, picks out the most significant events, and writes the following analysis.

1. Akari, Tyrone, Felix, and Selma asked me about the assignment they were supposed to be doing.

2. Kirk and Felipe were talking with each other about sports the three times I overheard them.

3. Kim looked across the aisle at Jose’s work six times.

The supervisor no doubt will have tentative interpretations of the observation data, but final interpretations will await teacher–supervisor discussion of the data in the postconference.

The last determination for the supervisor to make in step 3 of the clinical structure is to choose what interpersonal approach to use with the teacher in the postconference. The directive informational, collaborative, and nondirective approaches to supervision were explained in Chapters 8 , 9 , and 10 , respectively. Should the supervisor use a directive informational approach by

38187753 - Pearson Education Limited ©

presenting their observations and interpretations, asking for teacher input, setting a goal, and providing teachers with alternative actions to choose from? Should the supervisor be collaborative by sharing the observation data, allowing the teacher to present their own interpretations, and negotiating a mutual contract for future improvement? Should the supervisor be nondirective by explaining their observations and encouraging the teacher to analyze, interpret, and make their own plan?

The supervisor must consider the teacher’s level of development, expertise, and commitment as well as the previous steps in the clinical cycle when choosing the interpersonal approach for the postconference. When working with a teacher who is best matched with a collaborative or nondirective approach and who has experience with clinical supervision, some supervisors provide the teacher with the observation data prior to the postconference. This allows the teacher to review the data in advance and bring preliminary interpretations to the postconference.

Step 4: Postconference

With the completed observation form, completed analysis, and the chosen interpersonal approach, the supervisor is ready to meet with the teacher in a postconference. The postconference is held to share the observation data and analysis, interpret the meaning of the data, and produce a plan for instructional improvement. Figure 15.1 can be used to develop such a plan, which includes the following elements:

The objective is a statement of what the teacher will attain through the improvement effort: “I will improve student-to-student interaction by 50 percent in group discussions.” Teacher activities are actions the teacher will carry out to accomplish the objective: (1) Practice pausing at least 3 seconds before answering a student response, (2) practice using open-ended questions, and (3) set up ongoing mini-debates. Supervisor activities are actions the supervisor will take to assist the teacher’s improvement effort: (1) Provide readings, (2) identify a professional learning

38187753 - Pearson Education Limited ©

opportunity, (3) arrange for a peer observation, and (4) be available for discussion with the teacher to support the improvement effort. Resources are the materials and/or people needed to do the activities: (1) Read a book on leading discussion groups, (2) attend a workshop on “Involving Students,” and (3) observe Ms. Filler when she holds a science discussion. Assessment lists the actions that will be taken to determine whether the objective has been met, including analysis of sample teacher lesson plans, review of teacher’s log, and follow-up observation. Timeline lists when major improvement and assessment activities will be carried out. Such a plan—whether designed by the teacher, the supervisor, or both—should be clearly understood by both parties before they leave the postconference.

Figure 15.1 Plan for Instructional Improvement

Figure 15.1 Full Alternative Text

Step 5: Critique

38187753 - Pearson Education Limited ©

The critique of the previous four steps is a time for reviewing whether the format and procedures from preconference through postconference were satisfactory and whether revisions might be needed before repeating the sequence in the future. The critique can be held at the end of the postconference. It need not be a formal session but can be a brief discussion, consisting of questions such as: What was valuable in what we have been doing? What was of little value? What changes could be suggested?

The critique has both symbolic and functional value. It indicates that the supervisor is involved in an improvement effort in the same way as the supervisee. Furthermore, the feedback from the teacher gives the supervisor a chance to decide on what practices to continue, revise, or change when working with the teacher in the future.

Step 6: Follow-Up

The plan for instructional improvement developed in the postconference is implemented and assessed. Follow-up could involve the teacher’s participation in professional learning; the supervisor providing the teacher with needed resources or arranging for peer support; supervisor review of lesson plans, classroom videos, lesson artifacts, or teacher reflections; and/or supervisor– teacher dialogue to discuss the progress of the improvement effort. Follow-up activities could be integrated with a new clinical supervision cycle, and always end with a decision on whether the objective has been met and whether additional assistance is needed.

This concludes our overview of the six steps in clinical supervision. Specific activities for each step of the clinical cycle are shown in Table 15.1 .

Table 15.1 Activities for Each Step of Clinical Supervision

Step Specific Activities

Preconference Choose interpersonal approach for preconference

Begin conference on positive note

Discuss teacher’s lesson plan

38187753 - Pearson Education Limited ©

Step Specific Activities

Discuss teacher’s concerns about lesson

Discuss behaviors to be observed

Select or design an observation instrument

Discuss logistics of observation

Review conference decisions

End conference on positive note

Observation Gather data agreed upon in preconference

Focus on description; avoid interpretation

Analysis and

Planning

Analyze data

Summarize data in preparation for postconference

Choose interpersonal approach for postconference

Plan postconference

Postconference Begin conference on positive note

Review preconference decisions

Share and explain observation data

Discuss and interpret observation data

Identify improvement objective

38187753 - Pearson Education Limited ©

Step Specific Activities

Plan improvement activities and discuss needed

resources

Discuss criteria for success and assessment plan

Review conference decisions

End conference on positive note

Critique Critique preconference

Critique observation process

Critique observation data provided to teacher

Critique postconference

Discuss ways to improve clinical supervision

Follow-up Teacher: Carry out improvement activities

Supervisor: Assist teacher improvement activities

Teacher and Supervisor: Reflect on progress and

future actions

Note: Follow-up may be integrated with a new clinical

supervision cycle.

38187753 - Pearson Education Limited ©

The Relationship of Clinical Supervision with Other Processes

Because clinical supervision involves classroom observation and conferral, it is only natural for evaluation of classroom teaching to come to mind when reading about the clinical model. Also, since Part 3 of this book was all about developmental supervision, including alternative interpersonal approaches that can be used when conferring with teachers, the reader may already be considering use of the various interpersonal approaches in clinical supervision. Let’s take a few moments to discuss the relationship of clinical supervision to both evaluation of teaching and developmental supervision.

Comparing Clinical Supervision with Evaluation of Teaching

In Chapter 16 we discuss the differences between summative and formative evaluation of teaching in detail. For now, let us simply state that clinical supervision is consistent with formative evaluation, but not summative evaluation, of teaching. Clinical supervision provides nonjudgmental assistance aimed at improving the teacher’s instruction and, because of that, it has been equated by some with formative evaluation. Clinical supervision actually includes but goes beyond formative evaluation by helping the teacher to design and implement an action plan to meet instructional improvement goals.

Clinical supervision is not consistent with summative evaluation; it is not intended to gather data to make judgments about whether teachers are meeting performance criteria for continued employment. Some school districts have confused the two processes by calling their summative evaluation cycle clinical supervision. At one level, this is understandable. Both clinical supervision and summative evaluation can take place within similar structures, including a preconference, classroom visit, and postconference. To understand the difference between the two concepts we must look beyond the structure to the purpose and principles of clinical supervision, which clearly are not consistent

Identify supervisory approaches appropriate for clinical supervision. Learning Objective 15.2

38187753 - Pearson Education Limited ©

with those of summative evaluation. The two processes need to be separate, for the same reasons that formative and summative evaluation of teaching should be separate (again, we elaborate on the distinction between formative and summative evaluation of teaching in Chapter 16 ).

Integrating Clinical Supervision and Developmental Supervision

As discussed in Part 3 , developmental supervision calls for the supervisor to match one of four interpersonal approaches—directive control, directive informational, collaborative, or nondirective—with teachers’ developmental levels, expertise, and commitment. Are all four of these interpersonal approaches consistent with clinical supervision? Our view is that directive informational, collaborative, and nondirective supervisory approaches are all consistent with the clinical model.

Using a directive informational approach, the supervisor can suggest and explain two or three alternative observation foci and data collection methods in the preconference and ask the teacher to select from the options provided. In the directive informational postconference, the supervisor can help the teacher to interpret observation data and ask the teacher to choose from a limited range of possible improvement objectives, activities, and follow-ups.

The supervisor and teacher engaged in a collaborative preconference can consider observation alternatives and select a mutually agreeable observation focus and data collection method. In the collaborative postconference, the supervisor and teacher can share decision-making responsibility as they build an action plan for instructional improvement.

The supervisor using nondirective behaviors in a preconference can ask the teacher to choose the focus of the observation and facilitate the teacher choosing or creating an observation system that the supervisor would feel comfortable using. In the nondirective postconference, the supervisor clarifies, encourages, and reflects as the teacher designs their own improvement plan.

Although directive control behaviors are necessary in rare situations, over the long term, we do not consider those behaviors to be consistent with the

38187753 - Pearson Education Limited ©

purpose and principles of clinical supervision. Directive control should be used only in short-term, crisis situations, not as part of a normal clinical cycle.

38187753 - Pearson Education Limited ©

Peer Coaching

Since teachers naturally turn to each other for help more often than to a supervisor, and since supervision is concerned primarily with improving instruction rather than with summative evaluation (renewal of contracts), teachers helping teachers has become a formalized and well-received way of ensuring direct assistance to every staff member. With the advent of extended responsibilities for career-ladder teachers, mentor teachers, master teachers, grade-level chairpersons, team leaders, and department heads, the time and resources for peer assistance have increased.

If teachers become proficient in observation skills and the format of clinical supervision, the supervisor can take on the role of clarifier, trainer, scheduler, and troubleshooter—clarifier by determining the purpose; trainer by preparing the teachers for the task; scheduler by forming teams or trios of teachers who take responsibility for preconferencing, observing, and postconferencing with each other; and troubleshooter by consulting with teams of teachers who are experiencing difficulties and with individual teachers who need more specialized attention. The use of teachers helping teachers through clinical supervision has been labeled peer coaching.

Obviously, the way to begin such a program is not to call a staff meeting and announce, “Since I can’t see each of you as much as I would like, why don’t you start to visit each other? Go to it!” Without planning and resources, disaster is inevitable. To be successful, peer coaching needs components addressing purpose, preparation, scheduling, and troubleshooting. Let’s take each in turn.

Purpose

Before beginning a peer-coaching program, clarifying purpose and goals is necessary (Zwart et al., 2009 ). First, will the program consist of reciprocal

Distinguish between reciprocal and expert peer coaching. Learning Objective 15.3

38187753 - Pearson Education Limited ©

coaching, with teachers observing and conferring with each other, or expert coaching, in which better trained or more experienced teachers assist lesser trained or less experienced teachers? Second, in a peer program, who is to be the recipient of assistance? Should a teacher who is the observer take from the observation some ideas to use, or should the teacher who is the observed take from the observation some actions to use? Third, will the observations and feedback focus on common instructional skills that each teacher is attempting to learn and implement, or will the observations and feedback focus on the teacher’s own idiosyncratic concern with their own teaching? Fourth, should the observations and feedback focus on the teacher’s teaching or on students’ behaviors? Fifth, is the goal of coaching to be greater awareness and more reflective decision making or the implementation of particular teaching skills? Ultimately, how does the coaching goal fit into the larger school goal of improving instruction for students?

These are not idle questions. A peer-coaching program void of articulated definition and purpose has no rudder for steering and selecting the training, scheduling, and troubleshooting essential for success (Hooker, 2013 ). Instead, it becomes another fad, exciting in that it’s on the “cutting edge” of school change but lacking substance in terms of what is to be accomplished. If there is a lack of direction in peer coaching programs, well-intentioned teachers will have a vague sense of having done something pleasant but little sense of accomplishment. Therefore, the first step is to meet with teachers to discuss how a proposed peer coaching program would fit into a school’s or district’s instructional goals and then to decide on the specific purposes of the program.

Preparation

Before implementation, preparation of teachers would include training on (1) understanding the purpose and procedures of peer coaching, (2) conducting a preconference for determining the focus of observations, (3) conducting and analyzing an observation to distinguish between describing and interpreting classroom events, and (4) conducting two postconferences with different approaches for developing action plans—one using a nondirective approach, the other using a collaborative approach.

38187753 - Pearson Education Limited ©

A standard form for writing instructional improvement plans in the postconference should be reviewed. The form should be simple and easy to fill out. Each peer member should understand that a completed plan is the object of the first four clinical steps and the basis for beginning the next round of coaching. For purposes of training, you may use the forms found in Chapter 12 .

Training sessions of about 6 hours should provide the minimum knowledge and skills to begin peer coaching. After peers have gained some familiarity with the process through demonstrations, modeling, and practice in the workshop setting, they will be anxious but ready to begin a coaching cycle. For the initial attempts, perfection is not expected, of course.

After the first cycle of implementation, a follow-up meeting should be held to discuss what has occurred and what revisions need to be made before beginning the second cycle. It is often convenient to review the past cycle and conduct the preconference for the next cycle during the same meeting. This gives participants a sense of sharing and learning from each other, enables the trainer to answer questions, allows for observation schedules to be arranged, and eliminates the need to meet another time to hold the preconference. From this point on, follow-up meetings concluding and beginning further cycles can be held every 2–3 weeks until the agreed-on number of peer cycles have been finished. For the first year, it is recommended that at least four cycles be conducted—for reciprocal peer coaching, these would include two times being the coach and two times being coached.

Toward the end of the year, a culminating meeting should be held to summarize the advantages and disadvantages of using peer coaching and to make a recommendation on whether to continue the program for the following year.

It’s important to emphasize that the program should be based on agreement and volunteerism. If an entire staff is willing to be involved, that’s fine, but if only three teachers are willing, it is still a beginning and a previously unavailable source of help for those three teachers.

Scheduling

38187753 - Pearson Education Limited ©

A teacher will have a more difficult time becoming enthusiastic about a project if it means increasing the amount of personal time and energy expended beyond an already full day. Because peer coaching will require additional time, the program should be voluntary, at least in the beginning. Greater participation of teachers is likely if the supervisor can schedule time for peer coaching conferences during the school day.

For example, placing teachers together in teams that share the same planning or lunch periods would allow for pre- and postconferences during the school day. Hiring a few substitutes for 2 days, twice a semester, would allow teachers to be relieved of class duties so that they can observe their peers. One substitute could relieve six classroom teachers for one period at a time. Relief could also be found by having the supervisor (we mean you!) occasionally substitute for a teacher for one class period. This would enable the teacher to observe and would also give the supervisor a glimpse into the operating world of the classroom. Another way of freeing time for peer observations is for teachers to release each other by periodically scheduling a video, lecture, or some other large-group instruction so that two classes can be taught by one teacher.

Whatever the actual schedule used to release teachers for peer coaching, preplanning by supervisor and teachers is needed to ensure that teachers can participate without extreme personal sacrifice. Research on lasting classroom change has shown that scheduling released time for teachers during the school day is critical (Zwart et al., 2009 ).

Another issue is arranging teams of teachers. As in most issues in education, there are no hard-and-fast rules. Generally, teachers should be grouped with each other so they are comfortable together but not necessarily at identical levels of experience and/or competence. It may be useful to put experienced teachers with new ones, superior teachers with adequate ones, or adequate teachers with struggling ones.

Troubleshooting The fourth component of establishing a peer coaching program is the close monitoring of peer progress (Zwart et al., 2009 ). The supervisor should be

38187753 - Pearson Education Limited ©

available to peer teams as a resource person. For example, what happens when the preconference concludes with an agreement to observe a teacher’s verbal interaction in the classroom and the peer coach is at a loss about where to find such an observation instrument? The training program should answer such questions, but orientation meetings cannot cover all possible needs. The supervisor must therefore monitor the needs of peer teams and be able to step in to help.

An elaborate monitoring device is not necessary. The supervisor might simply wander around the halls and check with peer coaches every few weeks. At periodic faculty meetings, the supervisor might ask peer coaches to write a note on their team progress. The supervisor should be sure that books, videos, and methods/instruments for observations are catalogued and available to teachers in the professional library.

Now that the supervisor can attend to purpose, training, scheduling, and troubleshooting, a peer coaching program can be implemented. The initial implementation of such a program undoubtedly will create more work for the supervisor. However, the initial work is less than would be necessary for providing clinical supervision to every teacher two or three times a year. If it is important enough to the supervisor and staff, the time spent at the start in preparing for the program will pay off with ongoing instructional improvement of teachers.

38187753 - Pearson Education Limited ©

Mentoring

As discussed in Chapter 2 , inadequate induction of beginning teachers as a characteristic of the work environment of traditional schools is a real problem. Beginning teacher assistance programs can go a long way toward solving this problem, and the mentoring of new teachers typically is at the center of such support programs. Most schools with mentoring programs for beginning teachers assign a single mentor to each new teacher; some schools assign a team of mentors to the novice. In the case of mentoring teams, it is best to assign one of the mentors as the lead mentor, so that mentor can coordinate team support for the beginner.

Mentor Selection, Preparation, and Support

In the best of all worlds, experienced teachers would informally match up with each beginning teacher and provide that teacher with the support necessary for a successful induction to the school and profession. In many schools, however, this simply does not happen, and it is necessary to assign mentors to new teachers. Some teachers have more potential to be effective mentors, and those are the teachers who should fill that role. A selection process for mentors should be in place, one that not only chooses well-qualified teachers but also conveys to all members of the school community that it is an honor to be chosen as a mentor. Mentors should be chosen from volunteers who have been provided a clear description of a mentor’s role and responsibilities.

We know that successful mentors have particular characteristics, thus such characteristics should be considered in the selection process. Successful mentors are student centered, possess both content knowledge and pedagogical skills, are trustworthy, have good communication skills, seek input before making decisions, collaborate with others, and are supportive of colleagues (Gilles et al., 2013 ; Kissau & King, 2014 ; Maor & McConney,

List at least four strategies a mentor can use to assist a beginning teacher. Learning Objective 15.4

38187753 - Pearson Education Limited ©

2015 ). Although teachers at various career stages can be successful mentors, if part of the mentor’s role is to introduce the beginning teacher to the school organization and culture, then the mentor will need to have sufficient experience to understand and assist the beginner to navigate that organization and culture.

It is best for the supervisor to establish a mentor selection committee including teachers and other stakeholders to plan and implement the selection process and choose a pool of mentors from which matches with beginners can be made. Many of the attributes of successful mentors listed previously are difficult to measure, thus the decision should be based on a variety of indicators. Aspiring mentors can document previous instructional leadership activities in written applications, write short philosophies of mentoring, respond to scenarios of beginning teachers experiencing problems, interview with the selection committee, and so forth.

The general characteristics associated with successful mentoring are good starting points, but once mentors are selected, they need initial professional development to develop knowledge and skills for mentoring. Depending on skills that they already possess from previous instructional leadership, mentors may need to learn about problems of beginning teachers, adult learning theory, observation skills, conferencing skills, providing psychological support, and so on. Once mentors begin working with beginning teachers, they need ongoing support in the form of released time, common meeting time with beginners, and support seminars in which they can share experiences and receive assistance in addressing problems encountered in mentoring.

Matching Mentors with Beginners

Not all mentor–mentee relationships work, and one of the primary reasons for failure is a poor initial matching of mentor and mentee (Klinge, 2015 ). There is no foolproof formula for a successful match, but several provisions can increase the chances for success. The relationship tends to be more successful if both parties teach in the same content area and at the same grade level (LoCasale-Crouch et al., 2012 ). It is preferable that the mentor and mentee teach in classrooms that are in physical proximity, which enables more

38187753 - Pearson Education Limited ©

continuous interaction and opportunities for immediate assistance when necessary. Perhaps the most important mentor–mentee matches, however, are those of personal style and teaching philosophy.

Mentor Support for the Beginning Teacher

Successful mentors treat their mentees as equals and see their primary role as fostering their mentee’s growth and development. The single most important thing the mentor can do is to develop a trusting, supportive relationship with the mentee. To develop a positive relationship, the mentor and mentee must meet on a regular basis. Good mentors provide mentees with feedback and advice but also ask mentees for input into the mentoring process. As Kissau and King (2014) state, “Mentees should be given opportunities to ask questions, share experiences, and reflect on their decision-making process” (p. 146).

Although support provided to mentees needs to be individualized, there are a number of types of assistance that most mentees need. It is best for the mentor and mentee to meet before the beginning of the mentee’s first year of teaching so the mentor can orient the beginner to the school, the community the school serves, and the students. Also, the mentor can introduce the mentee to the curriculum, help the beginner to organize the classroom, and plan the first few days of teaching in detail. Once the school year is underway, most beginners need continued assistance with planning instructional units and daily lessons, classroom management, differentiated instruction, and working with struggling students. Throughout the school year, beginning teachers may need some level of consultation on each task they carry out for the first time—requesting instructional materials, referring a student, assigning grades, meeting with families, and so forth.

Strategies the mentor can use to assist the mentee include demonstration teaching; team teaching; arranging for the beginner to observe effective teachers; peer coaching; and regular meetings in which the mentee can reflect on teaching, request assistance, and engage in mutual problem solving with the mentor.

38187753 - Pearson Education Limited ©

Although this is a discussion of mentoring, we would be remiss if we did not point out that mentoring is not the only part of beginning teacher assistance programs. New teachers should also receive regular assistance from supervisors and other colleagues and can benefit from professional development targeted at areas of need and regular support sessions provided to groups of beginning teachers.

Benefits of Mentoring

The benefits of effective mentoring for beginning teachers include deeper reflection on teaching, clarification of educational beliefs, increased self- confidence, improved motivation, enhanced problem-solving skills, better classroom management, improved teaching skills, an understanding of the school’s culture and norms, and a sense of belonging to and acceptance by the school community (Gilles et al., 2013 ; Kissau & King, 2014 ; Klinge, 2015 ; LoCasale-Crouch et al., 2012 ).

Mentors also receive benefits from their work with beginning teachers. Like the mentees they work with, successful mentors improve their reflection, problem- solving skills, and self-confidence. Additionally, mentors develop feelings of self- satisfaction from observing their mentees’ improved teaching. Mentoring can rejuvenate experienced teachers’ careers and help prepare them for other leadership roles (Kissau & King, 2014 ; Klinge, 2015 ; Maor & McConney, 2015 ).

The school also benefits from mentoring: the beginner is acculturated into the school community, teacher retention is increased, and the success of new teachers enhances the school’s reputation and teacher recruitment. The most important benefits of mentoring beginning teachers are for students— successful mentoring can foster a year of growth and development for students being taught by a beginning teacher and ensure that students will not be subjected to constant teacher turnover and being taught by a steady stream of unsupported novices.

Reciprocal Mentoring

38187753 - Pearson Education Limited ©

Up to this point our discussion of mentoring has focused on experienced educators mentoring beginning teachers. Let’s turn our attention now to reciprocal mentoring, which usually involves experienced teachers mentoring each other. For example, one experienced science teacher may have recently received professional development, gaining expertise in a number of new labs, but may be having difficulty with classroom management while using the labs. Another experienced science teacher, with excellent classroom management skills, may be interested in using the labs with students but lacks knowledge about how to utilize the labs. The two teachers can mentor each other in their respective areas of need as they implement the labs. Many of the same strategies used for mentoring beginners—demonstration lessons, peer teaching, peer coaching, meetings for reflective problem solving, and so forth— can be used in reciprocal mentoring by experienced teachers.

Another promising type of reciprocal mentoring is among beginning teachers. For example, in a study by Forbes (2004) , as a result of mentoring each other, beginning teachers developed insights into instructional planning, classroom management, new instructional strategies, and professional relationships. Our view on reciprocal mentoring by beginning teachers is that, while it can be very beneficial for the new teachers, it is best used as a supplement to mentoring by experienced teachers. While beginning teachers can be tremendous sources of both emotional and instructional support to one another, most beginners have not reached the stage of teaching expertise or the knowledge of school culture possessed by experienced, successful teachers, thus the latter need to assume leading roles in the mentoring of new teachers.

Reverse Mentoring

Reverse mentoring, in which new or younger members of an organization serve as mentors to older, experienced members, has been used in business since the turn of the century (Biss & DuFrene, 2006 ). One area in which reverse mentoring may prove useful in PreK–12 schools is technology. Technology is constantly changing, with each new generation quickly outpacing previous generations in the use of technology innovations. Many beginning teachers can mentor their more experienced colleagues in the use of the latest educational technology. Additionally, many new teachers are in their early 20s and find it

38187753 - Pearson Education Limited ©

easier to understand and relate to the interests, concerns, and learning needs of their students than older teachers. Younger teachers thus can serve as mentors to their older colleagues on current youth culture and how knowledge of that culture can be incorporated into classroom teaching and learning.

Although we see potential for reverse mentoring in PreK–12 schools, we do not believe it should replace the mentoring of beginning teachers by experienced teachers. The assistance that beginners can provide to experienced teachers is meaningful, but this does not alter the fact that new teachers have a host of support needs that can and should be addressed by their experienced colleagues.

38187753 - Pearson Education Limited ©

Using Direct Assistance to Improve Classroom Culture

A great deal of direct assistance is for the purpose of improving teachers’ instructional skills or solving immediate instructional problems. As important as these goals are, direct assistance can help teachers reach deeper goals based on democratic and moral purposes. The classroom can be viewed as both a microcosm of the larger culture and as a vehicle for transforming that culture. By modeling and encouraging adherence to democratic and moral values in the classroom, the teacher fosters a democratic and moral society.

Supervisors and teachers can begin the process of improving classroom culture by asking such questions as the following:

Are students treated equitably by the teacher and by each other? Do the teacher and students follow democratic principles appropriate to the students’ ages and maturity levels? Do the teacher and students demonstrate compassion to those in need? Do students feel physically and emotionally safe? Are all cultures respected, valued, and celebrated?

Processes such as clinical supervision, peer coaching, and mentoring can be used to answer questions such as these. In their answer to the question of how clinical supervision can promote culturally responsive teaching, Gordon and Espinoza (2020) state:

The answer is collaborative inquiry by the supervisor and teacher into the

classroom climate, curriculum, instruction, and student assessment in

relationship to different student cultures. . . . Critique of teacher beliefs and

behaviors is certainly part of this process, but it should be self-critique facilitated

by the supervisor. An inquiry stance, classroom data, and reflective dialogue on

Describe how a teacher can foster a democratic and moral society. Learning Objective 15.5

38187753 - Pearson Education Limited ©

that data can lead to a new level of teacher consciousness, and, motivated by

that consciousness, new teaching behaviors. (pp. 2–3)

The same process applies to a peer coach or mentor assisting a teacher to become more culturally responsive.

Quantitative observation data can be gathered in this area (e.g., data can be gathered on whether the teacher gives students response opportunities, assistance, or praise in an equitable manner) but, often, rich narrative is needed to adequately describe classroom culture. The teacher and supervisor, coach, or mentor can work together to interpret the meaning of data on classroom culture and to develop action plans for cultural improvement. Because classroom culture is so complex, conferral and action planning for cultural improvement are more complicated than conferral and planning for technical improvement. In addition, cultural improvement takes much longer than implementing a new teaching skill. However, if a critical goal of education is a more democratic society, then the increased complexity and longer duration of cultural improvement efforts are well justified. Inquiry for Equity 15.1 describes how one of the structures for direct assistance, peer coaching, can be adapted to promote culturally responsive teaching.

Inquiry for Equity 15.1 Reciprocal Peer Coaching for Culturally

Responsive Teaching This process involves a supervisor working with a small team of teachers coaching each other to become more responsive to students from a historically marginalized group. The process involves self-reflection, professional reading, group dialogue, preparation, individual coaching cycles, and changing goals.

Self-Reflection Each teacher on the peer coaching team writes a reflective essay on their current relationship with a historically marginalized group of students, the relationship the teacher would like to have, and how the teacher will need to behave differently in the future to improve the relationship.

38187753 - Pearson Education Limited ©

Professional Reading Each teacher shares their reflective essay with the supervisor. Based on each teacher’s essay, the supervisor shares readings on cultural responsiveness tailored to that teacher’s concerns.

Initial Group Meeting The supervisor facilitates this and other meetings of the coaching team. In the initial meeting, each teacher presents their concerns about their ability to provide culturally responsive teaching to a particular group of students. A ground rule for these discussions is that teachers do not discuss the need for students, families, or other educators in the school to change; rather, teachers concentrate on changes they believe they themselves need to make in their teaching to change their relationships with and improve the learning of the students being discussed. In sharing with the group, each teacher also discusses insights they have gained from the readings provided by the supervisor, tentative long-term goals for more culturally responsive teaching, and some ideas they are considering for moving toward their goals. After each teacher’s presentation, the other members of the group provide feedback and suggestions for how the teacher might improve their tentative goals or change their teaching to move toward the goals.

Preparation for Peer Coaching Professional learning to prepare the teachers for peer coaching follows the recommendations provided earlier in this chapter, including defining purpose, demonstration, modelling, and practice. Data-gathering tools used in a coaching preparation program with this aim focus on culturally responsive teaching. Preparation also includes decisions on which teachers will partner with each other for the initiation of peer coaching.

Early Coaching Cycles The dual purposes of the early coaching cycles are to (1) gather and discuss data on the teacher’s current level of cultural responsiveness toward the group of students in question and (2) determine if the teacher needs to adjust their long-term goals for more culturally responsive teaching. The

38187753 - Pearson Education Limited ©

supervisor joins in conferences only if invited to do so by both partners. In the preconference, the participants decide on the most appropriate data to gather to help meet the coaching’s dual purposes and design an observation tool to collect the data. Based on the data gathered in the classroom observation and their interpretation, the teacher who was observed may adjust their long-term goals. In the critique following the postconference, the partners consider ideas for improving the coaching of the observed teacher. The teacher in the role of coach assists the partner teacher to follow up the postconference with the agreed-upon improvement effort. The partners switch roles (teacher or coach) for each new coaching cycle.

Subsequent Coaching Cycles After teachers’ goals for becoming more culturally responsive have been clarified, the preconference becomes a vehicle for integrating plans for more culturally responsive teaching with the lesson to be observed and deciding what observation data will be gathered to determine the effects of improvement efforts. Postconferences include interpreting the data and discussing future improvement efforts. The critique continues to focus discussions on how to improve future peer coaching. The same partners may work together throughout the coaching process or partners may periodically change, with the decision on whether to rotate partners a collaborative decision of the coaching team.

Ongoing Group Meetings The supervisor continues to facilitate group meetings, which are held after all teachers on the coaching team have completed the latest round of coaching cycles. At group meetings after the peer coaching is underway, each teacher shares what they have learned about their teaching from the observation data their partner has gathered for them in the most recent coaching cycle and discusses their progress toward their improvement goals. Teachers also share concerns about their progress, and the supervisor and other teachers recommend ways of addressing those concerns. Any concerns about the peer coaching process itself (problems with scheduling, data gathering, etc.) also are addressed in the group meetings.

38187753 - Pearson Education Limited ©

Changing Goals Moving toward significant goals relative to culturally responsive teaching, even when assisted by a peer coach and the coaching team, can be a difficult journey. It means overcoming personal bias, changing relationships, and developing new skills. Such goals are not likely to be quickly achieved. As progress is made, however, the goals can be revised and expanded to reflect new teacher insights, beliefs, and capacity for change. Becoming a culturally responsive teacher is a career-long journey, but, in time, growth regarding one’s goals will lead to new goals with the same or a different cultural group.

38187753 - Pearson Education Limited ©

Special Considerations for Direct Assistance

When providing direct assistance, supervisors should consider the personal characteristics of the teacher receiving assistance. Teachers differ in their cultural backgrounds, levels of experience, levels of commitment, and different concerns they may have, and these differences must be factored in when determining how to best support the teacher. Chapter 4 discusses teachers as adult learners in various stages of adult growth, as well as the “ebb and flow” of adult development that can vary from one situation to the next.

One particular area that Gordon (2022) writes about is the idea of teachers having different learning styles. Gordon applies David Kolb’s (2015) four learning orientations (concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization, and active experimentation) to supervision. Of particular note, Gordon emphasizes that while teachers tend to have a learning mode they are most comfortable with, thoughtful scaffolding by the supervisor can support the teacher to navigate through all four learning modes, which is when “the most powerful learning takes place” (p. 2).

List special factors to consider when providing direct assistance. Learning Objective 15.6