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3434 Chapter Chapter 2 2 Ethics Ethics and and ResearchResearch

researchers researchers developed developed the the Nuremberg Nuremberg Code Code (Resnik, (Resnik, 1998). 1998). The The Nuremberg Nuremberg Code, Code,

summarized summarized in in Box Box 2.1, 2.1, consists consists of of nine nine fundamental fundamental principles principles that that researchers researchers

must must use use when when conducting conducting research research with with humans.humans.

As As you you should should see, see, the the Nuremberg Nuremberg Code Code is is a a reaction reaction to to horrible horrible treatment treatment of of

people people who who could could not not defend defend themselves. themselves. As As you you read read the the components components of of the the

Nuremberg Nuremberg Code, Code, can can you you recognize recognize the the components components that that represent represent a a utilitarian utilitarian

ethical ethical perspective? perspective? How How about about the the principle principle of of rights? rights? For For example, example, how how would would

you you describe describe the the “no “no malfeasance” malfeasance” requirement requirement or or the the “social “social value” value” criterion? criterion? Why Why

do do you you think think principles principles 6–9 6–9 were were added added to to the the list?list?

UnfortunatelyUnfortunately, , horrible horrible and and immoral immoral experiments experiments on on humans humans did did not not only only

occur occur at at the the hands hands of of Nazi Nazi scientists. scientists. Recently Recently released released documents documents from from the the U.S. U.S.

Department Department of of Energy Energy reveal reveal that that during during the the 1940s 1940s and and 1950s, 1950s, U.S. U.S. government government

researchers researchers conducted conducted experiments experiments on on unsuspecting unsuspecting American American citizens citizens to to deter-deter-

mine mine the the effects effects of of nuclear nuclear rradiation adiation (W(Welsome, elsome, 1999). 1999). None None of of the the people people knew knew

that that they they had had been been exposed exposed to to these these deadly deadly conditions. conditions. In In another another case, case, physicians physicians

at at the the TTuskegee uskegee Institute Institute purposefully purposefully withheld withheld treatment treatment from from 399 399 people people who who

had had contracted contracted syphilis, syphilis, for for the the sole sole purpose purpose of of studying studying the the long-term long-term effects effects of of

this this dreadful dreadful disease disease (Jones, (Jones, 1982). 1982). UnfortunatelyUnfortunately, , these these examples examples are are not not isolated isolated

cases cases (Resnik, (Resnik, 1998).1998).

This This bleak bleak history history of of ethical ethical abuses abuses in in research research with with human human participants participants illus-illus-

trates trates the the need need to to create create and and enforce enforce clear clear ethical ethical guidelines guidelines for for social social and and behav-behav-

ioral ioral research. research. The The , , which which became became law law in in 1974 1974 (PL(PL National National Research Research ActAct

93-348), 93-348), established established the the IRB IRB that that we we described described earlierearlier. . The The law law requires requires that that

researchers researchers receiving receiving federal federal money money to to conduct conduct research research with with humans humans and and animals animals

must must demonstrate demonstrate that that their their research research methods methods meet meet minimal minimal ethical ethical standards standards and and

BOX BOX 2.1 2.1 The The Nuremberg Nuremberg Code Code of of Principles Principles Governing Governing Research Research Using Using HumansHumans

1. 1. Informed Informed Consent Consent The The participant participant must must

understand understand what what will will happen happen to to him him or or her her in in

the the research research and and then then volunteer volunteer to to participate.participate.

2. 2. Social Social VValue alue The The results results of of a a study study should should

benefit benefit societysociety..

3. 3. Scientific Scientific VValidity alidity Only Only trained trained scientists scientists

who who employ employ careful careful and and well-designed well-designed studies studies

should should conduct conduct research.research.

4. 4. No No Malfeasance Malfeasance Researchers Researchers must must conduct conduct

studies studies that that are are safe safe and and minimize minimize risk risk of of harm harm

to to the the participants.participants.

5. 5. TTermination ermination The The participant participant may may withdraw withdraw

from from the the study study for for any any reason, reason, and and the the researcher researcher

must must stop stop the the study study if if the the participant participant is is at at risk risk

of of injury injury or or death.death.

6. 6. Privacy Privacy The The researcher researcher must must preserve preserve the the

privacy/confidentiality privacy/confidentiality of of the the participant.participant.

7. 7. VVulnerable ulnerable Populations Populations Researchers Researchers need need to to

use use special special caution caution to to protect protect the the rights rights of of those those

who who cannot cannot act act for for themselves, themselves, including including chil-chil-

dren, dren, the the developmentally developmentally delayed, delayed, or or the the men-men-

tally tally disabled.disabled.

8. 8. Fairness Fairness Selection Selection of of the the participants participants for for the the

research research and and assignment assignment to to treatment treatment conditions conditions

must must be be fairfair, , consistent, consistent, and and equitable.equitable.

9. 9. Monitoring Monitoring The The reseresearcher archer must must continu continu --

ally ally monitor monitor the the study study to to ensure ensure the the safety safety of of

participants.participants.

NoteNote: : The The original original Nuremberg Nuremberg Code Code included included

principles principles 1–5. 1–5. Principles Principles 6–9 6–9 are are more more recent recent

additions additions to to the the code code (Resnik, (Resnik, 1998).1998).