leadership

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TTrait rait ApprApproachoach

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Of Of interest interest to to scholars scholars throughout throughout the the 20th 20th centurycentury,, the the trait trait approach approach was was one one of of the the first first systematic systematic attempts attempts to to study study leadershipleadership.. In In the the earearly ly 20th 20th centurcenturyy,, leadership leadership traits traits were were studied studied to to determine determine what what made made certain certain people people great great leaders.leaders. The The theories theories that that were were developed developed were were called called ““great great manman”” theor theories ies because because they they ffocused ocused on on identifying identifying the the innate innate qualities qualities and and characteristics characteristics possessed possessed by by great great social,social, political, political, and and militarmilitary y leaders leaders (e.g(e.g.,., Catherine Catherine the the Great,Great, Mohandas Mohandas Gandhi,Gandhi, Indira Indira Gandhi,Gandhi, Abr Abraham aham Lincoln,Lincoln, Joan Joan of of Arc,Arc, and and Napoleon Napoleon Bonaparte).Bonaparte). It It was was beliebelieved ved that that people people were were born born with with these these traits,traits, and and that that only only the the ““greatgreat”” people people possessed possessed them.them. DDuring uring this this time,time, research research concentrated concentrated on on determining determining the the specific specific traits traits that that clearclearlly y differentiated differentiated leaders leaders ffrom rom followers followers (Bass,(Bass, 2008; 2008; JagoJago,, 1982). 1982).

In In the the mid-20th mid-20th centurcenturyy,, the the trait trait approach approach was was challenged challenged by by researresearch ch thatthat questioned questioned the the universality universality of of leadership leadership traits.traits. In In a a major major reviewreview,, Stogdill Stogdill (1948)(1948) suggested suggested that that no no consistent consistent set set of of traits traits differentiated differentiated leaders leaders ffrom rom nonleaders nonleaders across across a a variety variety of of situations.situations. An An individual individual with with leadership leadership traits traits who who was was a a leader leader in in one one situation situation might might not not be be a a leader leader in in another another situation.situation. Rather Rather thanthan being being a a quality quality that that individuals individuals possess,possess, leadership leadership was was reconceptualized reconceptualized as as aa relationship relationship between between people people in in a a social social situation.situation. P Personal ersonal factors factors related related to to leadlead-- ership ership continued continued to to be be important,important, but but researchers researchers contended contended thathat t these these factors factors were were to to be be considerconsidered ed as as relative relative to to the the requirrequirements ements of of the the situation.situation.

The The trait trait approach approach has has generated generated much much interest interest among among rresearchers esearchers for for its its explanation explanation of of how how traits traits influence influence leadership leadership (Bry(Bryman,man, 1992). 1992). For For example,example, Kirkpatrick Kirkpatrick and and LLocke ocke (1991) (1991) went went so so far far as as to to cclaim laim that that effective effective leaders leaders are are actually actually distindistinct ct types types of of people.people. L Lord,ord, DeV DeVaderader,, and and Alliger Alliger (1986) (1986) found found that that traits traits were were strongly strongly associated associated with with individuals’individuals’ perceptions perceptions of of leadershipleadership.. More More recentrecentlyly,, Dinh Dinh and and Lord Lord (2012) (2012) examined examined the the rrelationship elationship between between leadership leadership effectiveness effectiveness and and followers’followers’ perception perception of of leadership leadership traits.traits.

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2020 LeadershipLeadership TheorTheory y and and ppracracTTiceice

The The trait trait approach approach has has earned earned new new interest interest through through the the current current emphasisemphasis given given by by manmany y researchers researchers to to visionary visionary and and charismatic charismatic leadership leadership (see (see Bass,Bass, 2008;2008; Bennis Bennis & & Nanus,Nanus, 2007; 2007; JaJacquarcquart t & & Antonakis,Antonakis, 2015; 2015; Nadler Nadler & & TTushman,ushman, 2012; 2012; ZaccaroZaccaro,, 2007; 2007; Zaleznik,Zaleznik, 1977). 1977). Charismatic Charismatic leadership leadership catacata-- pulted pulted to to the the forefforefront ront of of public public attention attention with with the the 2008 2008 electioelection n of of the the UnitedUnited States’States’ first first AfAfricrican an American American president,president, Barac Barack k OObama,bama, who who is is perceived perceived by by many many to to be be charismatic,charismatic, among among many many other other attributes.attributes. In In a a study study to to determine determine what what distinguishes distinguishes charismatic charismatic leaders leaders ffrom rom others,others, Jung Jung and and Sosik Sosik (2006) (2006) found found that that charismatic charismatic leaders leaders consistently consistently possess possess trtraits aits of of self-monitoring,self-monitoring, engagement engagement in in impression impression managmanagement,ement, motivation motivation to to attain attain social social powerpower,, and and motivation motivation to to attain attain self-actualization.self-actualization. In In short,short, the the trtrait ait approach approach is is alive alive and and well.well. It It began began with with an an emphasis emphasis on on identifying identifying the the qualities qualities of of great great persons,persons, shifted shifted to to incinclude lude the the impact impact of of situations situations on on leadershipleadership,, and, and, currently currently,, has has shifted shifted back back to to reemphasize reemphasize the the crcritical itical role role of of traits traits in in effective effective leadership.leadership.

Although Although the the research research on on traits traits spanned spanned the the entirentire e 20th 20th centurcenturyy,, a a good good overoverview view of of this this approach approach is is found found in in two two sursurveyveys s completed completed by by Stogdill Stogdill (1948,(1948, 1974). 1974). In In his his first first sursurveyvey,, Stogdill Stogdill analanalyzyzed ed and and synthesizsynthesized ed more more than than 124 124 trait trait studies studies conducted conducted between between 1904 1904 and and 1947.1947. In In his his second second studystudy,, he he analyzanalyzed ed another another 163 163 studies studies completed completed between between 1948 1948 and and 1970.1970. By By taking taking a a closer closer look look at at each each of of these these reviereviews,ws, we we can can obtain obtain a a cclearer learer picture picture of of how how individuals’individuals’ traits traits contribute contribute to to the the leadership leadership process.process.

Stogdill’Stogdill’s s first first sursurvey vey identified identified a a group group of of important important leadership leadership traits traits that that werweree related related to to how how individuals individuals in in variouvarious s groups groups became became leaders.leaders. His His results results showed showed that that an an average average individual individual in in a a leadership leadership role role is is differdifferent ent ffrom rom an an average average group group member member with with regard regard to to the the following following eight eight traits:traits: intelligence, intelligence, aler alertness,tness, insight, insight, responsibilityresponsibility,, initiative initiative,, persistence, persistence, self-confidence, self-confidence, and and sociabilitysociability..

The The findings findings of of Stogdill’Stogdill’s s first first survey survey also also indicated indicated that that an an individual individual does does notnot become become a a leader leader solely solely because because that that individual individual possesses possesses cercertain tain traits.traits. Rather Rather,, the the traits traits that that leaders leaders possess possess must must be be relevant relevant to to situations situations in in which which the the leader leader is is functioning.functioning. As As stated stated earearlierlier,, leaders leaders in in one one situation situation may may not not necessarilnecessarily y be be leaders leaders in in another another situation.situation. Findings Findings showshowed ed that that leadership leadership was was not not a a paspas-- sive sive state state but but resulted resulted ffrom rom a a working working relatiorelationship nship between between the the leader leader and and otothheerr group group members.members. This This research research marked marked the the beginning beginning of of a a new new approach approach to to leadership leadership research research that that focused focused on on leadership leadership behaviors behaviors and and lealeadership dership situations.situations.

Stogdill’Stogdill’s s second second sursurveyvey,, published published in in 1974,1974, analyzed analyzed 163 163 nenew w studies studies and and compared compared the the findings findings of of these these studies studies to to the the ffindings indings he he had had reported reported in in his his first first sursurveyvey.. The The second second sursurvey vey was was more more balanced balanced in in its its description description of of the the role role of of traits traits and and leadershipleadership.. W Whereas hereas the the first first survey survey implied implied that that leadership leadership is is determined determined principally principally by by situational situational factors factors and and not not traits,traits, the the second second sursurvey vey argued argued more more moderately moderately that that both both traits traits and and situational situational factors factors were were determinants determinants of of leadershipleadership.. In In essence,essence, the the second second sursurvey vey validated validated the the ororigig-- inal inal trait trait idea idea that that a a leader’leader’s s characteristics characteristics are are indeed indeed a a part part of of leadership.leadership.

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Similar Similar to to the the first first sursurveyvey,, S Stogdill’togdill’s s second second survey survey identified identified traits traits that that were were positively positively associated associated with with leadershipleadership.. The The list list incincluded luded the the following following 10 10 characteristics:characteristics:

1.1. drive drive for for responsibility responsibility and and task task completion;completion;

2.2. vigor vigor and and persistence persistence in in pursuit pursuit of of goals;goals;

3.3. risk risk taking taking and and ororiginality iginality in in problem problem solving;solving;

4.4. drive drive to to exercise exercise initiative initiative in in social social situations;situations;

5.5. self-confidence self-confidence and and sense sense of of personal personal identityidentity;;

6.6. willingness willingness to to accept accept conseconsequences quences of of decision decision and and action;action;

7.7. readiness readiness to to absorb absorb interpersonal interpersonal stress;stress;

8.8. willingness willingness to to tolerate tolerate ffrrustration ustration and and delaydelay;;

9.9. ability ability to to influence influence other other peoplepeople’’s s behaviorbehavior; ; andand

10.10. capacity capacity to to structure structure social social interaction interaction systems systems to to the the purpose purpose at at hand.hand.

Mann Mann (1959) (1959) conducted conducted a a similar similar study study that that examined examined more more than than 1,400 1,400 findings findings regarregarding ding traits traits and and leadership leadership in in small small groups,groups, but but he he placed placed less less emphasis emphasis on on how how situational situational fafactors ctors influenced influenced leadership.leadership. Although Although tentatenta-- tive tive in in his his conclusions,conclusions, Mann Mann suggested suggested that that certain certain trtraits aits could could be be used used to to distinguish distinguish leaders leaders ffrom rom nonleanonleaders.ders. His His results results identified identified leaders leaders as as strong strong in in the the following following six six traits: traits: intelligenceintelligence,, masculinit masculinityy,, adjustment, adjustment, dominance, dominance, extraversion,extraversion, and and conserconservatism.vatism.

Lord Lord etetal.al. (1986) (1986) reassessed reassessed MannMann’’s s (1959) (1959) findings findings using using a a more more sophisticated sophisticated procedure procedure called called meta-analysis.meta-analysis. L Lord ord etetal.al. found found that that intelligence,intelligence, masculinity masculinity,, and and dominance dominance were were signifsignificantlicantly y related related to to how how individuals individuals perceivperceived ed leaders.leaders. FFrom rom their their findings,findings, the the authors authors argued argued strongly strongly that that traits traits could could be be used used to to makemake discriminations discriminations consistently consistently across across situations situations between between leaders leaders and and nonleaders.nonleaders.

Both Both of of these these studies studies were were cconducted onducted during during periods periods in in AmericAmerican an historhistory y where where male male leadership leadership was was prprevalent evalent in in most most aspects aspects of of business business and and societsocietyy.. In In Chapter Chapter 15,15, we we explore explore more more contemporary contemporary research research regarding regarding the the rrole ole of of gender gender in in leadershipleadership,, and and we we look look at at whether whether traits traits such such as as masculinity masculinity and and dominance dominance still still bear bear out out as as important important factors factors in in distinguishing distinguishing between between leaders leaders and and nonleaders.nonleaders.

YYet et another another review review argues argues ffor or the the importance importance of of leadership leadership traits: traits: Kirkpatrick Kirkpatrick and and LocLocke ke (1991,(1991, p. p. 59) 59) contended contended that that “it “it is is unequivocally unequivocally cclear lear that that leaders leaders are are not not like like other other people.”people.” Fro From m a a qualitative qualitative synthesis synthesis of of earearlier lier research,research, Kirkpatrick Kirkpatrick and and LLocke ocke postulated postulated that that leaders leaders differ differ ffrom rom nonleaders nonleaders on on six six traits:traits: drive, drive, motivation, motivation, integrit integrityy,, confidence, confidence, cognitive cognitive abilityability,, and and task task

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knowledge.knowledge. According According to to these these writers,writers, individuals individuals ccan an be be born born with with these these traits,traits, they they ccan an learn learn them,them, or or both.both. It It is is these these six six trtraits aits that that make make up up the the

““right right stuffstuff ”” for for leaders.leaders. Kirkpatrick Kirkpatrick and and LLococke ke asserted asserted that that leadership leadership traits traits make make some some people people different different ffrom rom others,others, and and this this difference difference should should be be recrec-- ognized ognized as as an an imporimportant tant part part of of the the leadership leadership process.process.

In In the the 1990s,1990s, researchers researchers began began to to investigate investigate the the leadership leadership traits traits associated associated with with “social “social intelligenceintelligence,”,” whic which h is is characterizcharacterized ed as as the the ability ability to to understand understand one’one’s s own own and and others’others’ f feelings,eelings, behaviors, behaviors, and and thoughts thoughts and and act act appropriatelappropriately y (Marlowe,(Marlowe, 1986). 1986). Z Zaccaro accaro (2002) (2002) defined defined social social intelligence intelligence as as having having such such capacities capacities as as social social awareness,awareness, social social acumen,acumen, self-monitoring, self-monitoring, and and the the abilityability to to select select and and enact enact the the best best response response givgiven en the the contingencies contingencies of of the the situation situation and and social social environment.environment. A A number number of of empiricempirical al studies studies showed showed these these capaccapac-- ities ities to to be be a a key key trait trait for for effective effective leaders.leaders. Z Zaccaroaccaro,, Kemp, Kemp, and and Bader Bader (2017) (2017) included included sucsuch h social social abilities abilities in in the the categories categories of of leadership leadership traits traits they they outout-- lined lined as as important important leadership leadership attributes attributes ((TTable able 2.1).2.1).

TTable able 2.1 2.1 provides provides a a summarsummary y of of the the trtraits aits and and characteristics characteristics that that were were ideniden-- tified tified bby y researchers researchers ffrom rom the the trait trait approach.approach. It It illustrates illustrates clearclearlly y the the breadth breadth of of traits traits related related to to leadershipleadership.. TTable able 2.1 2.1 also also shows shows how how difficult difficult it it is is to to select select

Stogdill Stogdill (1948) (1948)

Mann Mann (1959) (1959)

Stogdill Stogdill (1974) (1974)

Lord,Lord, DeVDeVaderader,,

and and Alliger Alliger (1986) (1986)

Kirkpatrick Kirkpatrick and and Locke Locke

(1991) (1991)

ZaccaroZaccaro,, K Kempemp, , and and Bader Bader

(2017) (2017)

intelligenceintelligence alertnessalertness insightinsight

responsibilityresponsibility initiativeinitiative

persistencepersistence self-confidenceself-confidence

sociability sociability

intelligenceintelligence masculinitymasculinity adjustmentadjustment dominancedominance extraversionextraversion conservatism conservatism

achievementachievement persistencepersistence

insightinsight initiativeinitiative

self-confidenceself-confidence responsibilityresponsibility

cooperativenesscooperativeness tolerancetolerance influenceinfluence sociability sociability

intelligenceintelligence masculinitymasculinity dominance dominance

drivedrive motivationmotivation

integrityintegrity confidenceconfidence cognitive cognitive

abilityability task task

knowledge knowledge

cognitive cognitive abilityability extraversionextraversion

conscientiousnessconscientiousness emotional emotional stabilitystability

opennessopenness agreeablenessagreeableness

motivationmotivation social social intelligenceintelligence self-monitoringself-monitoring

emotional emotional intelligenceintelligence

problem problem solving solving

TTable able 2.12.1 SStudies tudies of of Leadership Leadership TTraits raits and and CharacteristicsCharacteristics

SOURCES:SOURCES: A A SociaSocial l PPdapted dapted from from “The “The Bases Bases of of owerower,” ,” by by J. J. R. R. PP. . French French JrJr. . and and B. B. aven, aven, 1962, 1962, in in RR

D.D. CC Ed.), Ed.), New New YYork, ork, NYNY: : HH Row;Row;artwright artwright (( Group Group Dynamics: Dynamics: Research Research and and Theory Theory (pp. (pp. 259–269), 259–269), arper arper and and

Zaccaro, Zaccaro, Kemp, Kemp, & & Bader Bader (2004).(2004).

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certain certain traits traits as as definitive definitive leadership leadership traits;traits; some some of of the the traits traits appear appear in in severalseveral of of the the sursurvey vey studies,studies, whereas whereas others others appear appear in in only only one one or or two two studies.studies. Regardless Regardless of of the the lack lack of of precision precision in in TTable able 2.1,2.1, however however,, it it reprrepresents esents a a general general convergence convergence of of rresearch esearch regarding regarding which which traits traits are are leadership leadership traits.traits.

WWhat,hat, then, then, c can an be be said said about about trait trait research? research? What What has has a a centurcentury y of of research research on on the the trait trait approach approach given given us us that that is is useful? useful? The The answer answer is is an an extended extended list list of of traits traits that that individuals individuals might might hope hope to to possess possess or or wish wish to to cultivate cultivate if if they they want want to to be be perceived perceived bby y others others as as leaders.leaders. S Some ome of of the the traits traits that that are are central central to to this this list list include include intelintelligence,ligence, self-confidence, self-confidence, determination, determination, integr integrityity,, and and sociability sociability ((TTable able 2.2).2.2).

IntelligenceIntelligence

Intelligence Intelligence or or intellectual intellectual ability ability is is positivelpositively y related related to to leadership leadership (Sternberg,(Sternberg, 2004).2004). Based Based on on their their analysis analysis of of a a serseries ies of of recent recent studies studies on on intelligence intelligence and and various various indices indices of of leadershipleadership,, Z Zaccaro accaro etetal.al. (2017) (2017) found found supporsupport t for for the the findfind-- ing ing that that leaders leaders tend tend to to have have higher higher intelligence intelligence than than nonleaders.nonleaders. Having Having strong strong verbal verbal abilityability,, perceptual perceptual abilityability,, and and reasoning reasoning appears appears to to make make one one a a better better leader leader (( Jacquart Jacquart & & Antonakis,Antonakis, 2015). 2015). Although Although it it is is good good to to be be brbright,ight, if if the the leader’leader’s s IQ IQ is is very very diffdifferent erent ffrom rom that that of of the the followers,followers, it it ccan an have have a a counterproductive counterproductive impact impact on on leadershipleadership.. L Leaders eaders with with higher higher abilities abilities may may have have difficulty difficulty communicating communicating with with followers followers because because they they are are preoccupied preoccupied or or because because their their ideas ideas are are too too advanced advanced for for their their followers followers to to accept.accept.

In In a a study study of of the the relationship relationship between between intelligence intelligence and and perperceived ceived leadership leadership in in midlemidlevel vel leaders leaders ffrom rom mmultinational ultinational companies,companies, Antonakis, Antonakis, House, House, and and Simonton Simonton (2017) (2017) found found that that the the optimal optimal IQ IQ for for perceived perceived leadership leadership appeared appeared to to be be just just above above one one standard standard deviation deviation above above the the mean mean IQ IQ of of the the groupgroup memembershipmbership.. Their Their study study found found a a curcurvilinear vilinear relationship relationship between between IQ IQ and and perceived perceived leadership—that leadership—that is,is, as as IQ IQ increased,increased, so so did did perceived perceived leadership leadership to to a a point,point, and and then then the the IQ IQ had had a a negative negative impact impact on on leadershipleadership.. S Stated tated another another wayway,, it it is is good good for for leaders leaders to to be be intelligent,intelligent, but but if if their their intelintelligence ligence scores scores become become too too high,high, the the benefits benefits appear appear to to taper taper off off and and can can become become negative.negative.

An An example example of of a a leader leader for for whom whom intelligence intelligence was was a a key key trait trait was was Steve Steve Jobs,Jobs, founder founder and and CEO CEO of of Apple Apple who who died died in in 2011.2011. Jobs Jobs once once said,said, “I “I have have this this

 IntelligenceIntelligence  Self-confidenceSelf-confidence  DeterminationDetermination

 IntegrityIntegrity  SociabilitySociability

TTable able 2.22.2 Major Major Leadership Leadership TTraitsraits

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2424 LeadershipLeadership TheorTheory y and and ppracracTTiceice

really really incredible incredible product product inside inside me me and and I I have have to to get get it it outout”” (Scul (Sculleyley,, 2011, 2011, pp.. 27). 27). Those Those visionarvisionary y products,products, first first the the Apple Apple II II and and Macintosh Macintosh computerscomputers and and then then the the iMac,iMac, iP iPod,od, iPhone, iPhone, and and iPad,iPad, revolutionized revolutionized the the personal personal comcom-- puter puter and and electronic electronic device device industrindustryy,, changing changing the the way way people people play play and and worwork.k.

In In the the next next chapter chapter of of this this text,text, which which addresses addresses leadership leadership ffrom rom a a skills skills perspective,perspective, intelligence intelligence is is identified identified as as a a trait trait that that significantlsignificantly y contributes contributes to to a a leader’leader’s s acquisition acquisition of of complex complex prproblem-solving oblem-solving skills skills and and social social judgjudg-- ment ment skills.skills. Intelligence Intelligence is is described described as as having having a a positive positive impact impact on on an an indiindi-- vidual’vidual’s s capacity capacity for for effective effective leadership.leadership.

Self-ConfidenceSelf-Confidence

Self-confidence Self-confidence is is another another trait trait that that helps helps one one to to be be a a leaderleader.. S Self-confidence elf-confidence is is the the ability ability to to be be cercertain tain about about one’one’s s competencies competencies and and skills.skills. It It includes includes a a sense sense of of self-esteem self-esteem and and self-assurance self-assurance and and the the belief belief that that one one can can make make a a difference.difference. L Leadership eadership involves involves influencing influencing others,others, and and self-confidence self-confidence allows allows the the leader leader to to feel feel assured assured that that his his or or her her attempts attempts to to influence influence others others are are appropriate appropriate and and right.right.

Again,Again, Ste Steve ve Jobs Jobs is is a a good good example example of of a a self-coself-confident nfident leaderleader.. W When hen Jobs Jobs described described the the devices devices he he wanted wanted to to create,create, many many people people said said they they werenweren’’t t possible.possible. But But Jobs Jobs never never doubted doubted his his products products would would change change the the world,world, and and despite despite resistance,resistance, he he did did things things the the way way hehe thought thought best.best. “Jobs “Jobs was was one one of of those those CEOs CEOs who who ran ran the the company company like like he he wanted wanted toto.. He He believed believed he he knew knew more more about about it it than than anyanyone one else,else, and and he he probably probably did,”did,” said said a a colleague colleague (Stone,(Stone, 2011, 2011, p. p. 40). 40).

DeterminationDetermination

Many Many leaders leaders also also exhibit exhibit determination.determination. Deter Determination mination is is the the desire desire to to get get the the job job done done and and includes includes charactercharacteristics istics such such as as initiative,initiative, persistence, persistence, dominance,dominance, and and drdrive.ive. People People with with determination determination arare e willing willing to to assert assert themselves,themselves, are are proactive,proactive, and and have have the the capacity capacity to to persepersevere vere in in the the face face of of obstacles.obstacles. Being Being deterdetermined mined includes includes showing showing dominance dominance at at times times and and in in situations situations where where followers followers need need to to be be dirdirected.ected.

DrDr.. Paul Paul FFarmer armer has has shown shown determination determination in in his his efforts efforts to to secure secure health health care care and and eradicate eradicate tuberculosis tuberculosis for for the the ververy y poor poor of of Haiti Haiti and and other other third third world world countries.countries. He He began began his his efforefforts ts as as a a recent recent college college graduate,graduate, traveling traveling and and working working in in Cange,Cange, Haiti. Haiti. W While hile there,there, he he was was accepted accepted to to HarHarvard vard Medical Medical School.School. Knowing Knowing that that his his worwork k in in Haiti Haiti was was invaluable invaluable to to his his training,training, he he managed managed to to do do both:both: spending spending months months traveling traveling back back and and forth forth betbetween ween Haiti Haiti and and Cambridge,Cambridge, Massachusetts, Massachusetts, for for school.school. His His first first effort effort in in Cange Cange

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was was to to establish establish a a one-room one-room clinic clinic where where he he treated treated ““all all comers”comers” and and trained trained local local health health care care workers.workers. Farmer Farmer found found that that there there was was mormore e to to providing providing health health care care than than just just dispensing dispensing medicine:medicine: He He securesecured d donations donations to to build build schools,schools, houses, houses, and and communal communal sanitation sanitation and and water water facilities facilities in in the the region.region. He He spearheaded spearheaded vaccinations vaccinations of of all all the the children children in in the the area,area, dramatic dramatically ally reducing reducing malnutrition malnutrition and and infant infant mortalitymortality.. In In order order to to keep keep wworking orking in in Haiti,Haiti, he he returned returned to to America America and and founded founded Partners Partners In In Health,Health, a a charcharitable itable foundation foundation that that raises raises money money to to fund fund these these efforts.efforts. Since Since its its founding,founding, PI PIH H not not only only has has succeeded succeeded in in improving improving the the health health of of many many communities communities inin Haiti Haiti but but now now has has projects projects in in Haiti,Haiti, L Lesotho,esotho, Malawi, Malawi, Peru, Peru, R Russia,ussia, Rwanda, Rwanda, and and the the United United States,States, and and supporsupports ts other other projects projects in in Mexico Mexico and and Guatemala Guatemala (Kidder(Kidder,, 2004; 2004; P Partners artners In In Health,Health, 2017 2017).).

IntegrityIntegrity

IntegrityIntegrity,, another another of of the the important important leadership leadership traits,traits, is is the the quality quality of of honesthonesty y and and trustworthiness.trustworthiness. P People eople who who adheradhere e to to a a strong strong set set of of principles principles and and take take responsibility responsibility for for their their actions actions are are exhibiting exhibiting integrityintegrity.. L Leaders eaders with with integritintegrity y inspire inspire confidence confidence in in others others because because they they can can be be trusted trusted to to do do what what they they say say they they are are going going to to dodo.. They They are are loyal,loyal, dependable, dependable, and and not not deceptive.deceptive. Basical Basicallyly,, integrity integrity makes makes a a leader leader beliebelievable vable and and worthy worthy of of our our trust.trust.

In In our our societysociety,, integr integrity ity has has received received a a great great deal deal of of attention attention in in rrecent ecent years.years. FFor or example,example, as as a a result result of of two two situations—the situations—the position position taken taken bby y President President George George WW.. Bush Bush regarregarding ding Iraq’Iraq’s s alleged alleged weapons weapons of of mass mass destruction destruction and and the the impeachment impeachment proceedings proceedings during during the the Bill Bill Clinton Clinton presidency—people presidency—people are are demanding demanding more more honesty honesty of of their their public public officials.officials. S Similarimilarlyly,, scandals scandals in in thethe corporate corporate worworld ld (e.g.,(e.g., Enron Enron and and WWororldCom) ldCom) have have led led people people to to become become skeptical skeptical of of leaders leaders who who are are not not highly highly ethical.ethical. In In the the educational educational arena,arena, new new K–12 K–12 curricula curricula are are being being developed developed to to teach teach charactercharacter,, values, values, and and ethical ethical leadlead-- ershipership.. (For (For instanceinstance,, see see the the Character Character Counts! Counts! program program developed developed by by the the Josephson Josephson Institute Institute of of Ethics Ethics in in California California at at wwwwww.charactercounts.org.charactercounts.org,, and and the the Pillars Pillars of of LLeadership eadership program program taught taught at at the the JJ.. W W.. Fanning Fanning Institute Institute for for LLeadership eadership Development Development in in Georgia Georgia at at wwwwww.fanning.uga.edu.fanning.uga.edu.) .) In In short,short, soci soci-- ety ety is is demanding demanding greater greater integritintegrity y of of character character in in its its leaders.leaders.

SociabilitySociability

A A final final trait trait that that is is important important for for leaders leaders is is sociabilitysociability.. S Sociabilitociability y is is a a leader’leader’s s inclination inclination to to seek seek out out pleasant pleasant social social relationships.relationships. L Leaders eaders who who show show sociability sociability are are ffriendriendlyly,, outgoing, outgoing, courteous, courteous, tactful, tactful, and and diplomatic.diplomatic. They They are are sensitive sensitive to to others’others’ needs needs and and show show concern concern for for their their well-being.well-being. Social Social leaders leaders have have good good interpersonal interpersonal skills skills and and create create cooperative cooperative relationrelation-- ships ships with with their their followers.followers.

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An An example example of of a a leader leader with with great great sociability sociability skills skills is is Michael Michael Hughes,Hughes, a a university university president.president. Hughes Hughes prefers prefers to to walk walk to to all all his his meetings meetings becbecause ause it it gets gets him him out out on on campus campus where where he he greets greets students,students, staff, staff, and and facultyfaculty.. He He has has lunclunch h in in the the dorm dorm cafetercafeterias ias or or student student union union and and will will often often ask ask a a table table of of strstrangers angers if if he he can can sit sit with with them.them. S Students tudents rate rate him him as as ververy y approachable,approachable, while while faculty faculty say say he he has has an an open-door open-door policypolicy.. In In addition,addition, he he takes takes time time to to wrwrite ite personal personal notes notes to to facultyfaculty,, staff, staff, and and students students to to congratulate congratulate them them on on their their successes.successes.

Although Although our our discussion discussion of of leadership leadership traits traits has has focused focused on on five five major major traits traits (i.e.,(i.e., intelligence, intelligence, self-confidence, self-confidence, determination, determination, integr integrityity,, and and sociability),sociability), this this list list is is not not all-inclusive.all-inclusive. W While hile other other traits traits indicindicated ated in in TTable able 2.1 2.1 are are associated associated with with effective effective leadershipleadership,, the the five five traits traits we we have have identified identified cocontribntrib-- ute ute substantially substantially to to one’one’s s capacity capacity to to be be a a leaderleader..

Until Until recentlyrecently,, most most reviews reviews of of leadership leadership traits traits have have been been qualitative.qualitative. In In addiaddi-- tion,tion, they they have have lacked lacked a a common common organizing organizing fframeramework.work. However However,, the the research research described described in in the the following following section section provides provides a a quantitative quantitative assessment assessment of of leaderleader-- ship ship traits traits that that is is conceptually conceptually fframed ramed around around the the five-fafive-factor ctor model model of of personperson-- alityality.. It It descrdescribes ibes how how five five major major persopersonalitnality y traits traits are are related related to to leadershipleadership..

Five-Factor Five-Factor Personality Personality Model Model and and LeadershipLeadership

OOver ver the the past past 25 25 years,years, a a consensus consensus has has emerged emerged among among researchers researchers regarregardd-- ing ing the the basic basic factors factors that that make make up up what what we we call call personality personality (Goldberg,(Goldberg, 1990; 1990; McCrae McCrae & & Costa,Costa, 1987). 1987). These These factors,factors, commonly commonly ccalled alled the the ,, are are Big Big FiveFive neuroticism,neuroticism, extr extraversion aversion (surgency),(surgency), openness openness (intellect),(intellect), agreeableness, agreeableness, and and conscientiousness conscientiousness (dependability) (dependability) ((TTable able 2.3).2.3).

TTo o assess assess the the links links between between the the Big Big FFive ive and and leadershipleadership,, Judge, Judge, Bono, Bono, I Ilies,lies, and and Gerhardt Gerhardt (2002) (2002) conducted conducted a a major major meta-analysis meta-analysis of of 78 78 leadership leadership and and personality personality studies studies published published between between 1967 1967 and and 1998.1998. In In general,general, Judge Judge etal.etal. found found a a strong strong relationship relationship between between the the Big Big FFive ive traits traits and and leadership.leadership. It It appears appears that that having having certain certain personality personality trtraits aits is is associated associated with with being being an an effective effective leaderleader..

SpecificallSpecificallyy,, in in their their studystudy,, was was the the factor factor most most strostrongly ngly assoassoextextraversionraversion -- ciated ciated with with leadershipleadership.. It It is is the the most most important important trait trait of of effective effective leaders.leaders. Extraversion Extraversion was was followed,followed, in in orderorder,, by by ,, and and conscientiousnessconscientiousness, , opennessopenness loloww neuroticismneuroticism.. The The last last factorfactor,, ,, was was ffound ound to to be be only only weakly weakly agreeablenessagreeableness associated associated with with leadershipleadership.. In In a a more more recent recent studystudy,, S Sacket acket and and WWalmsley almsley (2014) (2014) found found that that had had the the highest highest correlation correlation with with overoverconscientiousnessconscientiousness -- all all job job performance,performance, task task performance,performance, organizational organizational citizcitizenship enship behavbehav-- iorior,, and and counterproductive counterproductive worwork k behavior behavior (negative (negative correlation).correlation). It It was was found found to to be be the the most most ffrequently requently assessed assessed trait trait in in job job interintervieviews ws for for a a variety variety of of occupations.occupations.

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Strengths Strengths and and LeadershipLeadership

VVerery y closelclosely y related related to to the the traits traits approach approach is is the the more more contemporary contemporary emempphahassiis s on on strengths strengths and and leadershipleadership.. The The idea idea behind behind strengths strengths leadership leadership is is that that evereveryone yone has has talents talents in in which which they they excel excel or or thrive thrive and and leaders leaders are are able able to to recognize recognize and and capitalizcapitalize e on on not not only only their their own own strengths strengths but but those those of of their their followers followers as as well.well. A A strength strength is is defined defined as as an an attribute attribute or or quality quality of of an an individual individual that that accounts accounts for for successful successful performance.performance. S Strength trength researchers researchers (Buckingham (Buckingham & & ClifClifton,ton, 2001; 2001; Rath,Rath, 2007) 2007) suggest suggest that that strengths strengths are are the the ability ability to to consistently consistently demonstrate demonstrate exceptional exceptional work.work.

The The seminal seminal research research in in this this ararea ea has has been been underundertaken taken by by the the Gallup Gallup orgaorga-- nization,nization, which which has has spent spent more more than than 40 40 years years identifying identifying and and assessing assessing individual individual strengths strengths or or “themes “themes of of human human talenttalent”” and and designing designing and and pubpub-- lishing lishing the the StrengthsFStrengthsFinder inder profileprofile,, now now ccalled alled CliftonSCliftonStrengths trengths assessassess-- ment,ment, an an online online assessment assessment of of people’people’s s talents talents and and potential potential strengths.strengths. TTalents alents are are similar similar to to personality personality traits—thetraits—they y are are relatively relatively stable,stable, fixed fixed characteristics characteristics that that are are not not easily easily changed.changed. Fro From m talents,talents, strengths strengths emerge.emerge. Strengths Strengths are are derived derived ffrom rom having having certain certain talents talents and and then then further further develdevel-- oping oping those those talents talents by by gaining gaining additional additional knoknowledge,wledge, skills, skills, and and practice practice (Rath,(Rath, 2007). 2007).

In In the the strengths strengths perspectiveperspective,, extraordinar extraordinary y individuals individuals are are “disting“distinguished uished less less by by their their impressivimpressive e ‘‘raw raw ppower’ower’ than than by by their their ability ability to to identify identify their their strengths strengths and and then then exploit exploit themthem”” (Gardner (Gardner,, 1997, 1997, p p.. 15). 15). MacKie MacKie (2016) (2016) suggests suggests that that our our leadership leadership capability capability is is enhanced enhanced when when we we are are able able to to discover discover our our fully fully utilized utilized strengths,strengths, under underutilized utilized strengths,strengths, and and weaknesses.weaknesses.

NeuroticismNeuroticism TThe he tendency tendency to to be be depressed,depressed, anxious, anxious, insecure, insecure, vulnerable vulnerable,, and and hostilehostile

ExtraversionExtraversion TThe he tendency tendency to to be be sociable sociable and and assertive assertive and and to to have have positive positive energyenergy

OpennessOpenness TThe he tendency tendency to to be be informed,informed, creative, creative, insightful, insightful, and and curiouscurious

AgreeablenessAgreeableness TThe he tendency tendency to to be be accepting,accepting, conforming, conforming, trusting,trusting, and and nurturingnurturing

ConscientiousnessConscientiousness TThe he tendency tendency to to be be thorough,thorough, organized, organized, controlled,controlled, dependabledependable,, and and decisivedecisive

TTable able 2.32.3 Big Big Five Five ersonality ersonality FactorsFactorsPP

SOURCE:SOURCE: Goldberg, Goldberg, L. L. . . (1990). (1990). n n alternative alternative “description “description of of personality”: personality”: The The Big-Five Big-Five RR AA

factor factor structure. structure. , , 1216–1229.1216–1229.Journal Journal of of Personality Personality and and Social Social PsychologyPsychology, , 5959

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2828 LeadershipLeadership TheorTheory y and and ppracracTTiceice

Emotional Emotional IntelligenceIntelligence

Another Another way way of of assessing assessing the the impact impact of of traits traits on on leadership leadership is is thrthrough ough the the concept concept of of emotional emotional intelligence,intelligence, which which emerged emerged in in the the 1990s 1990s as as an an imporimpor-- tant tant area area of of study study in in psychologypsychology.. It It has has been been widelwidely y studied studied by by researresearchers,chers, and and has has captured captured the the attention attention of of many many practitioners practitioners (Caruso (Caruso & & WWolfe,olfe, 2004; 2004; Goleman,Goleman, 1995, 1995, 1998; 1998; MayMayer er & & SaloSaloveyvey,, 1995, 1995, 1997; 1997; MayMayerer,, S Saloveyalovey,, & & Caruso,Caruso, 2000; 2000; Shankman Shankman & & Allen,Allen, 2015). 2015).

As As the the two two words words suggest,suggest, emotional emotional intelligence intelligence has has to to do do with with our our emoemo-- tions tions (affective (affective domain) domain) and and thinking thinking (cognitive (cognitive domain),domain), and and the the interinterplay play between between the the twotwo.. W Whereas hereas intelligenceintelligence is is coconcerned ncerned with with our our abilitability y to to learn learn informationinformation and and applapply y it it to to life life tasks,tasks, emotional emotional intelligintelligenceence is is concerned concerned with with our our ability ability to to understand understand and and apply apply this this understanding understanding to to liflife’e’s s emotionsemotions tasks.tasks. Specifical Specificallyly,, can can be be defined defined as as the the ability ability to to perperemotional emotional intelligenceintelligence -- ceive ceive and and express express emotions,emotions, to to use use emotions emotions to to facilitate facilitate thinking,thinking, to to underunder-- stand stand and and reason reason with with emotions,emotions, and and to to effectively effectively manage manage emotions emotions within within oneself oneself and and in in relationships relationships with with others others (Ma(Mayeryer,, Salovey Salovey,, & & Caruso,Caruso, 2000). 2000).

There There are are differdifferent ent ways ways to to measure measure emotional emotional intelligence.intelligence. One One scale scale is is the the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Emotional Intelligence Intelligence TTest est (MSCEIT(MSCEIT; ; MayerMayer,, Caruso,Caruso, & & SSaloveyalovey,, 2000). 2000). The The MSCEIT MSCEIT measures measures emotional emotional intelligence intelligence as as a a set set of of mental mental abilities,abilities, inc including luding the the abilities abilities to to perceive,perceive, facilitate, facilitate, under under-- stand,stand, and and manage manage emotion.emotion.

Goleman Goleman (1995,(1995, 1998) 1998) takes takes a a broader broader appapproach roach to to emotional emotional intelligence,intelligence, suggesting suggesting that that it it consists consists of of a a set set of of personal personal and and social social competencies.competencies. PPersonal ersonal competence competence consists consists of of self-awarself-awareness,eness, confidence, confidence, self-regulation, self-regulation, conscientiousness,conscientiousness, and and motivation.motivation. S Social ocial competence competence consists consists of of empathyempathy and and social social skills skills such such as as communication communication and and conflict conflict management.management.

Shankman Shankman and and Allen Allen (2015) (2015) dedeveloped veloped a a practice-oriented practice-oriented model model of of emotionemotion-- ally ally intelligent intelligent leadership,leadership, which which suggests suggests that that leaders leaders must must be be conscious conscious of of three three fundamental fundamental facets facets of of leadership:leadership: context, context, self, self, and and others.others. In In the the model,model, emo emo-- tionally tionally intelligent intelligent leaders leaders are are defined defined bby y 21 21 capacities capacities to to which which a a leader leader shouldshould pay pay attention,attention, inc including luding group group savvysavvy,, optimism, optimism, initiative initiative,, and and teamwork.teamwork.

There There is is a a debate debate in in the the field field rregarding egarding how how big big a a role role emotional emotional intelligence intelligence plays plays in in helping helping people people be be successful successful in in life.life. Some Some researchers,researchers, such such as as Goleman Goleman (1995),(1995), suggested suggested that that emotional emotional intelligence intelligence plays plays a a major major role role in in whether whether people people are are successful successful at at school,school, home, home, and and work.work. O Others,thers, such such as as MayerMayer,, Salo Saloveyvey,, and and Caruso Caruso (2000) (2000) and and Antonakis Antonakis (2009),(2009), made made sofsofter ter cclaims laims for for the the significance significance of of emotional emotional intelligence intelligence in in meeting meeting life’life’s s challenges.challenges.

As As a a leadership leadership ability ability or or trait,trait, emotional emotional intelintelligence ligence appears appears to to be be an an important important construct.construct. The The underunderllying ying premise premise suggested suggested by by this this fframeramework work

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is is that that people people who who are are more more sensitivsensitive e to to their their emotions emotions and and the the impact impact of of their their emotions emotions on on others others will will be be leaders leaders who who are are mormore e effective.effective. As As more more research research is is conducted conducted oon n emotional emotional intelligence,intelligence, the the intricintricacies acies of of how how emoemo-- tional tional intelligence intelligence relates relates to to leadership leadership will will be be better better understood.understood.

HOW HOW DOES DOES THE THE TRTRAIT AIT APPROACH APPROACH WORK?WORK? __________________

The The trait trait approach approach is is very very diffdifferent erent ffrom rom the the other other apprapproaches oaches discussed discussed in in subsequent subsequent chapters chapters because because it it focuses focuses excexclusively lusively on on the the leaderleader,, not not on on the the followers followers or or the the situation.situation. This This makes makes the the trait trait approach approach theoretically theoretically more more straightforstraightforward ward than than other other approaches.approaches. In In essence,essence, the the trait trait approach approach is is concerned concerned with with what what traits traits leaders leaders exhibit exhibit and and who who has has these these traits.traits.

The The trait trait approach approach does does not not lay lay out out a a set set of of hhypotheses ypotheses or or prprinciples inciples about about what what kind kind of of leader leader is is needed needed in in a a certain certain situation situation or or what what a a leader leader should should dodo,, given given a a parparticular ticular set set of of circumstances.circumstances. Instead, Instead, this this approaapproach ch emphasizemphasizes es that that having having a a leader leader with with a a certain certain set set of of traits traits is is crcrucial ucial to to having having effective effective leadershipleadership.. It It is is the the leader leader and and the the leader’leader’s s traits traits that that are are central central to to the the leadership leadership process.process.

The The trait trait approach approach suggests suggests that that organizations organizations will will work work better better if if the the people people in in managerial managerial positions positions have have designated designated leadership leadership prprofiles.ofiles. TTo o find find the the right right people,people, it it is is common common for for organizations organizations to to use use trait trait assessment assessment instruments.instruments. The The assumption assumption behind behind these these procedurprocedures es is is that that selecting selecting the the right right people people will will increase increase organizational organizational effectiveness.effectiveness. Organizations Organizations ccan an specify specify the the characteristics characteristics or or traits traits that that are are important important to to them them ffor or particular particular positions positions and and then then use use trait trait assessment assessment measures measures to to determine determine whether whether an an individual individual fits fits their their needs.needs.

The The trait trait approach approach is is also also used used for for personal personal awareness awareness and and development.development. By By analyzing analyzing their their own own traits,traits, managers managers can can gain gain an an idea idea of of their their strengths strengths and and weaknesses,weaknesses, and and can can get get a a feel feel for for how how others others in in the the organization organization see see them.them. A A trait trait assessment assessment can can help help managers managers determine determine whether whether they they have have the the qualities qualities to to move move up up or or to to move move to to other other positions positions in in the the companycompany..

A A trait trait assessment assessment gives gives individuals individuals a a clearer clearer picture picture of of who who they they are are asas leaders leaders and and how how they they fit fit into into the the organizational organizational hierarchyhierarchy.. In In areas areas where where their their traits traits are are lacking,lacking, leaders leaders ccan an trtry y to to make make changes changes in in what what they they do do or or where where they they work work to to incrincrease ease their their traits’traits’ potential potential impact.impact.

Near Near the the end end of of the the chapterchapter,, a a leleadership adership instrinstrument ument is is provided provided that that you you can can use use to to assess assess your your leadership leadership traits.traits. This This instrument instrument is is typical typical of of the the kind kind of of assessments assessments that that companies companies use use to to evaluate evaluate individuals’individuals’ leadership leadership potential.potential. As As you you will will discover discover by by completing completing this this instrument,instrument, tr trait ait measures measures are are a a good good way way to to assess assess your your own own characteristics.characteristics.