COMP 2 FINAL RESEARCH (education & leadership)

Running Head: BISON: WILDLIFE OR WELL-KEPT? 1

Bison: Better as Wildlife or Well-kept Animals?

STUDENT NAME REMOVED

Composition 1013

Dani Johannesen

DATE REMOVED

BISON: WILDLIFE OR WELL-KEPT? 2

Abstract

American bison once roamed the Plains freely in massive herds without interruption. Today, they

are isolated in small, contained groups that lack the ability to live as true wildlife. This change in

lifestyle was brought on by the near extinction of the species which was caused by severe

overhunting. Luckily, enough animals survived to reestablish the population at a safer number

despite a large majority of animals being used for production purposes. Those that remain in

conservation herds lack the ability to roam any lands other than their designated national park

areas. Bison are more than just wildlife. They are a spiritual connection, a cultural connection,

and a connection to the past for many Native American tribes. The purpose of this paper is to

prove that these animals deserve to serve the ecological and cultural purpose they once did which

requires permittance of large herds roaming the plains allowing them to behave naturally.

BISON: WILDLIFE OR WELL-KEPT? 3

Bison: Better as Wildlife or Well-kept Animals?

Thousands of massive brown blurs blaze across a flat plain while the sound of thundering

hooves hitting the ground drowns out any other sound. One by one the beasts begin to disappear

over a hill, and as they pass awe passes with them. The last animal fades from view and is never

seen again. The bison have been chased from their natural habitat, and over a hundred years after

their slaughter, they have not yet returned to their original state. The American bison is an animal

that is so involved in United States history that it is impossible to correctly account for an

inclusive historical timeline of the United States without mentioning the significance of this

animal. Unfortunately, this treasured icon of the past has been denied access to roam freely as a

wild animal as it once did. As humans were responsible for tearing the species from its home,

they should also be responsible for returning it to its original lands. Bison are wildlife and should

be allowed to live as such in their natural habitat geographically unrestricted by human

intervention.

Bison were an essential piece of Native American history. The Great Plains were once

home to an estimated 60 million bison according to Philip Hedrick’s study (2009) published in

the Journal of Heredity. With this abundant population size, bison were more than capable of

fulfilling most essential tribe needs. It is estimated that bison meat accounted for up to 90 percent

of the Native Americans tribes’ diet (Belvins, 2008). The bison became a crucial component of

basic needs, which increased its importance. The bison were more than a food source; they were

a spiritual symbol as well. These animals were so celebrated that many tribes across North

America honored them with tribal ceremonies (Belvins, 2008). The American bison was so

heavily intertwined with Native American tribes that it became a target for settlers seeking

compliance from the Natives.

BISON: WILDLIFE OR WELL-KEPT? 4

Early white settlers pushed the American bison to the brink of extinction causing Native

Americans to suffer great losses as a result of the massacre. According to Andrew Isenberg

(2020), Euroamerican hunters began killing bison excessively for meat, hides, and sport. These

reckless actions were not restricted by the government as it benefited from Native American

hardship (Hedrick, 2009). The new strain placed on bison populations not only diminished the

species, it also had a tragic effect on the Native American tribes whose lives centered around the

bison providing a source of food, supplies, and spiritual involvement (Isenburg, 2020). The

severe overhunting of bison ultimately caused the Native Americans to lose their direct

connection to all that bison provided. Eventually, the dwindling number of bison prompted a

select few to take action that would preserve the species, saving it from complete annihilation.

One herd’s survival and the actions of five ranchers allowed the iconic animal of the American

West to carry on in a new threshold revolving around production and conservation (Hedrick,

2009).

Bison have found new purpose in modern times, but few live as their ancestors did,

covering miles of prairie land. The number of bison in the United States had risen to just under

200,000 in 2017 according to the National Bison Association (2020), however, this only

accounted for the number of bison in private herds or ranches. The National Park Service (2019)

estimates that 360,000 bison are raised for production on private ranches while a mere 31,000 are

in conservation herds across the country. Despite the bison’s regrowth, these rough estimates are

still a mere fraction of the millions of wild bison that once roamed across North American

plains. Many groups have recognized this massive discrepancy and are seeking ways to correct

it. The Wildlife Conservation Society in conglomeration with the Pueblo of Pojoaque hosted

Native American tribes, politicians, ranchers, and others interested in the conservation plan for

BISON: WILDLIFE OR WELL-KEPT? 5

bringing bison back to the plains to discuss the future possibility of reestablishing bison as wild

animals in their natural habitat, uninfluenced by the constraints of human intervention (“Bison on

the Edge: Scientists, Indigenous Peoples, Government Officials, Ranchers, Gather to Develop

Roadmap for Rewilding North [American] Bison,” 2019). Conservation work has already begun

to bring bison back to some Native American tribes, which has proven these efforts can be

successful. According to Delaney McPherson (2019), the National Wildlife Federation has been

working with Native American tribes to restore the historical animal and has already returned

250 bison across the plains on various reservations. The Wind River Reservation recently

welcomed five genetically pure bison into 300 acres of fenced land in which they can roam

(Shaughnessy, 2019). The bison were driven from the Fort Peck Reservation and released upon

arrival to the corroborating reservation. Jason Baldes of the Fort Peck tribe states:

Restoring buffalo to the Wind River Reservation not only revitalizes the landscape and

brings wildlife diversity, but rebuilds our tribe’s cultural and historical connections to the

land. We are ‘buffalo people,’ and our ancestors are smiling upon us as we bring our

people and the buffalo together once again. (Shaughnessy, 2019, para. 3)

Efforts to return bison to tribal lands are crucial to the reinstatement of bison as roamers of the

plains. This work must be continued and expanded upon to reap the full benefits offered by the

American bison’s return to nature as wildlife.

The near extinction of bison and the progression of time distanced these animals from

their Native American historical complements, but this separation throughout the years has left

modern tribes yearning for the revival of connections to their culture. According to Harry Barnes

and Keith Aune (2016), tribal communities gain intertribal connections, reestablish lost

connections with nature, and acquire a sustainable diet staple. Furthermore, Native American

BISON: WILDLIFE OR WELL-KEPT? 6

tribes regain a strength in their spirituality that is irreplaceable by any other being or object

(Barnes & Aune, 2016). The spiritual aspect of reintroducing bison to territories as wild, free-

roaming animals is one of the most important reasons tribes are pushing this conservation plan.

Jason Baldes, a member of the Eastern Shoshone Tribe and tribal buffalo coordinator for the

National Wildlife Federation, explains the importance of buffalo by mentioning their past use as

a source for necessary supplies follows with: “...philosophically, we have a spiritual connection

to buffalo as a gift from the Creator” (McPhearson, 2019, para. 2). American bison have an

ecological home ready to welcome them on the Great Plains, but they also have a home within

the spiritual aspect of tribal life that is ready for the bison to return as well.

Although the bison mean a great deal to those who share a history with the animals,

many may not understand the importance of the animals' existence on public land and

reservations alike. Leroy Little Bear of the Blood Tribe provides an illustration of the bison’s

symbolism by saying, “‘If you are Christian and you don’t see any crosses out there, or you don’t

have your corner church . . . there’s no external connection, [no] symbolic iconic notion that

strengthens and nurtures those beliefs. . . . So it goes with the buffalo’” (Hance, 2018, para. 3).

This comparison can be likened to any religion or symbol of importance. For example, the

American flag relates to this idea as well‒the American flag often evokes a feeling of pride for

United States citizens. The bison serves as a focal point for an indescribable experience rather

than a concrete object; it can be a means of grounding what otherwise is difficult to connect with

on a spiritual level. The bison serves as a connection to Native American spirituality and culture

alike.

Bison serve not only as a spiritual connection, but also as a reminder of the past‒

specifically a past in which bison were so ingrained in the lives of Native Americans that the

BISON: WILDLIFE OR WELL-KEPT? 7

near devastation of the animal nearly devastated the people as well. The reinforced connection to

culture is another pressing reason Native American tribes are actively seeking the reimmersion

of bison to tribal lands. Leaders in modern day tribes feel the lack of bison does not allow young

Native Americans to fully experience their culture (Hance, 2018). Leroy Little Bear of the Blood

Tribe voices the general consensus of leaders on their reservation, “The concern was the young

people hear only stories, they hear the songs, they see the ceremonies, but they don’t see the

buffalo out there” (Hance, 2018, para. 20). The expansion of wild bison from conservation herds

in national parks to herds directly on reservation owned land would provide access for tribes

with a tool for fully immersing their youth in Native American culture that is impossible without

these animals. Fort Peck Indian Reservation in Montana is working to develop and incorporate

curriculum based on bison which would be established along the return of the animals. Tribes

with the ability to house free-roaming conservation herds would have an opportunity to interact

with the past that is unique to their culture.

Bison not only have the potential to fulfill tribal needs, but also ecological needs that

have been vacant since the bison’s disappearance from its original land. The American buffalo

once instigated “physical disturbance, nutrient cycling, and seed dispersal” on prairie lands

which provided movement among plants that benefited grasslands and other prairie inhabitants

alike according to Michael Kohl et al (2013, p. 721). Much support for the bison’s return to

plains throughout the country stems from those seeking ecological restoration which requires the

bison to be reintroduced to these said ecosystems (Sanderson et al., 2008). Sanderson et al (2008)

provide an example of why bison should be brought back to perform its ecological function:

A tiger in a cage does not satisfy [ecological movement] and neither does a bison in a

corral. But bison grazing down the grass, spreading buffalo chips far and wide,

BISON: WILDLIFE OR WELL-KEPT? 8

interacting with other native species, living in large herds, and returning to the earth when

they die‒these are animals that are integral to their landscapes. (Sanderson et al., 2008, p.

263)

The few tribes that have already welcomed bison to their reservations have experienced first-

hand how nature benefits when these animals are allowed to function as they were intended. Fort

Peck Reservation’s fish and game department and buffalo program director Robert Magnan

witnessed the improvements made by the return of the buffalo only two years after their return,

“We’ve seen the ecosystem revive. Grassland birds have returned, native grasses are thriving”

(Hance, 2018, para. 17). Ecological improvements like these are a sign of hope for future herds

that may have a better chance of roaming freely when the proof of their service to nature can be

witnessed first-hand. Bison were stripped of their ability to bring ecological advantages with

them wherever they went when they lost the ability to roam freely. Restoring bison would also

restore the benefits they provide for nature.

Although bison would bring spiritual and cultural ties to Native American tribes and

would make positive ecological changes, not everyone supports their potential reintroduction to

the lands they once inhabited. One of the key arguments against freeing bison comes from

ranchers who fear for their cattle’s safety. Freeing bison would disconnect the direct observation

that is now available with such small, isolated conservation herds. Cattle ranchers worry that

releasing the bison would also unleash the disease they carry with them: brucellosis. Brucellosis

is a disease that caused cows to abort their unborn calves which is very costly for cattle

producers according to White et al (2011). Brucellosis has essentially been eliminated in United

States cattle herds, but the risk of transmission from wildlife remains possible (White et al.,

2011). Currently, the conservation herd at Yellowstone National Park is under intensive

BISON: WILDLIFE OR WELL-KEPT? 9

regimens designed to prevent the spread of brucellosis from bison to cattle while also attempting

to allow the bison to partake in some natural migratory behaviors (White et al., 2011). These

current practices involve killing Yellowstone bison in order to protect nearby cattle herds from

possible infection; it also decreases the likelihood of releasing bison back into the wild where

human intervention would be much more challenging if not impossible. Fears of spreading

disease have the potential to prohibit bison from returning to live as wild animals once again.

Despite valid fears about the return of brucellosis in cattle as a result of allowing bison to

roam the plains freely, the chance of infection may be less likely than one would think.

Brucellosis is transmitted through the consumption of birth tissues which are only available

when an infected animal expels the tissue at birth (White et al., 2011). This means that bison

would need to share the same space as cattle during calving season and that cattle would need to

consume the infected matter before the bacteria dies (Hance, 2018). According to Hance (2018),

elk are also carriers of this feared disease, but are not contained or restricted beyond typical

Department of Natural Resources population control regulations because they are not considered

as high risk as bison. However, considering the elks’ wild existence and lack of brucellosis

emergence in cattle, one can wonder why bison are considered higher risk for disease

transmission when the risk already exists without issue in another species. Furthermore, even

with the risk the Yellowstone bison carry, their distribution is necessary. According to

“Restoring a Prairie Icon” (2011), the herd in Yellowstone is the last of 100% pure bison: other

herds are diluted with cattle genes. This tactic of preserving the species is parallel to the adage

“putting your eggs in one basket.” Should a devastating disease or natural disaster wipe out the

remaining bison in Yellowstone, it would also wipe out the last pure American bison alive. If

BISON: WILDLIFE OR WELL-KEPT? 10

Yellowstone bison were returned to plains distanced from the national park, they would, in

theory, have a better chance of continuing the purebred species survival.

Bison have been brought to the edge of extinction and back, but never relent on their

survival. Similarly, anyone who cares for the well-being of the Native American tribes who

benefit spiritually and culturally, anyone who yearns for the possible ecological restoration

dependent upon bison existence on plains across the American west, or anyone who wants to

liberate the animal who lacks the freedom to roam naturally as they once did over one hundred

years ago should also never relent in their support of freeing bison by bringing them back to the

lands on which they thrived. Bison mean a great deal to those who have had the privilege to

interact with them. Reintroducing bison to plains would allow more than those closest to the

bison to benefit from their reminder of the past and education of the future. Bison populations

will never likely return to the magnitude they once reached, but they still have potential to

thunder over the plains in a sea of brown fur that will never cease to impress all who have a

chance to witness the spectacle of the wild American Bison.

BISON: WILDLIFE OR WELL-KEPT? 11

References

Barnes, H. & Aune, K. (2016). A historic return of bison to the “Buffalo People.” National

Geographic. https://blog.nationalgeographic.org/2016/04/05/a-historic-return-of-

bison-to-the-buffalo-people/

Belvins, W. (2008). Return of the buffalo nation. Native Peoples Magazine, 21(2), 32-39.

http://search.ebscohost.com.libproxy.umcrookston.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=keh&

AN=31420893&site=ehost-live

Bison on the edge: Scientists, indigenous peoples, government officials, ranchers, gather to

develop roadmap for rewilding North [American] bison. (2019). Wildlife Conservation

Society Newsroom. https://newsroom.wcs.org/News-Releases/articleType/ArticleView

/articleId/13206/BISON-ON-THE-EDGE-Scientists,-Indigenous-Peoples,-Government-

Officials,-Ranchers,-Gather-to-Develop-Roadmap-for-Rewilding-North-America-

Bison.aspx?_ga=2.218279257.1721719817.1586384009-1096068442.1586384009

Hance, J. (2018). How Native American tribes are bringing back the bison from brink of

extinction. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/dec/12/how-

native-american-tribes-are-bringing-back-the-bison-from-brink-of-extinction

Hedrick, P. W. (2009). Conservation genetics and North American bison. Journal of Heredity,

100(4), 411-420. https://doi.org/10.1093/jhered/esp024

Isenberg, A. C. (2020). The destruction of the bison: An environmental history. TJ International

Ltd. https://books.google.com/books?id=yljPDwAAQBAJ&lpg=PR9&ots=WFQ2

kfVPYl&dq=bison%20history&lr&pg=PR6#v=onepage&q=bison%20history&f=false

BISON: WILDLIFE OR WELL-KEPT? 12

Kohl, M. T., Krausman, P. R., Kunkel, K., & Williams, D. M. (2013). Bison versus cattle: Are

they ecologically synonymous? Rangeland Ecology and Management, 66(6), 721-731.

https://doi.org/10.2111/REM-D-12-00113.1

McPherson, D. (2020). When a treasured relative returns. National Wildlife (World Edition),

58(1), 18. Retrieved April 6, 2020, from http://search.ebscohost.com.libproxy.

umcrookston.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=pwh&AN=140060664&site=ehost-live

National Bison Association. (2020). Bison by the numbers [Webpage]. Retrieved from

https://bisoncentral.com/bison-by-the-numbers/

National Park Service. (2019). Protecting Bison [Webpage]. Retrieved from https://www.nps.

gov/subjects/bison/protecting-bison.htm

Restoring a prairie icon. (2011). National Wildlife (World Edition), 50(1), 20-25. Retrieved from

http://search.ebscohost.com.libproxy.umcrookston.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&

AN=75497937&site=ehost-live

Sanderson, E. W., Redford, K. H., Weber, B., Aune, K., Baldes, D., Berger, J., Carter, D., Curtin,

C., Derr, J., Dobrott, S., Fearn, E., Fleener, C., Forrest, S., Gerlach, C., Gates, C. C.,

Gross, J. E., Gogan, P., Grassel, S., Hilty, J. A., & Jensen, M. (2007). The ecological

future of the North American bison: Conceiving long-term, large-scale conservation of

wildlife. Conservation Biology, 22(2), 252-266. DOI: 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2008.00899.x

Shaughnessy, C. (2019). National Wildlife Federation unites tribes to bring new bison to the

Wind River Reservation. National Wildlife Federation. https://www.nwf.org/Home

/Latest-News/Press-Releases/2019/06-27-19-Bison-Release

BISON: WILDLIFE OR WELL-KEPT? 13

White, P. J., Wallen, R. L., Geremia, C., Treanor, J. J., & Blanton, D. W. (2011). Management of

Yellowstone bison and brucellosis transmission risk – Implications for conservation and

restoration. Biological Conservation, 144(5), 1322-1334. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.

biocon.2011.01.003