Assessment T1 CW

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reality, the universe, and humanity. For instance, answers to the question "Is belief in God rational?" will differ significantly depending on convictions about the nature of ultimate reality. If an individual does not believe that God exists, it is unlikely that the individual will believe that divine revelation is possible. As will become obvious in subsequent chapters, the Christian worldview entails the convictions that God exists, he is capable of communication, and he has spoken clearly through the Bible because he desires to make himself known to human beings and to be known by them.

At times, the authority and reliability of the Bible is dismissed outright by those who do not embrace the Christian worldview before they consider its claims firsthand. While some suggest that this is a rational response to the Christian Scriptures, it is difficult to understand how dismissive attitudes toward the Bible can be rational when they are poorly informed. Dismissing a text that has proven foundational to Western civilization and widely read by intelligent men and women for centuries suggests that some such decisions are rooted in worldview assumptions rather than any inadequacies within the Bible per se. In other words, what one counts as knowledge and what one discounts will depend significantly on one's overarching view of the world.

Reliability of Scripture

The Christian worldview affirms the Bible as God's Word and regards it to be the product of God who inspired the text of Scripture through human authors who "spoke from God as they were carried along by the Holy Spirit" (2 Peter 1:21). For these reasons, Christians believe that the Bible is the ultimate authority in all matters upon which it touches and is reliable in everything it affirms.

Christians have good reasons to believe that the text of Scripture is reliable and trustworthy, including a strong manuscript tradition, remarkable efforts throughout history to preserve the Scriptures, the historical accuracy of its contents, and the uncanny accuracy of certain prophetic passages. Regardless, Christians generally trust the contents of Scripture because, as they have read it, they have personally encountered Jesus Christ and come face to face with the compelling teachings and flawless character that marked his ministry.

The claims that Jesus makes about himself in Scripture, coupled with the extraordinary story of his death, burial, and resurrection, offers a powerful antidote to contemporary skepticism. One must experience the wisdom and the power of Jesus Christ personally in order to make sense of the compelling nature of the Christian way of life. Thus, rather than offering a lengthy argument for the reliability of the Bible, the authors of this textbook encourage readers to take it up and to read it themselves in order to make an informed decision about it. Its authority is assumed throughout the material that follows.

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Convictions about legitimate types and sources of knowledge are central to what can be called a plausibility structure. A plausibility structure is a mental framework that functions like a filter by determining what a person counts as genuine knowledge and what should be disregarded. In this way, plausibility structures play a significant role as people attempt to make sense of the world and decide how to live within it. Because divinely inspired writings are unlikely to make it through a plausibility structure that doubts the existence of a divine author, a person who believes that belief in God is irrational will not likely consider Scripture to be a weighty source of knowledge.

In order to grow in self-awareness and make progress toward self-understanding, it is critical for individuals to wrestle honestly with the issue of knowledge. An honest answer to the simple question, "How do I know what I know?" may prove a little unnerving initially, but honest answers are indispensable if one intends to get to the bottom of the basic convictions that shape his or her thought and behavior each day. In many cases, people uncritically adopt the opinions and beliefs of their family and friends, for better or for worse. Without carefully considering how conclusions have been reached, it will be difficult to revisit those conclusions in a critical and constructive way.

Ethics Another key element of a worldview relates to ethics. Essentially, ethics may be understood as the systematic study of moral principles that guide human behavior. As an individual contemplates the difference between right and wrong, that person draws on deeply held values that flow out of a particular worldview. These values serve as criteria for evaluating particular actions and the morality of the people who perform them. Whatever one decides about ethical matters, those decisions will guide ethical reasoning and behavior.

Experience and intuition suggest that human beings are deeply moral creatures who are intensely interested in matters of right and wrong, especially those matters in which they have a vested interest. Moral conviction represents a strong impulse that has fueled major social changes such as the abolition of slavery in the United States and the end of apartheid in South Africa. But even in situations that do not permit careful reflection on ethical principles, humans demonstrate ethical impulses. Many, for example, sense a need to silence rowdy youth in movie theaters, report drunk drivers, contact child services at the first sign of abuse, and return library books on time, or they feel guilty for failing to do so. While motives for such activities vary somewhat from case to case, conduct of this sort can be explained in part by the fact that some actions just seem right, and others just seem wrong.

The study of ethics quickly raises questions that relate to the field of knowledge. Distinguishing right from wrong depends significantly on determining which sources of moral knowledge are reliable and authoritative. For instance, before drivers decide to hit the brakes when approaching a crosswalk full of pedestrians, they have already made up their minds about several issues that are more fundamental than stopping the car. The drivers have decided that the lives of those crossing the street are of value and that they bear responsibility for protecting those lives. The drivers have also determined that their desire to arrive at a destination quickly is not more significant than the pedestrians in front of them or their personal responsibility to protect them. But how do drivers know the relative value of human life and the nature of their responsibilities? The sort of

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understandings that impel drivers to hit their brakes are rooted deeply in values that stem from fundamental worldview assumptions.

Ethical determinations are closely connected to other worldview commitments; however, in the case of ethics, self-interest can become a major obstacle to consistent reflection and genuine understanding. People are not always as concerned about distinguishing right from wrong as they are about excusing and defending their choices. Humans are wonderfully complex creatures whose lives are driven by what they love and desire as much as what they know and understand. Honest self-examination, although difficult, is essential for gaining ethical knowledge and a clear understanding of one's true moral character.

Purpose One final worldview element worthy of mention relates to the underlying purpose for the existence and lives of human beings and the larger world. Worldviews typically entail concern about purpose as it relates in some measure to the world but especially as it relates to humanity. In the context of worldview studies, purpose refers to the underlying reason for which something was created and the ends for which it currently exists. Discerning the purpose of some thing or of a living creature can provide great insight into its nature and significance. For this reason, purpose has long been regarded as a matter of perennial concern among humans who cannot seem to resist asking, "Why are we here?" and "What should we be doing with our lives?"

Purpose also provides a means of evaluation. For example, if one wants to determine whether a race car is a good race car or a bad race car, it will be important to decide the chief end or goal of a race car. If the chief end of a race car is to win races against other cars, then the relative goodness of any particular race car depends on the car's ability to win races. Assuming the race car was not created for the purpose of providing transportation to and from the grocery store or for hauling boats to the lake, then evaluation of the race car should relate primarily to the winning of races; therefore, a race car that wins races may be considered a better race car than one that does not, because winning races fulfills the purpose for which the car was designed.

Although the matter becomes more complex when it comes to people, considering the purpose for human existence is similarly essential for evaluating individual lives, including one's own. As with other worldview elements, assumptions about purpose vary widely from worldview to worldview. When considering a basic question such as "Why are we here?" a person will typically respond with some reference to other convictions related to ultimate concern, the nature of the universe, and human nature.

At this point, convictions about the nature of ultimate reality are paramount. If nothing beyond the physical world exists, then humans must locate purpose within the physical world and, perhaps, in connection with individual preference or cultural norms. From this perspective, purpose does not necessarily await discovery because the universe has not been purposefully designed. Rather, individuals must create purpose for themselves and determine what is of significance for their lives. If a personal creator exists, then purpose must account for that being's nature and will, to some degree. In these cases, purpose is available for discovery because the universe and individuals' lives are infused with purpose as a consequence of an overarching design.

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Finally, note that a person's understanding of purpose and destiny are normally connected. To use a prior example, consider the relative value assigned to a race car that has never performed well on the racetrack in comparison with a race car that has been driven to victory in important races. The first will not likely receive significant attention, whereas the second will likely be sold for a large sum of money or enshrined in some way at a major racetrack or museum. One car has fulfilled the purpose for which it was designed, while the other has not. In the same way, destiny for humans normally is understood in connection with convictions about their fundamental purpose. Many would agree that being a good person is a worthy goal and that one's legacy depends on attaining that goal within the course of a lifetime; however, significant difference stems from disagreements about what good means in relation to human beings.

Summary of Worldview Elements Life gives rise to basic questions that are shaped by concerns and experiences, which, to some degree, seem to be consistent across time and cultures. Responses to these questions form the fundamental elements of a worldview. Individuals and groups offer diverse answers to these questions and, therefore, make different assumptions at the worldview level. Because these assumptions guide thought and action, they must be explored carefully if one hopes to make sense of his or her own view of the world and the views expressed by others.

This section has outlined the major elements that constitute a worldview and has described basic strategies for answering fundamental questions. The major areas of concern overlap significantly and tend to be interdependent. One's view of ultimate reality is of consequence when a person begins to think about the nature of the universe as well as human nature, purpose, and destiny. The same is true of ethics. Whatever a person believes about God's existence and nature, as well as human nature and purpose, will inevitably shape convictions about right and wrong.

When presented in terms of questions and answers that result in propositional statements about reality—God exists, the universe is orderly, humans are valuable, and so forth—these elements may seem abstract, and connections between them may be difficult to recognize and understand. However, when the elements of a worldview are drawn together to form a comprehensive picture of reality, like threads in a skillfully woven tapestry, the picture that emerges can be compelling.

This picture of reality does not normally surface as a series of succinct propositions like those found in philosophical textbooks. One's picture of reality normally emerges in the form of a story in which the individual plays a key role. The story features a comprehensive narrative about the ways that humans relate to the world and attempts to help the one who tells the story make sense of his or her place within it. The story that emerges is not static, irrelevant, abstract, or dry; it is both biographical and autobiographical in that it sets forth a vision of life that helps a person make sense of ultimate reality, navigate the world, and live meaningfully.

No matter how one conceives of ultimate reality and human nature, virtually everyone recognizes that something is wrong with the world in general and with humans in particular. The rationale for this reality varies from worldview to worldview, but most people sense that things are not quite the way they should be. This recognition plays a

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major role in connecting the elements of a worldview to an overarching Story, which enables people to draw the various threads of their worldview together in a cohesive way. The basic storyline is familiar: Things were once relatively good, but they have gone terribly wrong in that human life or, at the very least, human happiness is now somehow threatened. The remedy for this predicament depends on the nature of the problem, but adherents to all worldviews suggest that something must be done to redeem the situation. That something figures prominently in the ways that people tell the story and thus will emerge throughout this book at several points.

Major Worldview Families For the sake of analysis, it will be helpful to group worldviews into major families on the basis of fundamental convictions about ultimate reality. Grouping worldviews according to general family characteristics can facilitate discussion and analysis; however, this should not be misunderstood as an attempt to account for all the details of any particular worldview. These families represent some of the broadest possible examples of shared worldviews. Here, the shared elements in view derive from conclusions about ultimate reality, but other convictions will differ significantly from subgroup to subgroup and from individual to individual. While categorizing worldviews is entirely reasonable, it is not possible to delve deeply into the intricacies of individual convictions at every point. Instead, attention will be given to major features of three general worldview families and some basic implications of the assumptions they share in common.

Atheism The first major worldview family is called atheism. Atheism refers to disbelief in the existence of a god or gods and, therefore, entails an understanding of reality that makes no reference to anything or any being beyond the physical universe. The atheistic family of worldviews can be characterized, in part, by the negative assumption that no god exists, but atheism also involves a series of more constructive commitments. In other words, one who does not believe in a god or gods still makes sense of reality on the basis of assumptions about the universe, humanity, ethics, and purpose. In the case of this worldview family, such assumptions do not relate to the nature and will of any divine being, but, in principle, atheistic assumptions provide the same fundamental framework as other worldview families.

Atheistic worldviews have exerted significant influence over Western culture in the modern era; however, the influence of atheism is disproportionately high given the relatively low number of individuals who self-identify as atheists. In many ways, atheistic convictions have exerted influence through a process known as secularization. Secularization refers to the large-scale withdrawal of influence by religious groups from major areas of life, thought, and social activity. As a result, the dominant worldview perspective that guides discourse and practice within the public arena is atheistic, practically speaking. This is not to suggest that everyone in the public arena identifies as an atheist. Rather, this means that those who operate within the public sector, in areas such as the government, the military, and the educational system, are expected to speak and act without explicit reference to a divine being. The expectation to speak and act in secularized ways, regardless of one's personal convictions, is sometimes referred to in terms of practical or functional atheism.

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From an atheistic or secularized perspective, it may seem reasonable to inhibit the influence of private belief in the public arena. After all, someone may reason, neutrality is only possible in the absence of religious commitment; however, the result is not neutrality because atheistic perspectives are also committed to particular worldview assumptions. Even when one's assumptions are not religious in a traditional sense, they function much like the assumptions found in other worldviews.

Instead of insisting that an atheistic perspective is somehow neutral, the careful thinker must dig more deeply into the constructive claims of atheism in order to come to terms with the atheistic vision of reality. Just like everyone else, men and women who do not believe that a god exists live in particular ways that are shaped by deeply held convictions about the world. Thus, in order to grasp the complexity, depth, and variety of atheistic perspectives, it is important to consider not only what adherents to the worldview negate, but also what they affirm. Only by doing so can one adequately understand and evaluate worldviews of this kind.

The Spectrum of Atheistic Views

Atheistic worldviews range from relatively soft forms, such as agnosticism, which amounts to a position of uncertainty about God's existence (Greek, agnosis, meaning "no knowledge"), to more hardened positions that tend to be quite dogmatic about the fact that God does not exist. Some are atheistic, practically speaking, in the sense that God's existence or nonexistence makes no practical difference in their lives, although they are open to the possibility that God exists.

In some cases, atheists focus on a more constructive articulation of the atheistic view instead of emphasizing the rather negative commitment to the nonexistence of God. One such attempt led a group of self-described secular humanists to draft the Humanist Manifesto, which is now in its third edition. Others tend to be atheistic by default more than by conviction about God's nonexistence as a result of living in a secularized world in which reliance on scientific knowledge and rational inquiry leaves little room for God. Some refer to this sort of atheism in terms of naturalism because of its focus on nature and knowledge available through the natural sciences. Nonetheless, some are convinced that God does not exist and have attempted to come to terms with the profound moral, spiritual, and existential implications of living in a world without God.

The atheistic family of worldviews ranges significantly from the agnostic to the secular humanist to the naturalist and so on. There is no single way to think and live as an atheist, so it is important to carefully consider the ways that particular individuals think and live in order to understand their worldviews, even in cases when they share the fundamental assumption that God does not exist.

Pantheism A second major worldview family is known as pantheism. Pantheism equates god with the universe and the universe with god by conceiving of both as identical and entirely

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consistent with one another. God, according to this understanding, must not be understood as a personal and relational being who may be distinguished from the universe. Rather, the divine being or essence is more of a spiritual force or principle that pervades everything to such an extent that it is not possible to know where god ends and the world begins, and vice versa.

An influential version of this understanding appears in the teachings of the Vedanta school of Hinduism that "atman is Brahman." Here atman refers to the individual soul or personal essence of living things. Brahman refers to the divine, which is the eternal essence of the universe or the cosmic soul. Thus, the expression "atman is Braham" equates the individual souls and the cosmic soul without distinction. This notion is tantamount to claiming that god is everything and everything is god, provided that god is understood as an impersonal entity.

Pantheistic views generally recognize a spiritual dimension to human life but do not necessarily envision that spiritual dimension in terms of personal relationship. The divine is not an intelligent, moral being with a will and the ability to communicate that will to humans. In some cases, pantheists regard the physical world to be illusory and envision human life in connection with a lengthy process that progresses beyond the illusion toward ultimate reality. Progress may require multiple lifetimes, but the final destiny typically involves reaching a state of enlightenment and reunion with the singular essence of the universe.

From a global perspective, pantheism has proven enormously popular, although pantheistic conceptions of ultimate reality often prove challenging to Western minds. Nonetheless, historically, this perspective has proven compelling to Eastern minds and has exerted significant influence in the West in recent history. For these reasons, the thoughtful student will do well to consider not only the underlying assumptions of pantheism but also the reasons why these assumptions have captured the imaginations and fascinated the minds of so many people throughout the ages.

The Spectrum of Pantheistic Worldviews

The pantheistic worldview family ranges widely. In many cases, this particular family of worldviews proves difficult to define and even more difficult to connect to particular religious groups and labels. Pantheism provides the theoretical underpinnings of major world religions such as Hinduism and Buddhism, as well as a few minor world religions that, primarily, originated in the East; however, some forms of Hinduism tend to be more theistic than pantheistic in practice and may even include worship of household gods or other deities. Similarly, Buddhism defies simple labels. Some forms of Buddhism are virtually atheistic, although all forms entail some notion of spirituality in addition to physical reality.

Western forms of pantheism, such as those related to the New Age Movement and neopaganism, differ significantly from Eastern forms, although they tend to have some family resemblances. Nonetheless, it is important in all cases to carefully consider the theoretical assumptions that form the foundation of pantheistic worldviews as well as the practices of their adherents in order to understand more fully the worldview of any particular individual described as a pantheist.

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Theism A third major worldview family may be referred to as theism. Theism describes a worldview that includes belief in the existence of at least one personal and intelligent divine being. Unlike pantheism, theists generally distinguish between the physical and spiritual worlds. Adherents to theistic worldviews typically conceive of God as the creator of all and, therefore, distinct from creation and the creatures therein. God, from a theistic perspective, exists above and beyond (i.e., transcends) the universe he has created. He may choose to interact with the world and with human beings, but nothing that has been made shares in his unique divine essence. The God of theism does not need the world nor is the world part of his being. God is not the universe, and the universe is not God. Theistic views typically envision the created order as a carefully designed environment that is infused with purpose by the divine being. For this reason, theists often believe that human life should be ordered according to the divine will and that creatures owe the creator reverence, respect, and gratitude at the very least.

A theistic worldview that includes only one God may be described more precisely as monotheistic. Three of the world's major theistic religions are monotheistic: Islam, Judaism, and Christianity. A theistic worldview that includes multiple gods, such as the gods of the Greco-Roman pantheon, may be described more precisely as polytheistic. In either case, understandings about the nature of God, or gods, can vary widely from one theistic view to another and deeply impact the overall shape of the worldview.

Within the developed Western world, belief in a personal, intelligent divine being seems to have waned in recent history. At the very least, the influence of theistic views associated with the Judeo-Christian tradition carry less weight today than they once did, especially in Europe and North America. To some degree, this has resulted from the process of secularization described above; however, this has also resulted from shifts in morality, cultural values, and attitudes about the importance of religion more broadly. This suggests that cultural and societal views, such as personal worldviews, are rooted in commitments of the heart as much as the mind. Regardless, theistic worldviews continue to shape cultural and societal dialogue because of the historical influence of theism in the West and the large number of people who still identify with a theistic worldview.

Interestingly, trends in Africa and Asia suggest that theistic views have been growing steadily in popularity and influence for the past few decades. For example, some of the largest churches in the world are now found in China and South Korea. In any case, truth does not depend on popular opinion and cannot be discerned by simply counting the number of people who agree with a particular view. Thus, while these trends are useful for understanding the cultural environment in which one lives and thinks, the final tally of adherents to any worldview is of little consequence in trying to determine whether the worldview genuinely leads toward the path of wisdom.

The Spectrum of Theistic Worldviews

A theistic worldview may center on a God who created all but then left the universe to run on its own with little guidance or provision. Another theistic conception may envision God as a being who not only created the universe but also continually

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maintains it and guides the course of human history to his purposes. The first example involves a God who is personal but not altogether relational. His existence is of little practical consequence to daily life. The second involves a God who is both personal and relational in the sense that he consistently involves himself in the affairs of the created order. His existence is of practical consequence in the grand scheme of things. The point is simply that the natur