Research Process and Methods

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Qualitative Qualitative and and Mixed-Methods Mixed-Methods ResearResearchch

ChapterChapter 1717

INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION 439439

QUALITQUALITAATIVE TIVE VERSUS VERSUS QUANTITQUANTITAATIVE TIVE RESEARCH RESEARCH 440440

THEORTHEORY Y AND AND PERSPECTIVES PERSPECTIVES GUIDING GUIDING QUALITQUALITAATIVE TIVE RESEARCH RESEARCH 441441

MIXING MIXING METHODS: METHODS: QUANTITQUANTITAATIVE TIVE AND AND QUALITQUALITAATIVE TIVE COMBINED COMBINED 442442

QUALITQUALITAATIVE TIVE AND AND MIXED-METHODS MIXED-METHODS DADATTAA COLLECTION COLLECTION AND AND ANALANALYSIS YSIS 443443

BENEFITS BENEFITS AND AND CHALLENGES CHALLENGES OF OF THE THE MIXED-METHODS MIXED-METHODS RESEARCH RESEARCH 451451

SOURCES SOURCES OF OF PUBLISHED PUBLISHED QUALITQUALITAATIVE TIVE AND AND MIXED-METHODS MIXED-METHODS RESEARCH RESEARCH 454454

RESEARCH RESEARCH IN IN ACTION: ACTION: SPIRITUALSPIRITUAL ASPECTS ASPECTS OF OF NURSING NURSING CARE CARE 455455

YYou ou may may have have heard heard the the world world is is made made up up of of atoms atoms and and molecules, molecules, but but it’it’s s really really made made up up of of stories. stories. When When you you sit sit with with an an individual individual that’s that’s been been here, here, you you can can give give quantitative quantitative data data a a qualitative qualitative overlayoverlay.. —W—William illiam TTurnerurner

INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION

Up Up to to this this point, point, we we have have didiscussed scussed research research methods methods and and techniques techniques that that are are primarily primarily quantitatively quantitatively focused. focused. In In other other words, words, they they require require you you to to collect collect some some sort sort of of numerical numerical information information ranging ranging from from observations observations of of frequency frequency and and inten-inten- sity sity of of behaviors behaviors to to participant participant responses responses to to scale scale or or survey survey questions. questions. As As we we have have illustrated illustrated in in the the preceding preceding chapters, chapters, these these types types of of quantitative quantitative observations observations are are

tremendously tremendously useful useful in in all all science science disciplines. disciplines. There There are are times, times, however, however, espe-espe- cially cially when when conducting conducting behavioral behavioral and and social social science science research, research, when when the the goal goal is is not not so so much much to to quantify quantify an an effect effect or or difdifference ference between between groups groups but but rather rather to to deeply deeply understand understand and and more more descriptively descriptively explain explain or or qualify qualify a a phenomenon.phenomenon.

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Understanding Understanding and and Conducting Conducting Research Research in in the the Health Health SciencesSciences, , First First Edition. Edition. Christopher Christopher J. J. L. L. Cunningham, Cunningham, Bart Bart L. L. WWeathington, eathington, and and David David J. J. PittengerPittenger.. © © 2013 2013 John John Wiley Wiley & & Sons, Sons, Inc. Inc. Published Published 2013 2013 by by John John Wiley Wiley & & Sons, Sons, Inc.Inc.

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440440 Chapter Chapter 17 17 Qualitative Qualitative and and Mixed-Methods Mixed-Methods ResearchResearch

Our Our purpose purpose in in this this chapter chapter is is to to introduce introduce you you to to a a slightly slightly different different set set of of research research tools tools that that target target improved improved understanding understanding and and to to remind remind you you one one final final

time time that that it it is is your your research research question question that that should should drive drive the the method method you you use, use, not not the the other other way way around. around. This This being being the the case, case, there there will will likely likely be be times times in in your your future future career career (whatever (whatever that that may may be) be) when when you you will will want want to to ask ask a a question question that that requires requires less less quantification quantification and and more more qualification, qualification, fewer fewer numbers numbers and and statistics, statistics, and and more more

detail detail and and description. description. In In these these cases, cases, a a qualitative qualitative and/or and/or combined combined qualitative qualitative and and quantitative quantitative method method for for data data collection collection and and analysis analysis may may be be useful useful to to you. you.

The The present present chapter chapter is is designed designed to to provide provide you you with with an an overview overview of of this this process. process. Many Many other other excellent excellent resources resources provide provide more more detailed detailed treatments treatments of of the the informa-informa-

tion tion presented presented here. here. If If you you are are interested interested in in learning learning more more than than what what we we can can provide provide in in this this brief brief chapter, chapter, please please begin begin by by checking checking out out the the works works we we have have

cited cited in in this this chapter chapter and and included included in in the the chaptchapter er references.references.

QUALITATIVE QUALITATIVE VERSUS VERSUS QUANTITATIVE QUANTITATIVE RESEARCHRESEARCH

Whereas Whereas quantitative quantitative research research is is designed designed to to empirically empirically identify identify the the presence presence and and magnitude magnitude of of difdifferences ferences between between individuals individuals and/or and/or groups groups of of individuals, individuals, quali-quali-

tative tative researresearchch is is typically typically more more focused focused on on sense-making sense-making in in a a purer purer sense. sense. Quantitative Quantitative research research is is also also typically typically designed designed to to test test predetermined predetermined hypotheses hypotheses

that that are are formed formed from from existing existing theory theory (a (a deductive deductive process), process), while while qualitative qualitative research research often often functions functions to to develop develop theory theory from from the the data data that that are are collected collected (an (an

inductive inductive process). process). WWith ith these these two two distinctions distinctions in in mind, mind, it it is is also also often often suggested suggested that that qualitative qualitative research research tends tends to to focus focus more more on on the the rich rich description description of of a a phenom-phenom- enon enon than than on on its its quantification. quantification. Thus, Thus, instead instead of of relying relying on on numbers, numbers, counts, counts, and and

frequency-type frequency-type data, data, qualitative qualitative research research will will often often involve involve the the collection collection and and analysis analysis of of detailed detailed observations, observations, stories stories or or narrative narrative histories, histories, sounds, sounds, pictures, pictures, or or video.video.

Qualitative Qualitative methods methods often often bring bring a a new new or or fresh fresh perspective perspective to to existing existing research research in in areas areas that that have have been been dominated dominated by by quantitative quantitative methods. methods. When When combined combined with with quantitative quantitative techniques, techniques, qualitative qualitative strategies strategies can can often often help help researchers researchers to to more more strongly strongly support support their their research research design design choices choices and and final final inferences inferences (Shaw(Shaw, , 2003). 2003).

For For example, example, in in the the case case of of healthcare-related healthcare-related interventions, interventions, which which are are imple-imple- mented mented in in highly highly complex complex environments, environments, answering answering the the question question of of why why some some

interventions interventions work work while while others others fail fail is is not not easily easily done done within within a a quantitative quantitative frame-frame- work. work. Such Such a a question question can can be be more more comprehensively comprehensively addressed addressed with with the the use use of of a a qualitative qualitative or or a a combination combination of of qualitative qualitative and and quantitative quantitative (i.e., (i.e., mixed-methods mixed-methods researresearchch) ) strategy strategy (e.g., (e.g., O’Cathain, O’Cathain, 2009).2009).

Despite Despite the the prevalence prevalence of of qualitative qualitative methods methods in in some some social social science science areas areas (e.g., (e.g., ethnographyethnography, , sociology), sociology), there there has has not not been been widespread widespread acceptance acceptance of of quali-quali- tatively tatively influenced influenced research research within within applied applied research research settings. settings. The The reasons reasons for for this this

are are varied varied and and nonot t fully fully understood, understood, although although one one major major contributing contributing factor factor has has been been the the lack lack of of education education regarding regarding these these research research methods methods (T(Tashakkori ashakkori & &

TTeddlie, eddlie, 2003; 2003; TTeddlie eddlie & & TTashakkori, ashakkori, 2003). 2003). It It has has also also been been suggested suggested that that

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qualitative qualitative researchers researchers are are somehow somehow inherently inherently different different from from quantitative quantitative researchers researchers in in terms terms of of their their basic basic research-related research-related goals. goals. As As such, such, these these types types of of

individuals individuals may may tend tend to to gravitate gravitate toward toward areas areas of of study study that that are are more more or or less less removed removed from from direct direct practice practice or or application application than than others.others.

Despite Despite the the existence existence of of these these and and other other possible possible distinctions, distinctions, we we believe believe there there is is no no good good rationale rationale to to support support the the continued continued separation separation of of quantitative quantitative and and qualitative qualitative research research methods, methods, particularly particularly in in research research that that is is targeting targeting social social and and behavioral behavioral science science issues. issues. There There are are many many reasons reasons for for this, this, not not the the least least of of which which

being being that that the the benefits benefits of of combining combining these these two two general general approaches approaches to to research research often often outweigh outweigh the the challenges, challenges, as as we we discuss discuss later later in in this this chapterchapter. . It It is is interesting interesting to to note note that that Corbin Corbin and and Strauss Strauss (2008) (2008) suggest suggest that that the the best best qualitative qualitative research-research- ers ers may may share share a a set set of of personal personal characteristics characteristics that that at at first first look look seem seem antithetical antithetical to to what what is is conveyed conveyed during during standard standard quantitative quantitative method method instruction. instruction. SpecificallySpecifically, , they they suggest suggest that that good good qualitative qualitative researchers researchers are are those those who, who, among among other other things, things, are are (1) (1) interested interested in in the the humanism humanism present present in in everyday everyday life; life; (2) (2) inherently inherently curious, curious, creative, creative, and and imaginative; imaginative; (3) (3) capable capable of of guiding guiding their their actions actions in in a a logical logical fashion; fashion;

(4) (4) able able to to live live with with and and appreciate appreciate ambiguity; ambiguity; and and (5) (5) capable capable of of accepting accepting themselves themselves as as a a research research instrument instrument (p. (p. 13).13).

Careful Careful consideration consideration of of these these characteristics characteristics outlined outlined byCorbin byCorbin and and Strauss Strauss (2008), (2008), howeverhowever, , should should make make it it clear clear to to you you that that these these are are the the same same qualities qualities that that

ensure ensure success success as as a a researcher researcher in in any any field, field, using using any any combination combination of of methods. methods. The The only only difdifference ference that that immediately immediately emeremerges ges is is that that while while qualitative qualitative researcresearchers hers do do typically typically acknowledge acknowledge themselves themselves as as a a major major part part of of the the research research instrument instrument and and process, process, quantitative quantitative researchers researchers are are often often interested interested in in removing removing themselves themselves as as much much as as possible possible from from the the research research process process so so as as to to minimize minimize the the influence influence of of potential potential sources sources of of systematic systematic error error or or bias.bias.

THEORY THEORY AND AND PERSPECTIVES PERSPECTIVES GUIDING GUIDING QUALITATIVE QUALITATIVE RESEARCHRESEARCH

At At the the heart heart of of most most qualitative qualitative research research is is a a belief belief that that understanding understanding about about a a phenomenon phenomenon can can be be induced induced from from the the data data as as they they are are collected. collected. This This emergent emergent perspective perspective on on theory theory development development has has been been criticized criticized and and modified modified many many times times in in the the recent recent decades, decades, but but it it remains remains in in some some wayway, , shape, shape, or or form form an an underlying underlying

distinguishing distinguishing feature feature of of this this type type of of research research from from the the more more deductive, deductive, theory-theory- based based reasoning reasoning applied applied in in most most quantitative quantitative research. research. Perhaps Perhaps the the most most well-well-

known known discussion discussion of of this this inductivist inductivist approach approach to to qualitative qualitative research research is is contained contained within within explanations explanations of of the the methodologymethodology, , which which remains remains a a grounded grounded theorytheory

common common guiding guiding perspective perspective for for many many qualitative qualitative researchers. researchers. By By definition, definition, this this orientation orientation toward toward research research guides guides researchers researchers to to develop develop relevant relevant theory theory for for a a

study study from from the the data data as as they they are are collected collected and and analyzed analyzed in in a a qualitative qualitative fashion fashion (Glaser (Glaser & & Strauss, Strauss, 1967; 1967; Locke, Locke, 2001).2001).

The The primary primary challenge challenge to to pure pure or or “simplistic “simplistic inductivism” inductivism” (Silverman, (Silverman, 2005) 2005) is is the the fact fact that that no no matter matter how how detached detached a a researcher researcher may may wish wish to to be be from from existing existing

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theory theory and and preconceptions, preconceptions, when when we we enter enter into into a a research research situation, situation, we we will will have have an an impact impact on on that that system. system. In In previous previous chapters, chapters, we we have have referred referred to to this this impact impact using using words words such such as as rreactivityeactivity, , or or citing citing Bacon’Bacon’s s idols idols to to remind remind us us that that when when we we carry carry preconceptions preconceptions into into the the data data collection collection or or analysis analysis process, process, we we may may influence influence

our our findings findings and and interpretations. interpretations. All All of of these these risks risks also also exist exist when when we we conduct conduct qualitative qualitative research, research, and and for for this this reason, reason, there there is is no no way way to to ensure ensure that that thethe devel-devel- opment opment of of understanding understanding can can occur occur completely completely from from the the data data alone, alone, without without being being influenced influenced in in some some way way by by the the researcherresearcher’’s s own own experience experience or or knowledge.knowledge.

Indeed, Indeed, it it is is increasingly increasingly common common to to see see modern modern qualitative qualitative research research guided guided by by some some (at (at least least loosely) loosely) preconceived preconceived hypotheses. hypotheses. This This is is also also a a reflection reflection of of the the

trend trend in in qualitative qualitative research research away away from from a a singular singular model model or or paradigm paradigm of of study study toward toward multiple multiple approaches approaches to to this this type type of of research research (T(Teddlie eddlie & & TTashakkori, ashakkori, 2003). 2003). AA primary primary reason reason for for this this is is that that just just as as in in quantitative quantitative research, research, the the body body of of sci-sci- entific entific knowledge knowledge is is cumulative. cumulative. This This makes makes it it more more difficult difficult (and (and not not desirable) desirable)

to to ignore ignore the the existing existing knowledge knowledge base base completely completely when when initiating initiating any any sort sort of of research research studystudy. . As As we we have have emphasized emphasized and and discussed discussed in in multiple multiple ways ways in in this this

textbook, textbook, your your challenge challenge when when doing doing research research (qualitative (qualitative or or otherwise) otherwise) is is not not to to reinvent reinvent the the wheel wheel but but rather rather to to continue continue the the development development and and modification modification of of the the entire entire vehicle vehicle to to which which that that wheel wheel belongs belongs (i.e., (i.e., our our collective collective understanding understanding of of some some phenomenon).phenomenon).

MIXING MIXING METHODS: METHODS: QUANTITATIVE QUANTITATIVE AND AND QUALITATIVE QUALITATIVE COMBINEDCOMBINED

In In many many cases, cases, qualitative qualitative research research is is based based on on a a different different set set of of theories theories regarding regarding the the research research process. process. In In some some forms forms of of qualitative qualitative work, work, the the research research questions questions

emerge emerge from from the the data data rather rather than than the the data data emerging emerging from from an an effort effort to to address address specific specific hypotheses hypotheses that that are are established established in in advance. advance. In In addition addition to to a a different different per-per- spective spective on on the the research research process process itself, itself, qualitative qualitative research research often often requires requires a a differdiffer-- ent ent set set of of data data collection collection tools. tools. Some Some of of these these we we have have already already discussed, discussed, but but in in their their quantitative quantitative forms. forms. The The following following sections sections will will detail detail more more fully fully some some of of the the most most common common prevailing prevailing theories theories and and methods methods used used in in qualitative qualitative research.research.

Despite Despite the the differences differences in in these these two two general general approaches approaches to to research, research, there there are are times times when when it it is is appropriate appropriate to to combine combine these these methods. methods. Such Such combination combination can can take take place place during during any any of of several several stages stages of of the the research research process, process, from from identifiidentification cation of of research research questions questions and and hypotheses hypotheses through through sampling sampling and and selection selection of of participants, participants,

through through the the actual actual collection, collection, analysis, analysis, and and interpretation interpretation of of the the data. data. In In many many cases, cases, these these two two approaches approaches may may be be mixed mixed at at more more than than one one stage stage of of the the process. process. Mixed-methods Mixed-methods research research can, can, therefore, therefore, be be seen seen asas

[t]he [t]he type type of of researresearch ch in in which which a a rresearesearcher cher or or team team of of researresearchers chers combines combines elements elements of of qualitative qualitative and and quantitative quantitative researresearch ch apprapproaches oaches (e.g., (e.g., use use of of qualitative qualitative and and quantitative quantitative viewpoints, viewpoints, data data collection, collection, analysis, analysis, inference inference techniques) techniques) for for the the broad broad purposes purposes of of brbreadth eadth and and depth depth of of understanding understanding and and corrcorroboration. oboration. (Johnson, (Johnson, Onwuegbuzie, Onwuegbuzie, & & TTurnerurner, , 2007, 2007, p. p. 123)123)

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What What does does mixed-methods mixed-methods research research look look like? like? It It really really depends depends on on how how quan-quan- titative titative or or qualitative qualitative the the research research is is in in its its underlying underlying nature. nature. Bryman Bryman (2006) (2006) offers offers

several several insights insights regarding regarding these these issues issues in in his his qualitative qualitative content content analysis analysis of of 232 232 social social science science articles articles based based on on mixed-methods mixed-methods research. research. In In general, general, Bryman’Bryman’s s find-find- ings ings suggest suggest that that the the most most common common mixed-methods mixed-methods approaches approaches have, have, to to this this point, point, included included either either a a self-administered self-administered survey survey or or questionnaire, questionnaire, or or a a structured structured or or semi-semi- structured structured interviewinterview. . The The vast vast majority majority of of studies studies in in this this review review were were also also of of a a cross-cross- sectional sectional varietyvariety, , meaning meaning all all data data were were collected collected concurrently concurrently at at one one point point in in time.time.

After After coding coding the the reasons reasons for for mixed-methods mixed-methods work work given given by by the the authors authors of of the the studies studies that that Bryman Bryman (2006) (2006) reviewed, reviewed, a a list list of of the the common common reasons reasons or or justifications justifications for for combining combining quantitative quantitative and and qualitative qualitative methods methods was was generated. generated. Because Because these these reasons reasons sometimes sometimes differed differed from from what what was was actually actually practiced practiced by by the the researchers researchers

and and shared shared in in the the article, article, Bryman Bryman also also coded coded the the articles articles for for what what was was actually actually practiced. practiced. The The top top five five most most common common explanations explanations for for mixed-methods mixed-methods research research

actually actually demonstrated demonstrated in in these these published published articles articles were were (adapted (adapted from from p. p. 108)108)

1. 1. Enhancement:Enhancement: building building on on findings findings from from one one method method using using evidevidence ence gathered gathered from from the the other other methodmethod 2. 2. TTriangulation:riangulation: using using findings findings from from one one method method to to verify verify or or corroborate corroborate findings findings collected collected using using the the other other methodmethod 3. 3. Completeness:Completeness: using using both both methods methods to to more more comprehensively comprehensively examine examine an an area area or or issue issue of of interest interest than than would would be be possible possible with with one one method method used used alonealone 4. 4. Illustration:Illustration: using using qualitative qualitative data data to to explain explain quantitative quantitative findings findings or or vice vice versaversa 5. 5. Sampling:Sampling: using using one one method method to to help help with with the the sampling sampling of of participants participants or or cases cases in in a a targeted targeted and and focused focused fashionfashion

Although Although Bryman’Bryman’s s (2006) (2006) findings findings suggest suggest there there may may be be a a disconnect disconnect between between what what researchers researchers say say they they are are doing doing and and what what they they actually actually accomplish accomplish when when

attempting attempting mixed-methods mixed-methods research, research, a a more more important important implication implication is is that that the the combination combination of of quantitative quantitative and and qualitative qualitative methods methods benefits benefits researchers researchers in in mul-mul- tiple tiple ways, ways, providing providing all all of of us us with with improved improved information information and and richness richness of of detail detail that that is is not not obtained obtained when when singular singular methods methods are are utilized.utilized.

So, So, when when should should you you consider consider qualitative qualitative or or mixed-methods mixed-methods research research methods? methods? In In general, general, when when your your research research questions questions are are more more in in line line with with developing developing under-under-

standing standing than than identifying identifying differences, differences, some some form form of of qualitative qualitative inquiry inquiry may may be be helpful. helpful. Perhaps Perhaps the the set set of of considerations considerations listed listed in in Box Box 17.1 17.1 will will be be even even more more

useful useful to to you you when when you you develop develop your your research research design.design.

QUALITATIVE QUALITATIVE AND AND MIXED-METHODS MIXED-METHODS DATA DATA COLLECTION COLLECTION AND AND ANALYSISANALYSIS

There There are are numerous numerous qualitative qualitative research research techniques techniques in in use use todaytoday. . The The one one feature feature they they all all share share in in common common is is that that they they are are designed designed to to allow allow the the researcher researcher to to gather gather

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a a very very rich rich and and complex complex data data set. set. These These methods methods are are also also designed designed to to assist assist the the researcher researcher in in making making sense sense of of the the rich rich data data collected. collected. TTo o give give you you a a taste taste for for what what

qualitative qualitative research research techniques techniques and and analyses analyses look look like, like, we we have have selected selected a a few few very very common common ones ones to to briefly briefly present present to to you you here.here.

Data Data Collection Collection TechniquesTechniques

In In many many ways, ways, the the same same rules rules for for good good design design of of quantitative quantitative research research studies studies still still apply apply whenwhen qualitative qualitative data data are are involved. involved. There There are are a a few few areas, areas, howeverhowever, , where where these these two two general general types types of of methods methods diverge. diverge. One One major major area area has has to to do do with with sam-sam- pling, pling, in in that that much much qualitative qualitative research research is is directed directed at at a a particular particular sample sample and, and, as as such, such, may may not not lend lend itself itself to to the the use use of of random random sampling sampling as as easily easily as as standard standard quan-quan- titative titative studies. studies. Instead, Instead, it it is is more more common common to to see see purposive purposive and/or and/or stratified stratified sam-sam- pling pling techniques techniques utilized utilized within within qualitative qualitative studies studies to to ensure ensure that that the the phenomenon phenomenon

or or process process of of interest interest will will be be observed. observed. As As an an example, example, a a qualitative qualitative researcher researcher (perhaps (perhaps a a medical medical anthropologist) anthropologist) interested interested in in studying studying the the role role that that culture culture plays plays in in the the perception perception of of illness illness in in one one region region of of the the world world versus versus another another would would focus focus on on observing observing and and studying studying individuals individuals with with and and without without medical medical conditions, conditions, who who

are are living living in in these these different different regions. regions. The The data data collection collection process process might might involve involve interviewing, interviewing, observing, observing, and and studying studying the the ways ways in in which which the the concept concept of of illness illness is is described, described, discussed, discussed, and and ultimately ultimately treated.treated.

Field Field NotesNotes

AA second second major major area area of of difference difference between between typical typical quantitative quantitative and and qualitative qualitative methods methods involves involves the the critical critical role role of of field field notes. notes. In In general, general, are are detailed detailed field field notesnotes observations observations made made by by the the researcher researcher throughout throughout the the research research process. process. These These types types

of of notes notes often often include include observations observations made made about about the the people people and and places places in in which which data data are are being being collected. collected. Also Also included included will will be be personal personal reflections reflections on on the the data data and and

BOX BOX 17.1 17.1 Qualitative Qualitative or or Mixed-Methods Mixed-Methods May May Be Be a a Good Good Idea Idea If. If. . . .. • • . . . . . . you you are are not not totally totally sure sure what what the the question question is is

that that you you are are trying trying to to answeranswer, , but but you you know know where where you you might might start start looking looking for for relevant relevant

informationinformation • • . . . . . . your your goal goal is is to to study study a a particular particular phenomenon phenomenon within within its its natural natural context, context, in in detaildetail

• • . . . . . . other other researchers researchers who who have have studied studied this this topic topic have have relied relied on on qualitative qualitative or or mixed mixed methods methods (and (and you you agree agree with with this this approach)approach)

• • . . . . . . other other researchers researchers have have relied relied on on quantitative quantitative methods methods to to study study this this issue issue (and (and you you disagree disagree

with with this this approachapproach and and want want to to try try something something else)else)

• • . . . . . . it it is is feasible/practical feasible/practical for for you you to to engage engage in in qualitative qualitative inquiry inquiry given given your your available available resources resources

(i.e., (i.e., you you have have a a fair fair amount amount of of time time and and interest)interest)

• • . . . . . . you you feel feel you you will will learn learn more more about about the the topic topic using using these these methods methods than than quantitative quantitative techniques techniques alonealone

• • . . . . . . you you feel feel sufficiently sufficiently comfortable comfortable with with quali-quali- tative tative or or mixed-methods mixed-methods research research techniques techniques to to

use use them.them.

NoteNote: : Adapted Adapted from from Silverman Silverman (2005).(2005).

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research research process process as as well well as as initial initial attempts attempts to to begin begin piecing piecing together together the the story story or or puzzle puzzle that that the the data data are are helping helping to to reveal. reveal. Although Although the the taking taking of of comprehensive comprehensive

field field notes notes is is more more common common among among qualitative qualitative researchers, researchers, we we strongly strongly recom-recom- mend mend to to our our students students that that keeping keeping field field notes notes is is good good practice practice for for all all types types of of

research research (quantitative (quantitative and and qualitative). qualitative). It It is is absolutely absolutely necessary necessary for for qualitative qualitative research research that that is is based based on on observations observations within within a a specific specific context context because because such such notes notes

often often provide provide the the only only reliable reliable source source of of information information about about these these contexts. contexts. This This information information is is then then used used by by the the researcher researcher later later to to interpret interpret and and make make sense sense of of

various various participants’participants’ responses responses within within those those specific specific contexts.contexts. WWolfinger olfinger (2002) (2002) indicates indicates that that the the generation generation of of field field notes notes is is in in itself itself both both a a

skill skill and and an an art. art. As As such, such, the the most most effective effective strategy strategy for for field field notes notes will will depend depend on on the the research. research. From From a a practical practical perspective, perspective, he he notes notes that that there there are are three three general general considerations considerations that that may may influence influence a a researcherresearcher’’s s field field note-taking note-taking strategy:strategy:

1. 1. the the researcherresearcher’’s s ability ability to to take take notes notes in in the the field field (i.e., (i.e., can can observations observations be be recorded recorded in in real real time, time, or or do do they they need need to to be be summarized summarized at at the the end end of of a a

period period of of more more secretive secretive or or participant-type participant-type involvement?)involvement?) 2. 2. the the degree degree to to which which the the research research has has changed changed as as the the researcher researcher narrows narrows from from a a broad broad concept concept to to more more focused focused data data collection collection needs needs (i.e., (i.e., this this will will change change the the types types of of information information the the researcher researcher can can and and wwill ill attend attend to)to) 3. 3. the the intended intended audience audience of of this this research research (i.e., (i.e., depending depending on on where where this this work work will will be be presented presented or or published, published, different different types types of of information information may may need need to to be be emphasized).emphasized).

In In terms terms of of how how to to actually actually condense condense and and summarize summarize your your field field notes, notes, some some guidance guidance can can be be gleaned gleaned from from Emerson, Emerson, Fretz, Fretz, and and Shaw Shaw (1995) (1995) and and from from WWolfin-olfin- gerger’’s s (2002) (2002) extension extension of of Emerson Emerson et et al.’al.’s s work. work. One One technique technique is is to to focus focus on on the the

observations observations you you have have made made during during the the data data collection collection that that seem seem most most unique, unique, special, special, or or interesting interesting (i.e., (i.e., salient salient episodes). episodes). TTo o most most quantitatively quantitatively trained trained

researchers, researchers, this this approach approach seems seems less less than than desirable, desirable, primarily primarily because because the the identiidenti-- fication fication of of such such salient salient episodes episodes is is based based on on each each researcherresearcher’’s s highly highly subjective subjective

judgment. judgment. HoweverHowever, , as as WWolfinger olfinger points points out, out, the the identification identification of of these these special special events events can can be be guided guided by by at at least least two two general general rules rules of of thumb: thumb: typically typically that that the the infor-infor- mation mation may may “stick “stick out” out” or or distinguish distinguish itself itself (1) (1) from from the the other other responses responses collected collected by by the the researcher researcher or or (2) (2) from from what what the the research research was was expecting expecting to to observe observe (p. (p. 89).89).

AA second second general general technique technique for for field field note note taking taking and and organization organization is is to to be be as as comprehensive comprehensive or or thorough thorough as as possible, possible, describing describing all all details details that that you you can can capture capture about about your your observations observations during during a a set set time time period. period. For For this this technique technique to to be be most most beneficial, beneficial, the the notes notes should should be be generated generated in in a a systematic systematic fashion, fashion, meaning meaning that that the the researcher researcher should should follow follow a a note-taking note-taking guide guide of of sorts, sorts, which which helps helps the the researcher researcher

capture capture all all relevant relevant details. details. As As highlighted highlighted byWbyWolfinger olfinger (2002), (2002), such such a a list list can can include include the the basics basics of of whowho, , whatwhat, , whenwhen, , wherwheree, , and and whywhy, , expanded expanded to to fit fit the the situation, situation,

or or it it can can be be focused focused on on components components of of the the observable observable situation, situation, including including such such features features as as the the space, space, actoractor, , activityactivity, , time, time, goal, goal, and and feelings feelings (for (for more more details details on on these these and and other other approaches approaches to to field field note note taking, taking, see see also also Lofland, Lofland, SnowSnow, , Anderson, Anderson,

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& & Lofland, Lofland, 2005). 2005). It It is is also also possible possible to to ororganize ganize compcomprehensive rehensive field field notes notes in in some some form form of of chronological chronological orderorder, , which which can can often often help help researchers researchers remember remember details details of of their their observations observations that that they they may may otherwise otherwise miss miss (W(Wolfinger).olfinger).

One One of of the the most most difficult difficult things things for for field field researchers researchers of of any any discipline discipline to to learn learn is is to to separate separate the the act act of of information information gathering gathering from from interpretation. interpretation. WWe e like like to to think think of of it it in in rather rather simple simple terms: terms: When When you you are are in in the the field field collecting collecting data data (whether (whether it it

is is quantitative quantitative or or qualitative qualitative by by nature), nature), you you should should act act like like a a sponge—nothing sponge—nothing more, more, nothing nothing less. less. Then, Then, once once you you are are finished finished gathering gathering data, data, you you can can wring wring

yourself yourself out out and and attempt attempt to to make make sense sense of of what what you you have have just just learned. learned. The The reason reason for for this this is is that that if if you you are are constantly constantly allowing allowing yourself yourself to to interpret interpret data data as as you you

perceive perceive it it (especially (especially when when you you are are gathering gathering observations), observations), then then you you are are more more likely likely to to confine confine yourself yourself to to only only information information that that connects connects with with your your preconceived preconceived notions notions (also (also known known as as , , as as noted noted by by WWolfingerolfinger, , 2002). 2002). If If instead instead you you tacit tacit beliefsbeliefs

allow allow yourself yourself to to take take in in all all information information that that you you possibly possibly can, can, your your later later inter-inter- pretation pretation will will be be based based on on a a more more complete complete set set of of details. details. Although Although we we suggest suggest

this this as as an an important important strategy strategy for for data data gathering, gathering, it it should should be be noted noted that that many many qualitative qualitative researchers researchers do do prefer prefer to to begin begin interpretation interpretation and and analysis analysis concurrently concurrently

with with the the collection collection of of data, data, especially especially in in inductivist inductivist research. research. This This is is one one area area where where there there is is no no one one “right” “right” approach—each approach—each of of us us has has to to adopt adopt a a philosophy philosophy of of data data collection collection that that we we can can live live and and work work with.with.

Other Other TechniquesTechniques

Apart Apart from from differences differences in in sampling sampling and and the the critical critical role role of of field field notes, notes, many many other other qualitative qualitative or or mixed-methods mixed-methods data data collection collection techniques techniques have have actually actually already already

been been presented presented in in earlier earlier portions portions of of this this textbook. textbook. TTable able 17.1 17.1 highlights highlights a a few few of of these these methods, methods, illustrating illustrating how how they they can can be be used used for for primarily primarily quantitative quantitative or or

qualitative qualitative research research means.means. ObviouslyObviously, , this this is is an an extremely extremely brief brief summary summary and and illustration illustration of of how how similar similar

methods methods can can be be usedused in in both both quantitative quantitative and and qualitative qualitative ways. ways. It It is is important important to to emphasize emphasize that that these these methods methods can can also also be be used used in in mixed-methods mixed-methods fashion, fashion, incor-incor-

porating porating elements elements of of quantitative quantitative and and qualitative qualitative focus focus to to help help the the researcher researcher achieve achieve his his or or her her aims. aims. There There are are many many other other approaches approaches to to data data collection collection within within

qualitative qualitative research, research, but but most most of of these these ways ways involve involve elements elements of of the the techniques techniques summarized summarized in in TTable able 17.1. 17.1. More More than than anything, anything, the the distinction distinction between between quantita-quantita- tive tive and and qualitative qualitative data data collection collection is is often often that that qualitative qualitative data data involve involve more more than than finite finite numbers numbers and and often often include include details details regarding regarding behavioral behavioral processes processes and and con-con- textual textual factors factors that that may may be be linked linked to to and and helpful helpful in in explaining explaining what what the the participant participant or or respondent respondent does does or or says.says.

Analytical Analytical ApproachesApproaches

Although Although we we have have said said that that qualitative qualitative research research is is often often more more about about sense-making sense-making than than hypothesis hypothesis testing, testing, this this does does not not mean mean that that you you are are allowed allowed to to forget forget

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everything everything else else you you have have learned learned up up to to this this point point about about appropriate appropriate analytical analytical techniques. techniques. On On the the contrarycontrary, , the the systematic systematic research research process process is is at at least least as as important important in in qualitative qualitative research research as as it it is is in in the the quantitative quantitative forms forms we we have have already already discussed. discussed. The The reason reason for for this this should should be be rather rather clear clear to to you, you, if if you you remember remember why why we we strive strive for for systematic systematic processes processes of of data data collection collection and and analysis analysis in in the the first first place. place. Remem-Remem- ber ber Bacon’Bacon’s s idols. idols. WWe e know know it it has has probably probably been been a a while while since since you you read read Chapter Chapter

1, 1, but but try try to to remember remember that that while while inferences inferences based based on on quantitative quantitative research research can can be be valid valid only only when when based based on on good good design design and and systematic systematic measurement measurement with with high-high- quality quality measures, measures, inferences inferences from from qualitative qualitative research research can can also also only only be be as as valid valid as as the the process process that that the the researcher researcher follows follows when when gathering gathering and and interpreting interpreting the the data.data.

This This being being said, said, it it is is very very common common for for qualitative qualitative researchers researchers to to view view their their analyses analyses as as a a combination combination of of science science and and art art (Corbin (Corbin & & Strauss, Strauss, 2008). 2008). This This view view

may may seem seem to to contradict contradict the the emphasis emphasis we we have have placed placed on on the the scientific scientific method method throughout throughout this this textbook. textbook. In In realityreality, , though, though, your your efforts efforts to to adhere adhere to to the the basic basic

scientific scientific method method will will at at times times test test you you and and require require you you to to adapt adapt and and respond respond in in creative creative and and imaginative imaginative ways. ways. In In this this wayway, , it it can can be be argued argued that that all all forms forms of of

research research involve, involve, at at some some level, level, a a mixture mixture of of science science and and art.art. Indeed, Indeed, there there may may be be more more room room for for flexibility flexibility and and imagination imagination within within qualitaqualita-- tive tive research research than than in in quantitative quantitative analyses analyses because because the the objectives objectives are are typically typically

rather rather different. different. More More specificallyspecifically, , in in quantitative quantitative research, research, the the objective objective of of an an

TTable able 17.1 17.1 Application Application of of Similar Similar Methods Methods for for Quantitative Quantitative and and Qualitative Qualitative ResearchResearch

Research Research methodmethod

Quantitative Quantitative examplesexamples Qualitative Qualitative examplesexamples

Behavioral Behavioral observationsobservations • • Counting Counting frequencyfrequency • • Describing Describing process process or or actionsactions • • Rating Rating intensityintensity • • Highlighting Highlighting perceived perceived causes causes

and and effectseffects InterviewsInterviews • • Rating Rating specific specific responses responses of of the the

interviewee interviewee to to specific specific questions questions for for quality quality or or accuracyaccuracy

• • Recording Recording and and transcribing transcribing the the entirety entirety of of the the interview interview experience, experience, including including interviewer interviewer questions, questions, interviewee interviewee responses, responses, and and gaps gaps in in conversation, conversation, viewing viewing all all as as meaningful meaningful information information and and reflections reflections of of interviewees’interviewees’ own own realityreality

SurveysSurveys • • Gathering Gathering self-ratings self-ratings of of agreement agreement or or satisfaction satisfaction with with descriptive descriptive items items and and scalesscales

• • Eliciting Eliciting writing writing responses responses to to open-ended open-ended questions questions or or comment-request comment-request boxesboxes

Case Case studystudy • • Small-Small- or or single-participant single-participant nn study study of of changes changes in in behaviors, behaviors, attitudes, attitudes, or or other other measureable measureable variablesvariables

• • More More in-depth in-depth review review of of individualized individualized cases, cases, with with goal goal of of providing providing detail detail regarding regarding context context and and process process rather rather than than generalizable generalizable quantified quantified effectseffects

Note:Note: Portions Portions adapted adapted from from Patton Patton (2002), (2002), Rapley Rapley (2001), (2001), Shaw Shaw (2003), (2003), and and Silverman Silverman (2005).(2005).

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analysis analysis is is typically typically to to quantify quantify a a difference difference between between groups, groups, a a change change over over time, time, or or the the existence existence of of a a measurable measurable phenomenon. phenomenon. In In qualitative qualitative research, research, the the empha-empha-

sis sis is is on on telling telling a a story story or or piepiecing cing together together a a puzzle puzzle that that can can help help to to explain explain a a particular particular phenomenon phenomenon and and its its relationship relationship to to other other factors factors in in the the people people and and

environment(s) environment(s) involved.involved. Because Because of of this, this, there there is is often often a a distinction distinction to to be be made made regarding regarding the the role role of of

participant participant responses responses when when the the data data collection collection method method involves involves direct direct communi-communi- cation cation with with respondents respondents (e.g., (e.g., interviews, interviews, case case studies, studies, content content analysis). analysis). This This

distinction distinction pertains pertains to to whether whether the the responses responses are are viewed viewed as as representative representative of of that that person’person’s s external external reality reality or or internal internal experience. experience. AA related related approach approach to to analysis analysis

partially partially avoids avoids this this distinction, distinction, choosing choosing to to highlight highlight instead instead the the possibility possibility that that participant participant responses responses are are really really constructed constructed narratives narratives that that capture capture the the respon-respon-

dents’dents’ perceptions perceptions within within a a specified specified context context (Silverman, (Silverman, 2005). 2005). In In effect, effect, this this narrative narrative approach approach to to analysis analysis of of responses responses may may enhance enhance the the realism realism and and eventual eventual

generalizability generalizability of of the the qualitative qualitative researchers’researchers’ conclusions conclusions as as it it facilitates facilitates a a more more comprehensive comprehensive consideration consideration of of the the context context in in which which the the responses responses were were

generated.generated. Another Another distinction distinction between between qualitative qualitative and and quantitative quantitative research research with with respect respect

to to analysis analysis strategies, strategies, is is that that qualitative qualitative researchers researchers are are often often taught taught to to begin begin their their analysis analysis of of the the data data as as soon soon as as the the first first piece piece of of information information is is collected collected (Corbin (Corbin & & Strauss, Strauss, 2008). 2008). This This is is in in direct direct contrast contrast to to most most quantitative quantitative research, research, in in which which

analyses analyses are are often often delayed delayed until until the the full full set set of of data data can can be be collected. collected. There There are are several several reasons reasons for for this this rather rather obvious obvious difference difference between between these these two two approaches approaches to to research. research. AA primary primary one one is is that that the the theory theory that that will will be be used used to to explain explain findings findings

is is often often derived derived from from the the data data in in qualitative qualitative research, research, whereas whereas it it is is established established beforehand beforehand in in quantitative quantitative research, research, as as already already mentioned. mentioned. This This being being the the case, case, it it is is often often necessary necessary for for qualitative qualitative researchers researchers to to begin begin developing developing the the explanatory explanatory

framework, framework, storystory, , or or theory theory immediately immediately so so that that it it can can be be as as comprehensive comprehensive as as possible possible upon upon project project completion.completion.

While While experimental experimental methods methods are are necessary necessary to to most most effectively effectively demonstrate demonstrate causalitycausality, , a a qualitative qualitative perspective perspective can can aid aid in in identifying identifying causal causal mechanisms, mechanisms,

identifying identifying the the ordering ordering of of events events across across time, time, and and facilitating facilitating the the interpretation interpretation of of complex complex relationships relationships among among variables variables (Miles (Miles & & Huberman, Huberman, 1994). 1994). The The reason reason for for this this is is that that qualitative qualitative techniques techniques may may facilitate facilitate more more complete complete consideration consideration

of of contextual contextual factors factors and and potential potential third third variables variables (or (or confounds, confounds, as as discussed discussed earlier earlier in in this this textbook) textbook) than than typical typical quantitative quantitative methods, methods, making making it it possible possible to to better better understand understand the the true true nature nature of of an an underlying underlying causal causal relationship.relationship.

WWith ith respect respect to to mixed-methods mixed-methods analytical analytical approaches, approaches, one one very very commonly commonly used used technique technique involves involves the the coding coding of of data data into into categories categories (Duriau, (Duriau, RegerReger, , & &

PfarrerPfarrer, , 2007). 2007). These These categories categories can can be be created created for for the the purposes purposes of of quantification quantification or or qualification, qualification, making making this this technique technique especially especially useful useful to to the the beginning beginning researcher researcher interested interested in in mixed-methods mixed-methods research. research. This This analysis analysis approach approach is is often often referred referred to to as as , , and and the the goal goal with with this this approach approach to to qualitative qualitative data data analysis analysis content content analysisanalysis is is often often to to quantify quantify or or at at least least categorize categorize otherwise otherwise qualitative qualitative data. data. Although Although this this may may sound sound confusing confusing or or somehow somehow contradictory contradictory to to the the goal goal of of qualitative qualitative research, research,

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it it really really is is not. not. Such Such organization organization is is often often applied applied to to help help identify identify the the qualitative qualitative content content areas areas that that are are of of highest highest importance importance or or greatest greatest prevalence.prevalence.

The The qualitative qualitative aspect aspect of of this this analytical analytical approach approach comes comes into into play play during during the the formation formation of of content content categories. categories. In In addition, addition, once once the the categories categories are are formed formed and and data data are are sorted, sorted, a a new new door door may may be be opened opened to to more more discussion discussion or or additional additional data data collection collection to to try try to to explain explain the the initial initial categorization categorization findings. findings. Content Content categories categories may may be be defined defined beforehand, beforehand, based based on on existing existing theory theory and/or and/or relevant relevant literature, literature, or or

they they may may be be developed developed from from the the data data themsethemselves lves once once they they are are collected. collected. This This latter latter form form is is often often referred referred to to as as , , although although it it is is common common to to see see thematic thematic codingcoding contentcontent thematic thematic codingcoding and and used used interchangeablyinterchangeably..

As As summarized summarized in in Duriau Duriau et et al. al. (2007), (2007), there there are are multiple multiple sets sets of of guidelines guidelines in in the the literature literature regarding regarding the the proper proper steps steps in in a a content content analysis. analysis. One One of of the the most most common common ones ones is is associated associated with with WWebereber’’s s (1990) (1990) discussion discussion of of the the content-coding content-coding process. process. TTable able 17.2 17.2 summarizes summarizes these these steps, steps, also also adapting adapting the the simplified simplified presenta-presenta- tion tion made made by by Duriau Duriau et et al.al.

Thematic Thematic coding coding differs differs from from otherother, , more more quantitatively quantitatively oriented oriented forms forms of of content content coding. coding. The The goal goal of of thematic thematic coding coding is is typically typically to to extract extract representative representative or or meaningful meaningful themes themes from from a a set set of of data. data. TTypicallyypically, , these these data data are are verbal verbal in in nature, nature, either either collected collected via via open-ended open-ended survey survey or or interview interview questions, questions, or or extracted extracted from from communication communication records records (e.g., (e.g., e-mail e-mail or or Internet Internet chat chat logs). logs). Thematic Thematic coding coding also also can can be be used used with with records records of of speeches speeches or or recorded recorded dialogues dialogues between between people. people. Con-Con-

ceptuallyceptually, , the the same same strategies strategies used used when when extracting extracting themes themes from from any any of of these these forms forms of of data data could could be be used used with with a a video video of of a a person’person’s s movements movements or or nonverbal nonverbal behaviors behaviors as as well, well, although although there there are are not not many many good good examples examples of of this this analytical analytical technique technique being being applied applied to to these these types types of of data.data.

In In thematic thematic coding, coding, the the first first task task of of the the researcher researcher is is typically typically to to familiarize familiarize oneself oneself with with the the data data that that have have been been collected. collected. By By reviewing reviewing the the material material closely closely and and comparing comparing one one person’person’s s responses responses to to anotheranother’’s; s; for for example, example, the the researcher researcher will will likely likely start start to to see see patterns patterns emerge emerge in in the the responses. responses. For For example, example, when when doing doing organizational organizational surveys surveys regarding regarding employee employee satisfaction satisfaction or or morale, morale, it it is is common common to to ask ask respondents respondents to to provide provide “any “any other other comments” comments” they they might might have have regarding regarding

TTable able 17.2 17.2 Common Common Content Content Analysis Analysis StepsSteps

1.1. Define Define the the recording recording unit unit (word, (word, phrase, phrase, sentence, sentence, paragraph).paragraph). 2.2. Define Define the the coding coding categories.categories. 3.3. TTest est the the coding coding by by applying applying it it to to a a sample sample of of your your collected collected data.data. 4.4. Assess Assess the the accuracy accuracy and and reliability reliability of of this this sample sample codincoding g (perhaps (perhaps using using multiple multiple coders coders to to check check for for intercoder intercoder consistency).consistency). 5.5. Revise Revise the the coding coding rules rules and/or and/or instructions instructions to to improve improve consistency consistency and and accuracy accuracy in in coding.coding. 6.6. Return Return to to step step 3 3 and and run run the the cycle cycle until until you you achieve achieve sufficient sufficient consistency consistency and and accuracy accuracy in in coding.coding. 7.7. Code Code all all data.data. 8.8. Assess Assess overall overall consistency consistency and and accuracy accuracy of of the the codings.codings.

Note:Note: Adapted Adapted from from WWeber eber (1990, (1990, pp. pp. 21–25), 21–25), and and Duriau Duriau et et al. al. (2007, (2007, p. p. 19).19).

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what what is is more more or or less less satisfying satisfying to to them them at at work. work. As As one one begins begins to to sift sift through through these these responses, responses, it it typically typically becomes becomes clear clear that that most most issues issues will will fall fall into into a a smaller smaller subset subset of of categories, categories, often often involving involving paypay, , supervisors supervisors or or management, management, coworkers, coworkers, work work environment environment concerns, concerns, and and aspects aspects of of the the job job itself. itself. In In addition, addition, if if the the job job

is is a a service service job, job, it it is is not not uncommon uncommon to to see see a a thread thread of of responses responses all all related related to to interactions interactions with with difficult difficult customers.customers.

By By sorting sorting and and labeling labeling responses responses into into thematic thematic categories, categories, the the qualitative qualitative research research can can begin begin to to make make sense sense of of the the rich rich information information that that has has been been provided. provided. The The goal goal in in thematic thematic coding coding is is not not necessarily necessarily to to quantify quantify the the number number of of responses responses per per category category (although (although that that is is always always an an option) option) but but rather rather to to identify identify which which cat-cat-

egories egories are are most most prevalent prevalent and/or and/or important important to to respondents respondents and and then then to to dig dig into into the the responses responses in in those those categories categories to to start start to to make make sense sense of of whatever whatever phenomenon phenomenon

is is under under studystudy. . As As an an example, example, consider consider a a study study by by Santos, Santos, Ortiz, Ortiz, Morales, Morales, and and Rosales Rosales (2007) (2007) in in which which the the meaning meaning of of ethnic ethnic identity identity was was explored, explored, with with an an

emphasis emphasis on on how how this this was was associated associated with with students’students’ adjustment adjustment to to college college in in ethni-ethni- cally cally diverse diverse college college settings.settings.

Although Although some some studies studies regarding regarding these these issues issues had had been been performed performed with with quanti-quanti- tative tative surveys, surveys, Santos Santos et et al. al. decided decided to to lean lean more more on on qualitative qualitative semistructured semistructured

interviews interviews with with each each participant participant as as their their data data collection collection strategystrategy. . The The semistructured semistructured nature nature of of these these interviews interviews means means that that while while all all students students werwere e asked asked the the same same 13 13 general general questions, questions, additional additional probe probe or or follow-up follow-up questions questions were were also also used used if if neces-neces- sary sary to to elicit elicit sufficient sufficient detail detail from from respondents respondents regarding regarding the the five five core core issues issues Santos Santos et et al. al. were were interested interested in in examining: examining: (1) (1) ethnic ethnic identification, identification, (2) (2) personal personal meaning meaning of of ethnicityethnicity, , (3) (3) expressions expressions of of ethnicityethnicity, , (4) (4) influences influences of of interethnic interethnic interactions interactions on on ethnicityethnicity, , and and (5) (5) sociohistorical sociohistorical forces forces that that have have impinged impinged on on ethnic ethnic identityidentity..

The The data data from from these these interviews interviews were were then then content content analyzed analyzed to to identify identify repre-repre- sentative sentative themes. themes. TTo o minimize minimize the the influence influence of of the the two two primary primary researchers’researchers’

experience experience in in this this area area of of studystudy, , they they used used the the skills skills of of two two student student assistants assistants (the (the last last two two authors authors on on the the paper) paper) to to assist assist in in the the coding. coding. Nevertheless, Nevertheless, despite despite this this

precaution, precaution, Santos Santos et et al. al. (2007) (2007) clearly clearly note note that that because because they they are are all all of of Latino Latino heritage, heritage, “bias “bias may may have have unintentionally unintentionally entered entered the the data data analysis analysis process” process”

(p. (p. 106). 106). The The steps steps in in their their content content analysis analysis followed followed very very closely closely those those outlined outlined by by WWeber eber (1990) (1990) and and summarized summarized in in TTable able 17.2. 17.2. At At multiple multiple points, points, the the consis-consis-

tency tency among among codings codings was was checked checked with with inter-rater inter-rater or or intercoder intercoder reliability reliability esti-esti- mates. mates. Defined Defined themes themes served served as as the the core core categories categories into into which which the the interview interview data data were were separated.separated.

From From this this careful careful approach approach to to qualitative qualitative content content analysis analysis and and thematic thematic coding, coding, Santos Santos et et al. al. (2007) (2007) identified identified nine nine themes themes associated associated with with ethnic ethnic diversity diversity and and the the

student student participants’participants’ experience experience on on college college campuses. campuses. These These themes themes could could be be further further grouped grouped into into positive positive and and negative negative groupings. groupings. The The positive positive themes themes included included sense sense of of belonging, belonging, multicultural multicultural competence, competence, evolving evolving ethnic ethnic identityidentity, , interethnic interethnic connectedness, connectedness, and and politicized politicized ethnicityethnicity. . The The negative negative themes themes were were ethnic ethnic discom-discom- fort, fort, perceived perceived discrimination, discrimination, interethnic interethnic tension, tension, and and ethnic ethnic segregation segregation (p. (p. 107).107).

Instead Instead of of merely merely reporting reporting the the prevalence prevalence of of these these types types of of themes themes in in a a quan-quan- titative titative summary summary table table (what (what would would be be a a very very nonqualitative nonqualitative analysis analysis of of qualitative qualitative

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TTable able 17.3 17.3 Themes Themes and and Supporting Supporting Example Example Interview Interview Responses Responses from from Santos Santos et et al. al. (2007)(2007)

ThemesThemes Illustration/exampleIllustration/example

Positive Positive themesthemes Sense Sense of of belongingbelonging There There is is so so much much diversity diversity [here], [here], it it helps helps me me to to feel feel comfortable comfortable

and and if if people people do do look look at at me me differentlydifferently, , I I do do not not notice notice it. it. I I do do not not think think people people look look at at me me and and saysay, , “Look “Look there there is is a a Korean Korean girl.” girl.” No, No, it’it’s s just just another another . . . . . . student. student. (from (from a a Korean Korean American American participant)participant)

Multicultural Multicultural competencecompetence I I like like the the diversitydiversity, , there’there’s s a a good good blend blend here. here. . . . . YYou ou don’t don’t understand understand how how people people are are unless unless you’re you’re in in contact contact with with them them and and talk talk to to them. them. I I think think being being here here has has helped helped me me understand understand the the plight plight of of different different ethnic ethnic groups.groups.

Interethnic Interethnic connectednessconnectedness Everyone Everyone here here is is an an [campus [campus mascot mascot name]. name]. WWe e are are all all the the same same age age basically basically . . . . . . so so it’it’s s easy easy to to find find people people that that have have the the same same interest. interest. When When people people have have closer closer interests, interests, it’it’s s easier easier to to accept accept someone someone into into your your group. group. There’There’s s still still that that common common ground. ground. (from (from a a white white participant)participant)

Negative Negative themesthemes Feelings Feelings of of ethnic ethnic discomfortdiscomfort I I am am not not sure sure what what it it means means to to be be White White reallyreally. . There There are are so so

many many functions, functions, like like Black Black History History Month, Month, the the Cinco Cinco de de Mayo Mayo celebration, celebration, and and there’there’s s not not really really a a White White celebration. celebration. I I don’t don’t really really see see anything anything on on this this campus campus for for my my culture. culture. I I kind kind of of feel feel left left out. out. (from (from a a white white participant)participant)

Perceptions Perceptions of of discriminationdiscrimination I I just just feel feel that that being being an an Asian Asian minority minority is is limiting. limiting. Like, Like, you you knowknow. . If If you’re you’re supposedly supposedly going going [here] [here] there’there’s s a a lot lot of of Asians Asians there. there. YYou ou might might have have a a better better GPGPAA than than another another person person of of a a different different ethnic ethnic group group that that you you hardly hardly see see at at that that school; school; they’ll they’ll get get in in before before you you because because of of their their ethnic ethnic background background and and race. race. I I thought thought that that was was pretty pretty unfairunfair..

Interethnic Interethnic tensiontension Caucasians Caucasians move move back back a a little little to to let let you you through. through. They They do do this this to to prevent prevent any any type type of of conflict conflict between between African African Americans Americans and and Caucasians. Caucasians. I I guess guess I I can can understand understand that that [whites] [whites] just just want want to to avoid avoid a a conflict, conflict, but but they they act act as as though, though, gosh gosh you you knowknow, , [African [African Americans] Americans] might might try try and and beat beat me me up up oor r something.something.

data), data), Santos Santos et et al. al. (2007) (2007) used used the the qualitative qualitative data data from from the the interviews interviews to to further further describe describe and and illustrate illustrate each each of of these these nine nine themes. themes. There There is is insufficient insufficient space space here here to to represent represent all all of of this, this, but but to to give give you you a a sense sense for for these these illustrations, illustrations, TTable able 17.3 17.3 captures captures a a few few examples examples of of the the positive positive and and negative negative themes. themes. YYou ou will will find find much much more more detail detail in in Santos Santos et et al.’al.’s s (2007) (2007) article.article.

BENEFITS BENEFITS AND AND CHALLENGES CHALLENGES OF OF THE THE MIXED-METHODS MIXED-METHODS RESEARCHRESEARCH

In In this this chapterchapter, , we we have have tried tried to to present present you you with with a a general general overview overview of of perspec-perspec- tives tives on on qualitative qualitative and and mixed-methods mixed-methods research research theory theory and and analytical analytical methods. methods.