leadership

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SUMMARSUMMARYY ______________________________________________________________________________

The The trait trait approach approach has has its its roots roots in in leadership leadership theory theory that that suggested suggested that that cercer-- tain tain people people were were born born with with special special traits traits that that made made them them great great lealeaders.ders. Because Because it it was was believed believed that that leaders leaders and and nonleaders nonleaders could could be be differentiated differentiated by by a a universal universal set set of of traits,traits, throughout throughout the the 20th 20th centurcentury y researchers researchers werwere e chalchal-- lenged lenged to to identify identify the the definitive definitive traits traits of of leaders.leaders.

Around Around the the mid-20th mid-20th centurycentury,, several several major major studies studies questioned questioned the the basic basic premise premise that that a a unique unique set set of of traits traits defined defined leadershipleadership.. As As a a result,result, attention attention shifted shifted to to incorincorporating porating the the impact impact of of situations situations and and of of followers followers on on leaderleader-- shipship.. Researchers Researchers began began to to study study the the interactions interactions between between leaders leaders and and their their context context instead instead of of focusing focusing only only on on leaders’leaders’ traits. traits. More More recentlyrecently,, there there have have been been signs signs that that trait trait research research has has cocome me full full circle,circle, with with a a renewed renewed interest interest in in focusing focusing directly directly on on the the critical critical trtraits aits of of leaders.leaders.

FFrom rom the the multitude multitude of of studies studies coconducted nducted through through the the years years on on personal personal charchar-- acteristics,acteristics, it it is is cclear lear that that many many traits traits contribute contribute to to leadershipleadership.. S Some ome of of the the important important traits traits that that are are consistently consistently identified identified in in many many of of these these studies studies are are intelligence,intelligence, self-confidence, self-confidence, determination, determination, integr integrityity,, and and sociabilitsociabilityy.. In In addiaddi-- tion,tion, researchers researchers have have found found a a strostrong ng relationship relationship between between leadership leadership and and the the traits traits described described by by the the was was the the traittrait ffive-factor ive-factor personality personality model.model. Extraversion Extraversion most most strongly strongly associated associated with with leadershleadership,ip, followed followed by by conscientiousnessconscientiousness, , opennessopenness, , low low neuroticismneuroticism,, and and .. Another Another recent recent line line of of researresearch ch has has focusedfocused agagreeablenessreeableness on on emotional emotional intelligenceintelligence and and its its relatiorelationship nship to to leadership.leadership. This This research research sugsug-- gests gests that that leaders leaders who who are are sensitivsensitive e to to their their emotions emotions and and to to the the impact impact of of their their emotions emotions on on others others may may be be leaders leaders who who arare e more more effective.effective.

On On a a practical practical level,level, the the trtrait ait approach approach is is concerned concerned with with which which traits traits leaders leaders exhibit exhibit and and who who has has these these traits.traits. Organiz Organizations ations use use personality personality assessment assessment instruments instruments to to identify identify how how individuals individuals willwill fit fit within within their their organizations.organizations. The The trait trait approach approach is is also also used used for for personal personal awareness awareness and and developmentdevelopment because because it it allows allows managers managers to to analyanalyze ze their their strengths strengths and and weaknesses weaknesses and and to to gain gain a a clearer clearer understanding understanding of of how how they they should should trtry y to to change change to to enhance enhance their their leadershipleadership..

There There are are several several advantages advantages to to viewing viewing leadership leadership ffrom rom the the trait trait approach.approach. FFirst,irst, it it is is intuitively intuitively appealing appealing because because it it fits fits cclearlearly ly into into the the popular popular idea idea that that leaders leaders are are special special people people who who arare e out out ffront,ront, leading leading the the way way in in societysociety.. Second,Second, a a great great deal deal of of research research validates validates the the basis basis of of this this perspective.perspective. Third,Third, by by focusing focusing exclusively exclusively on on the the leaderleader,, the the trtrait ait approach approach provides provides an an in-depth in-depth understanding understanding of of the the leader leader component component in in the the leadership leadership prprocess.ocess. L Last,ast, it it has has provided provided some some benchmarks benchmarks against against which which individuals individuals can can evaluate evaluate their their own own personal personal leadership leadership attributes.attributes.

On On the the negative negative side,side, the the trait trait approach approach has has failed failed to to provide provide a a definitive definitive list list of of leadership leadership traits.traits. In In analyanalyzing zing the the traits traits of of leaders,leaders, the the approach approach has has failed failed

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4040 LEADERSHIPLEADERSHIP THEORTHEORY Y AND AND PPRACRACTTICEICE

to to take take into into account account the the impact impact of of situations.situations. In In addition,addition, the the approach approach has has resulted resulted in in subjective subjective lists lists of of the the most most important important leadership leadership traits,traits, which which are are not not necessarily necessarily grounded grounded in in strong,strong, reliable reliable research.research.

FFurthermore,urthermore, the the trait trait approach approach has has not not adequately adequately linked linked the the traits traits of of leadlead-- ers ers with with other other outcomes outcomes such such as as group group and and team team performance.performance. Last, Last, this this approach approach is is not not particularlparticularly y useful useful for for training training and and dedevelopment velopment for for leaderleader-- ship ship because because individuals’individuals’ personal personal attributes attributes are are largely largely stable stable and and fixed,fixed, and and their their traits traits are are not not amenable amenable to to change.change.

SS GEGEharpen harpen your your skills skills with with SASA edge edge at at edge.sagepub.com/northouse8eedge.sagepub.com/northouse8e

REFERENCESREFERENCES ____________________________________________________________________________

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Skills Skills ApprApproachoach

DESCDESCRIPTIONRIPTION _____________________________________ _____________________________________

Like Like the the trait trait approach approach discussed discussed in in Chapter Chapter 2,2, the the skills skills approach approach takes takes a a leader-centered leader-centered perspective perspective oon n leadership.leadership. However However,, in in the the skills skills approach approach we we shift shift our our thinking thinking ffrom rom a a focus focus on on personality personality charactercharacteristics,istics, which which usually usually are are viewed viewed as as innate innate and and largely largely fixed,fixed, to to an an emphasis emphasis on on skills skills and and abilities abilities that that can can be be learned learned and and developed.developed. Although Although personality personality certainly certainly plays plays an an integral integral role role in in leadershipleadership,, the the skills skills approach approach suggests suggests that that knowlknowl-- edge edge and and abilities abilities are are needed needed for for effective effective leadershipleadership..

Researchers Researchers have have studied studied leadership leadership skills skills directly directly or or indirectly indirectly for for a a number number of of years years (see (see Bass,Bass, 2008, 2008, pp pp.. 97–109). 97–109). However However,, the the impetus impetus ffor or research research on on skills skills was was a a classic classic ararticticle le published published by by Robert Robert Katz Katz in in the the HarHarvard vard Business Business Review Review in in 1955,1955, titled titled “Skills “Skills of of an an Effective Effective AdministratorAdministrator.”.” Katz’ Katz’s s articarticle le appeared appeared at at a a time time when when researresearchers chers were were trtrying ying to to identify identify a a definitive definitive set set of of leadership leadership traits.traits. Katz Katz’’s s approach approach was was an an attempt attempt to to transcend transcend the the trait trait probprob-- lem lem by by addraddressing essing leadership leadership as as a a set set of of developable developable skills.skills. More More recentlyrecently,, a a revitalized revitalized interest interest in in the the skills skills approach approach has has emerged.emerged. Beginning Beginning in in the the earlearly y 1990s,1990s, a a multitude multitude of of studies studies have have been been published published that that contend contend that that a a leader’leader’s s effectiveness effectiveness depends depends on on the the leader’leader’s s ability ability to to solve solve complex complex organizational organizational problems.problems. This This rresearch esearch has has resulted resulted in in a a comprehensivcomprehensive e skill-based skill-based model model of of leadership leadership that that was was advanced advanced by by MumforMumford d and and his his colleagues colleagues (Mumford,(Mumford, Zaccaro,Zaccaro, Harding, Harding, Jacobs, Jacobs, & & Fleishman,Fleishman, 2000; 2000; Y Yammarammarinoino,, 2000). 2000).

In In this this chapterchapter,, our our discussion discussion of of the the skills skills approach approach is is divided divided into into two two parts.parts. FFirst,irst, we we discuss discuss the the general general ideas ideas set set forth forth by by Katz Katz regarding regarding three three basic basic administrative administrative skills:skills: technical, technical, human, human, and and conceptual.conceptual. Second, Second, we we discuss discuss the the recent recent work work of of MumforMumford d and and colleagues colleagues that that has has resulted resulted in in a a skills-skills- based based model model of of organizational organizational leadershipleadership..

33

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4444 LeadershipLeadership TheorTheory y and and ppracracTTiceice

Three-Skill Three-Skill ApproachApproach

Based Based on on field field researresearch ch in in admadministration inistration and and his his own own firsthand firsthand obserobservations vations of of executives executives in in the the workplaworkplace,ce, Katz Katz (1955,(1955, p p.. 34) 34) suggested suggested that that effective effective administration administration (i.e.,(i.e., leadership) leadership) depends depends on on three three basic basic personal personal skills:skills: techni techni-- cal,cal, human, human, and and conceptual.conceptual. K Katz atz argued argued that that these these skills skills are are quite quite different different ffrom rom traits traits or or qualities qualities of of leaders.leaders. arare e what what leaders leaders Skills Skills can can accomplishaccomplish,, whereas whereas traitstraits are are are are who who leaders leaders (i.e.,(i.e., their their innate innate charactercharacteristics).istics). L Leadership eadership skills skills are are defined defined in in this this chapter chapter as as the the ability ability to to use use one’one’s s knowledge knowledge and and competencies competencies to to accomplish accomplish a a set set of of goals goals or or objectives.objectives. This This chapter chapter shows shows that that these these leaderleader-- ship ship skills skills can can be be acquired acquired and and leaders leaders can can be be trained trained to to develop develop them.them.

TTechnical echnical SkillsSkills

TTechnical echnical skilskills ls are are knowledge knowledge about about and and prproficiency oficiency in in a a specific specific tytype pe of of work work or or activityactivity.. They They include include competencies competencies in in a a specialized specialized area,area, anal analyticalytical abilityability,, and and the the abilitability y to to use use appropriate appropriate tools tools and and techniques techniques (Katz,(Katz, 1955). 1955). FFor or example,example, in in a a computer computer sofsoftware tware companycompany,, tec technical hnical skills skills might might incinclude lude knowing knowing software software language language and and programming,programming, the the companycompany’’s s sofsoftware tware prodprod-- ucts,ucts, and and how how to to make make these these products products function function for for clients.clients. S Similarimilarlyly,, in in anan accounting accounting firm,firm, tec technical hnical skills skills might might incinclude lude understanding understanding and and having having the the ability ability to to applapply y generally generally accepted accepted accounting accounting principles principles to to a a cclientlient’’s s audit.audit. In In both both these these examples,examples, technical technical skilskills ls involve involve a a hands-on hands-on activity activity with with a a basic basic product product or or process process within within an an organization.organization. TTechnicechnical al skills skills play play an an essential essential role role in in producing producing the the aactual ctual products products a a company company is is designed designed to to produce.produce.

As As illustrated illustrated in in FFigure igure 3.1,3.1, technical technical skilskills ls are are most most important important at at lower lower and and middle middle lelevels vels of of management management and and less less important important in in upper upper management.management. F For or leaders leaders at at the the highest highest level,level, such such as as CEOs,CEOs, presidents, presidents, and and senior senior officers,officers, technical technical competencies competencies are are not not as as essential.essential. Individuals Individuals at at the the top top level level depend depend on on skilled skilled followers followers to to handle handle technictechnical al issues issues of of the the physical physical operation.operation.

Human Human SkillsSkills

Human Human skills skills are are knowledge knowledge about about and and ability ability to to work work withwith people.people. They They are are quite quite different different ffrom rom technical technical skills,skills, which which hhave ave to to do do with with working working withwith things things (K(Katz,atz, 1955). 1955). Human Human skills skills are are ““people people skills.skills.”” They They are are the the abilities abilities that that help help a a leader leader to to work work effectively effectively with with followers,followers, peers, peers, and and superiors superiors to to accomplish accomplish the the organizationorganization’’s s goals.goals. Human Human skilskills ls allow allow a a leader leader to to assist assist group group members members in in working working cooperatively cooperatively as as a a group group to to aachiechieve ve common common goals.goals. F For or Katz,Katz, it it means means being being aware aware of of one’one’s s own own perspective perspective on on issues issues and,and, at at the the same same time,time, being being aware aware of of the the perspective perspective of of others.others. L Leaders eaders with with human human skills skills adapt adapt their their own own ideas ideas to to those those of of others.others. F Furtherurthermore,more, they they create create an an atmospheratmosphere e of of trtrust ust where where employemployees ees can can feel feel comforcomfortable table and and

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secure secure and and where where they they can can feel feel encouraged encouraged to to become become involved involved in in the the planplan-- ning ning of of things things that that will will affect affect them.them. Being Being a a leader leader with with human human skills skills means means being being sensitive sensitive to to the the needs needs and and motivations motivations of of others others and and taking taking into into account account others’others’ needs needs in in one’one’s s decision decision making.making. In In shorshort,t, human human skills skills are are the the capacity capacity to to get get along along with with others others as as you you go go about about your your wwork.ork.

FFigure igure 3.1 3.1 shows shows that that human human skills skills are are important important in in all all three three levels levels of of management.management. Although Although managers managers at at lower lower levels levels mamay y communicate communicate with with a a far far greater greater number number of of employees,employees, human human skills skills are are equally equally imporimportant tant at at middmiddle le and and upper upper levels.levels.

Conceptual Conceptual SkillsSkills

Broadly Broadly speaking,speaking, conceptual conceptual skills skills are are the the ability ability to to work work with with ideas ideas and and concepts.concepts. Whereas Whereas technictechnical al skills skills deal deal withwith and and human human skills skills deal deal things things withwith ,, people people conceptual conceptual skills skills invinvolve olve the the abilitability y to to work work withwith ideas. ideas. A A leader leader with with conceptual conceptual skills skills is is comfortable comfortable talking talking about about the the ideas ideas that that shape shape an an organization organization and and the the intricacies intricacies involved.involved. He He or or she she is is good good at at putting putting the the companycompany’’s s goals goals into into words words and and can can understand understand and and express express the the economic economic

Figure Figure 3.13.1 Management Management Skills Skills NNecessary ecessary at at VVarious arious Levels Levels of of an an OrganizationOrganization

SOURCE:SOURCE: A A SS Effective Effective AAdapted dapted from from ““ kills kills of of an an dministratordministrator,” ,” by by . . L. L. Katz, Katz, 1955, 1955, RR Harvard Harvard

Business Business ReviewReview, , 3333(1), (1), pp. pp. 33–42.33–42.

TOPTOP ManagementManagement

SUPERVISORYSUPERVISORY ManagementManagement

MIDDLEMIDDLE ManagementManagement

SKILLS SKILLS NEEDEDNEEDED

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TECHNICALTECHNICAL

HUMANHUMAN

TECHNICALTECHNICAL HUMANHUMAN CONCEPTUALCONCEPTUAL

CONCEPTUALCONCEPTUAL

TECHNICALTECHNICAL HUMANHUMAN

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principles principles that that affect affect the the companycompany.. A A leader leader with with conceptual conceptual skills skills works works easily easily with with abstractions abstractions and and hypothetical hypothetical notions.notions.

Conceptual Conceptual skills skills are are central central to to creating creating a a vision vision and and strategic strategic plan plan for for an an organization.organization. F For or example,example, it it would would take take conceptual conceptual skills skills for for a a CEO CEO in in a a struggling struggling manufacturing manufacturing company company to to articulate articulate a a vision vision for for a a line line of of nenew w products products that that would would steer steer the the compancompany y into into profitabilityprofitability.. Similar Similarllyy,, it it would would take take conceptual conceptual skills skills for for the the director director of of a a nonprnonprofit ofit health health organization organization to to create create a a strategic strategic plan plan that that could could compete compete successfully successfully with with for-profit for-profit health health organizations organizations in in a a market market with with scarce scarce resources.resources. The The point point of of these these examples examples is is that that conceptual conceptual skills skills have have to to do do with with the the mental mental work work of of shaping shaping thethe meaning meaning of of organizational organizational or or policy policy issues—understanding issues—understanding what what a a company company stands stands for for and and where where it it is is or or should should be be going.going.

As As shown shown in in FFigure igure 3.1,3.1, conceptual conceptual skills skills are are most most important important at at the the top top management management levels.levels. In In fact,fact, when when upper-level upper-level managers managers do do not not have have strong strong conceptual conceptual skills,skills, they they can can jeopardizjeopardize e the the whole whole organization.organization. Conceptual Conceptual skills skills are are also also important important in in middmiddle le management;management; as as we we move move down down to to lower lower management management levels,levels, conceptual conceptual skills skills become become less less important.important.

Summary Summary of of the the Three-Skill Three-Skill ApprApproachoach

TTo o summarizsummarize,e, the the three-skill three-skill approach approach includes includes technictechnical,al, human, human, and and conceptual conceptual skills.skills. It It is is important important ffor or leaders leaders to to have have all all three three skills;skills; depend depend-- ing ing on on where where they they are are in in the the management management structurestructure,, however however,, some some skills skills are are more more important important than than others others are.are.

Katz’Katz’s s work work in in the the mid-1950s mid-1950s set set the the stage stage for for conceptualizing conceptualizing leadership leadership in in terms terms of of skills,skills, but but it it was was not not until until the the mid-1990s mid-1990s that that an an empirempiricallically y based based skills skills approach approach received received rrecognition ecognition in in leadership leadership research.research. In In the the next next secsec-- tion,tion, the the comprehensive comprehensive skill-based skill-based model model of of leadership leadership is is prpresented.esented.

Skills Skills ModelModel

Beginning Beginning in in the the earlearly y 1990s,1990s, a a group group of of researchers,researchers, with with funding funding ffrom rom the the UU.S.S.. Army Army and and Department Department of of Defense,Defense, set set out out to to test test and and dedevelop velop a a comprehensive comprehensive theortheory y of of leadership leadership based based on on problem-solving problem-solving skills skills in in organizationorganizations.s. TheThe studies studies were were conducted conducted over over a a number number of of years years using using a a sample sample of of more more than than 1,800 1,800 Army Army officers,officers, representing representing six six grade grade levels,levels, f from rom second second lieutenant lieutenant to to colonel.colonel. The The project project used used a a variety variety of of new new measures measures and and tools tools to to assess assess the the skillsskills of of these these officers,officers, their their experexperiences,iences, and and the the situations situations in in which which they they worked.worked.

The The researchers’researchers’ main main goal goal was was to to explain explain the the underunderlylying ing elements elements ofof effective effective performance.performance. They They addressed addressed questions questions such such as as these:these: W Whathat accounts accounts for for why why some some leaders leaders arare e good good problem problem solvers solvers and and others others areare

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not? not? What What specific specific skills skills do do high-perfhigh-performing orming leaders leaders exhibit? exhibit? How How dodo leaders’leaders’ individual individual characteristics,characteristics, c career areer experiences,experiences, and and environmentalenvironmental influences influences affect affect their their job job performance? performance? As As a a whole,whole, researchers researchers wanted wanted to to identify identify the the leadership leadership factors factors that that create create exemplary exemplary job job perfperformance ormance in in an an actual actual organization.organization.

Based Based on on the the extensive extensive findings findings ffrom rom the the project,project, Mumf Mumford ord and and colleagues colleagues formulated formulated a a skill-based skill-based model model of of leadershipleadership.. The The model model is is charactercharacterized ized as as a a capability capability model model because because it it examines examines the the relationship relationship between between a a leader’leader’s s knowledge knowledge and and skills skills (i.e.,(i.e., c capabilities) apabilities) and and the the leader’leader’s s performance performance (Mumford,(Mumford, Zaccaro, Zaccaro, Harding, Harding, etal., etal., 2000, 2000, p p.. 12). 12). L Leadership eadership capabilities capabilities ccan an be be developed developed over over time time through through education education and and experience.experience. Unlike Unlike the the ““great great manman”” approach approach (discussed (discussed in in Chapter Chapter 2 2 of of this this text),text), whic which h implies implies that that leadership leadership is is reserved reserved for for onlonly y the the gifted gifted ffewew,, the the skilskills ls approach approach suggests suggests that that many many people people have have the the potential potential for for leadershipleadership.. If If people people are are capable capable of of learning learning ffrom rom their their experiences,experiences, they they can can acquire acquire leadershipleadership.. The The skillsskills approach approach can can also also be be distinguished distinguished ffrom rom the the leadership leadership apprapproaches oaches we we will will discuss discuss in in subsequent subsequent chapters,chapters, which which focus focus on on behavioral behavioral patterpatterns ns of of leaders leaders (e.g.,(e.g., the the ststyle yle approach,approach, transformational transformational leadershipleadership,, or or leader–member leader–member

exchange exchange theortheory).y). Rather Rather than than emphasizing emphasizing the the skills skills what what leaders leaders dodo,, approach approach ffrrames ames leadership leadership asas the the capabilitiescapabilities knowledge knowledge and and skiskillslls that that make make ( ( )) effeffective ective leadership leadership possible possible (Mumford,(Mumford, Zacc Zaccaroaro,, Harding, Harding, etal., etal., 2000, 2000, p. p. 12). 12).

The The skill-based skill-based model model of of MumfordMumford’’s s group group has has five five components:components: competen competen-- cies,cies, individual individual attributes,attributes, leadership leadership outcomes,outcomes, career career experiences,experiences, and and envienvi-- ronmental ronmental influences.influences. A A porportion tion of of the the model,model, illustrating illustrating three three of of these these components,components, appears appears in in FigurFigure e 3.2.3.2. This This portion portion of of the the model model is is essential essential to to understanding understanding the the overall overall skill-based skill-based leadership leadership model.model.

INDIVIDUALINDIVIDUAL ATTRIBUTESATTRIBUTES

GeneralGeneral Cognitive Cognitive AbilityAbility

CrystallizedCrystallized Cognitive Cognitive AbilityAbility

MotivationMotivation

PersonalityPersonality

COMPETENCIESCOMPETENCIES

Problem-SolvingProblem-Solving SkillsSkills

Social Social JudgmentJudgment SkillsSkills

KnowledgeKnowledge

LEADERSHIPLEADERSHIP OUTCOMESOUTCOMES

EffectiveEffective Problem Problem SolvingSolving

PerformancePerformance

Figure Figure 3.23.2 Three Three CC SSomponents omponents of of the the kills kills ModelModel

SOURCE:SOURCE: A A SS CC SS CC dapted dapted from from “Leadership “Leadership kills kills for for a a hanging hanging World: World: olving olving omplex omplex

Social Social PP DD SSroblems,” roblems,” by by M. M. . . Mumford, Mumford, . . J. J. Zaccaro, Zaccaro, FF. . arding, arding, TT. . . . Jacobs, Jacobs, and and D. D. HH OO

E. E. AA , , CC ElsevierElsevier. . Adapted Adapted . . Fleishman, Fleishman, The The Leadership Leadership QuarterlyQuarterly 1111(1), (1), p. p. 23. 23. opyright opyright 2000 2000 by by

with with permission.permission.

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CompetenciesCompetencies

As As can can be be obserobserved ved in in the the middmiddle le box box of of FFigure igure 3.2,3.2, problem-solving problem-solving skilskills,ls, social social judgment judgment skills,skills, and and knowledge knowledge are are at at the the heart heart of of the the skills skills model.model. These These three three competencies competencies arare e the the key key factors factors that that account account for for effective effective performance performance (Mumford (Mumford etetal.,al., 2012). 2012).

Problem-Solving Problem-Solving Skills.Skills. W What hat are are problem-solving problem-solving skills? skills? According According to to Mumford,Mumford, Zaccaro, Zaccaro, Harding, Harding, et etal.al. (2000), (2000), problem-solving problem-solving skills skills are are a a leader’leader’ss creative creative ability ability to to solve solve new new and and unusual,unusual, il ill-defined l-defined organizational organizational problems.problems. The The skills skills include include being being able able to to define define significant significant problems,problems, gather gather problem problem information,information, formulate formulate new new understandings understandings about about the the problem,problem, and and generategenerate prototype prototype plans plans for for problem problem solutions.solutions. Mumford, Mumford, TTodd,odd, Higgs, Higgs, and and McIntoshMcIntosh (2017,(2017, p. p. 28) 28) identified identified nine nine key key problem-solving problem-solving skills skills leaders leaders employ employ to to address address problems:problems:

1.1. problem problem dedeffinitioninition,, the the abilitability y to to define define noteworthy noteworthy issues issues or or sigsig-- nificant nificant problems problems affecting affecting the the organization;organization;

2.2. cause/goal cause/goal analysisanalysis,, the the abilitability y to to analyanalyzze e the the ccauses auses and and goals goals relerele-- vant vant to to addressing addressing problems;problems;

3.3. constraint constraint analysisanalysis,, the the abilitability y to to identify identify the the constraints,constraints, or or limitinglimiting factors,factors, influencing influencing any any problem problem solution;solution;

4.4. planningplanning,, the the abilitability y to to formulate formulate plans,plans, mental mental simulations,simulations, and and actions actions arising arising ffrom rom cause/goal cause/goal and and constraint constraint analysis;analysis;

5.5. forecastingforecasting,, the the ability ability to to anticipate anticipate the the implications implications of of executing executing the the plans;plans;

6.6. creative creative thinkingthinking,, the the abilitability y to to develop develop alternative alternative approaches approaches and and newnew ideas ideas for for addressing addressing potential potential pitfalls pitfalls of of a a plan plan identified identified in in forforecasting;ecasting;

7.7. idea idea evaluationevaluation,, the the ability ability to to eevaluate valuate these these alternative alternative approaches’approaches’ viability viability in in executing executing the the plan;plan;

8.8. wisdomwisdom,, the the abilitability y to to evaluate evaluate the the appropriateness appropriateness of of these these alternativealternative approaches approaches within within the the context,context, or or setting,setting, in in which which the the leader leader acts; acts; andand

9.9. sensemaking/visioningsensemaking/visioning,, the the ability ability to to ararticulate ticulate a a vision vision that that will will helphelp followers followers understand,understand, make make sense sense of,of, and and act act on on the the problem.problem.

FFigure igure 3.3 3.3 shows shows the the rrelationship elationship between between these these different different skills skills as as a a develdevel-- oping oping process,process, where where employment employment of of one one skill skill can can lead lead to to the the next.next.

TTo o cclarify larify how how these these problem-solving problem-solving skills skills work work in in conjunction conjunction with with one one anotheranother,, consider consider the the folfollowing lowing hypothetical hypothetical situation.situation. Imagine Imagine that that you you are are the the director director of of human human resourresources ces for for a a medium-sizmedium-sized ed company company and and you you havehave been been informed informed by by the the president president that that you you havhave e to to develop develop a a plan plan to to reduce reduce

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the the companycompany’’s s health health ccare are costs.costs. In In deciding deciding what what you you will will dodo,, you you demondemon-- strate strate problem-solving problem-solving skills skills in in the the following following ways.ways. F First,irst, you you identify identify the the full full ramifications ramifications for for employees employees of of changing changing their their health health insurance insurance coverage coverage (problem (problem defdefinition;inition; forecasting). forecasting). W What hat is is the the impact impact going going to to be be (cause/(cause/ goal goal analysis)? analysis)? SSecond,econd, you you gather gather information information about about how how benefits benefits can can be be scaled scaled back back (constraint (constraint analanalysis).ysis). W What hat other other companies companies have have attempted attempted a a similar similar change,change, and and what what were were their their rresults esults (forecasting)? (forecasting)? Third,Third, you you find find a a way way to to teach teach and and inform inform the the employeesemployees about about the the needed needed change change (planning; (planning; creative creative thinking).thinking). How How can can you you fframe rame the the cchange hange in in such such a a waway y that that it it is is clearclearlly y understood understood (planning;(planning; creative creative thinking;thinking; wisdom)? wisdom)? FFourth,ourth, you you crecre-- ate ate possible possible scenarios scenarios for for how how the the changes changes will will be be instituted instituted (forecasting; (forecasting; idea idea evaluation).evaluation). How How will will the the plan plan be be described? described? Fifth,Fifth, you you look look closelclosely y at at the the solution solution itself itself (idea (idea evaluation).evaluation). How How will will implementing implementing this this change change affect affect the the companycompany’’s s mission mission and and yyour our own own career career (sensemaking; (sensemaking; visiovision)? n)? Last,Last, are are there there issues issues in in the the organization organization (e.g.,(e.g., union union rrules) ules) that that may may affect affect the the implementation implementation of of these these changes changes (constraint (constraint analysis; analysis; forecasting)?forecasting)?

Sensemaking/visionsSensemaking/visions

Problem Problem denitiondenition

Cause/goal Cause/goal analysisanalysis Constraint Constraint analysisanalysis

PlanningPlanning

FForecastingorecasting

Creative Creative thinkingthinking

Idea Idea evaluationevaluation WisdomWisdom

Figure Figure 3.33.3 Hypothetical Hypothetical RelationshipsRelationships

SOURCE:SOURCE: R R Cognitive Cognitive SS PP Nine Nine Critical Critical eprinted eprinted from from ““ kills kills and and Leadership Leadership erformance: erformance: The The

SS DD EEkills,” kills,” by by M. M. . . Mumford, Mumford, . . M. M. TTodd, odd, iggs, iggs, and and TT. . McMcC. C. HH Intosh, Intosh, The The Leadership Leadership QuarterlyQuarterly, ,

2828(1), (1), p. p. 28. 28. opyright opyright 2017 2017 by by CC ElsevierElsevier. . RReprinted eprinted with with permission.permission.