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MIAMI LINGUISTICS SERIES

'il Germanic Studies in 110nor of Edward Henry Sehrt " " Edited by Frithjof A. Raven,t Wolfram K. Legner and James c. KiI!.i A Linguistic Study of the English Verb By F. R. Palmer "t¡ Multilingual Lexicon of LinguÍJtics and Philology: English, Russitifj German, French '" By Rose Nash Studies in Spanish Phonology By Tomás Navarro Studies in English Adv"bial Usag, 'By Sidney Greenbaum General Character,',tics of the Germanic Languages By Antoine Meillet Language: Its Structure and Evol'ltion By Marcel Cohen Problems in Genpral Linguiltics By Emile Benveniste Linguistl'c Variability and Intellectual Development By Wilhelm von Humboldt Elicitation Experiments in English LinguÍltic Studies in Use an Attitud, By Sidney Greenbaum and Randolph Quirk

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Miami Linguistics Series No.8

Emile Benveniste

P'roblems in 'General Linguistics

translated by Mary Elizabeth Meek

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ro University of Miami Press

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Contents

reword vii 'fllnslator's Note ix bUsher's Note x hllnges in Linguistics

I Recent Trends iil General Linguistics 3 2 A Look at the Development of Linguistics 17 3 Saussure after Half a Century .29

ommunication

4 The Nature of the Linguistic Sign 43 5 Animal Communication and Human Language 49 6 Categories of Thought and Language 55, 7 Remarks on the Function of Language in Freudian Theory 65

tructures and Analyses

8 "Structure" in Linguistics 79 9 The Classification of Languages 85 10 The Levels of Linguistic Analysis 101, II The Sublogical System of Prepositions in Latin II3 12 Toward an Analysis of Case Functions: The Latin Genitive UI yntactic Functi~ns

13 The Nominal Sentence 131 14 Active and Middle Voice in the Verb 145 IS The Passive Construction 'of the Transitive Perfect 153 16 The Linguistic Functions of "ToBe" and "To Have" 163 17 The Relative Clause, a Problem of General Syntax 181

an and Language

18 Relationships of Person in the Verb 195 19 The Correlations oíTense in the French Verb 2~5

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222 PROBLEMS IN GENERAL LINGUISTICS

person" is its property of (I) combining with any object reference, (2) ~r b~ing reflective of the instance of discourse, (3) admitting of a sometimes rather large number of pronominal or demonstrative variants, and (4) not being compatible with the paradigm of referential terms like here, now, etc. Even a brief analysis of the forms that are imprecisely classed as pro-

nominal leads thus to the recognition among them of cla~ses of entirely dif- ferent natures and, consequently, to the distinction between, on the one hand, language as a repertory of signs and a system for combining them and, on the other, language as an activity manifested in instances of discourse which are characterized as such by particular signs.

From For Roman Jakobs()1I, Morris Halle, Horace G, Lunt, Hugh McLean, and Comelis H. van Schooneveld, eds. (The Hague, 1956),pp. 34-37

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IF LANGUAGEIS, as they say, the instrument of communication, to what does it owe this property? The questioIi may cause surprise, as does everything that seems to challenge an obvious fact, but it is sometimes useful to require proof of the obvious. Two. answers come to mind. The one would be that language is in fact employed as the instrument of communication, probably ,because merl have not found a better or more effective way in which to com- municate. This amounts to stating what one wishes to unden¡tand. One might also think of replying that language has such qualities as make it suited to serve as an instrument; it lends itself to transmitting what I entrust to it- an order, a question, an announcêment-and it elicits from the interlocutor a behavior which is adequate each time. Developing a more technical aspect of this idea, one might add that the behavior of language admits of a be- haviorist description, in terms of stimulus and response, from which one might draw conclusions as to the intermediary and instrumental nature of language. But is it really language of which we are ~peaking here? Are we not confusing it with discourse? If we posit that discourse is languagt<put into action, and necessarily between partners, we show amidst the confusion, that we are begging the question, since the nature of this "instrument" is . explained by its situation as an "instrument." As for the role of tr~nsmission that language plays, one should not fail to observe, on the one hand, that tills role can devolve upon nonlinguistic means-gestures and mimicry-and, on the other hand, that, in speaking here of an "instrument," we are letting ourselves be deceived by certain processes of transmission which in human ,societies with-out exception come after language ,and Ùnitate its functioning. All systems of signals, rudimentary or complex, are in this situation. . In fact, the comparison of language to an instrument-and it should neces-' sat-i1ybe a material instrument for the comparison to eveQ.be comprehensible -mustßll us with mistrust, as should every simplistic notion about language. To speak of an instrument is to put man and nature in opposition. The pick, the arrow, and the wheel are not in nature. They are fabrications. Language'

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224 PROBLEMS IN GENERAL LINGUISTICS

is in the nature of man, and he did not fabricate it. Weare always inclined to that naïve concept of a primordial period inwhich a complete man discovered another one; equally complete, and between the two of them language was worked out little by little. This is pure fiction. We can never get back to man separated from language and we shall never see him inventing it. We shall never get back to man reduced to himself and exercising his wits to conceive of the existence of another. Itis a speaking man whom we findín the world, a man speaking to another man, and language provides the very definition of man. All the characteristics of language, its immaterial nature, its' symbolic

functioning, its articulated arrangement, the fact that it has content, are in themselves enough to render suspect this comparison of language to an instrument, which tends to dissociate the property of language from man. Certainly in everyday practice the give and take of speaking suggests an exchange, hence a "thing" which we exchange, and speaking seems thus to assume an instrumental or vehicular function which we are quick to hyposta- size as an "object." But, once again, this role belongs to the individual act of speech. Once this function is seen as belonging to the act of speech, it may be

asked what predisposition accounts for the fact that the act of speech should have it. In order for speech to be the vehicle of "communication,'" it must be so enabled by language, of which it is only the actualization. Indeed, it is in language that we must search for the condition of this aptitude. It seems to us that it resid~s in a property of language barely visible under the evidence that conceals it, which only sketchily can we yet characterize. It is in and through language that man constitutes himself as a subject,

because language alone establishes the concept of "ego" in reality, in its reality which is that of the being. , The "subjectivity" we are discussing here is the capacity of the speaker

to posit himself as "subject." It is defined not by the feeling which everyone experiences of.being himself (this feeling, to the degree that it can be taken note of, is only a reflection) but as the psychic unity that transcends the totality of the actual experiences it assembles and that makes the permanence of the consciousness. Now we hold that that "subjectivity," whether it is placed in phenomenology or in psychology, as one may wish, is only the emergence in the being of a fundamental property of language. "Ego" is he who says "ego." Thát is where we see the foundation of "subjectivity," which is determined by the linguistic status of "person." Consciousness of self is only possible if it is experienced by contrast. I use

I only when I am speaking to someone who will be ayou in my address. It is this condition of dialogue that' is '¿o~siitutive of person, for it implies that reciprocally I becomes you in the addre~of the one who in his turn desig-

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nates himself as 1. Here we see a principle whose consequences are to spread out in all directions. Language is possible only because each speaker sets himself up as a súbjectby referring to himself as I in his discourse. Because of this, I posits another person, the one who, being, as he is, completely exterior to "me," becomes my echo to whom I sayyou and who saysyou to me. This polarity of persons is the fundamental condition in language, of which the process of communication, in which we share, is only a mere pragmatic consequence. It is a polarity, moreover, very peculiar in itself, as it offers a type of opposition whose equivalent is encountered nowhere else outside of language. This polarity does not mean either equality or symmetry: "ego" always has a position of transcendence with regard to you. Nevertheless, neither of the terms can be conceived of without the other; they are comple- mentary, although according to an "interior/exterior" oppqsition, and, at the same time, they are reversible. Ifwe seek a parallel to this, we will not find it. The condition of man in language is unique. And so the old antinomies of "I" and "the other," of the individual and

. society, f~lI. It is li duality which it is illegitimate and erroneous to reduce to a single primordial term, whether this unique term be the "l," which must be established in the individual's own consciousness in order to become accessible to that of the fellow human being, or whether it be, on the .con- trary, society, which as a totality would preexist the individual and from which the individual could only be disengaged gradually, in proportion to his acquisition of self-consciousness. It is in a dialectic' reality that will incor- porate the two terms and define them by mutual relationship that the lin- guistic basis of subjectivity is discovered. , But must this basis be linguistic? By what right does language establish

the basis of subjectivity? ' As a matter of fact, language is responsible for it in all its parts. Language

is marked so deeply by the expression of subjectivity that one might ask if it could still function and be called language if it were constructed otherwise. We are of course talking of language in general, not simply of particular languages. But the concordant facts of particular languages give evidence for language. We shall give only a few of the most obvious examples. The very terms we are using pere, I and you, are not to be taken as figures

but as linguistic forms indicating "person." Itis a r~markable fact-but who would notice it, since it is so familiar?-that the "personal pronouns" are' µever missing from among the signs of a language, no matter what its type; epoch, or region may be.'A language without the expression of person cannot be imagined. It can only,'happen that incertai~ languages, under certain circumstances, these "pronouns" are deliberately pOlitted; this is the case in most of the Far Eastern societies, in which a convention of politeness imposes

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the use of periphrases or of special forms between certain groups of indi- viduals in order to replace the direct personal references. But these usages only serve to underline the value of the avoided forms; it is the implicit iexistence of these pronouns that gives social and cultural' value to the sub- stitutes imposed by claSs relationships. Now these pronouns are distinguished from all other designations a lan-

guage articulates in that they do not refer to a concept or to an ~ndividual. There is no concept "I" lthat incorporates all the l's that are' uttered at

every moment in the mouths of all speaker!t, in the sense that there is a con- cept "tree" to which all the individual uses of tree refer. The "l," then, does not denominate any lexical entity. Could it then be said that I refers to a particular individual? If that were the case, a permanent contradiction would be admitted into language" and anarchy into its use. How could the same term refer indifferently to any individual whatsoever and still at the same time -identify him in his individuality? We are in the presen~e of a class of words, the "personal pronouns," that escape the status of all the other signs of language. Then, what does I refer to? To something very peculiar which is exclusively linguistic: I refers to the act of individual discourse in which it is pronounced, and by this it designates the speaker. It is a term that cannot be identified except in what we have called elsewhere an instance of discourse and that has only a momentary reference. The reality to which it refers is the reality of the discourse. It is in the instance of discourse in which I designates the speaker that the speaker proclaims himself as the "subject." And so it is literally true that the basis of subjectivity is in the exercise of language. If one really thinks about it, one will see that there is no other o~y;e testi- mony to the identity of the subject except that which he himself thus gives about himself. " Language is so organized that it permits, each speaker to appropriate to

himself an entire language by designating himself as 1. The personal pronouns provide the first step in this bringing out of sub-

jectivity in language. Other classes of pronouns that share the same status depend in their turn upon these pronouns. These other classes are the indica- tors of deixis, the demonstratives, adverbs, and adj~ctives, which organize the spatial and temporal ,relation¡;¡hips'around the "subject" taken as referent: "this, here, now," and their numerous correlatives, "that, yesterday, last year, tomorrow," etc. They have in co,nrnon the feature of bei~g defined only with respect to the instances ofdiscol,lrse in which they occur, that is, in depend- ence upon the [which is proclaimed in the discourse. It is easy to see that the domain of subjectivity is further expanded and

must take over the expression of temporality. No matter what the type of language, there is everywhere to be observed a certain linguistic organization

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of the notIon oftime. It matters little whether this notion is marked in the inflection of the verb or by words of other classes (particles, adverbs, lexi- cal variations, etc.); that'is a matter of formal structure. In one way or another, a language always makes a distinction of "tenses"; whether it be a past and a future, separated by a "present," as in French [or English], or, as in various Amerindian languages, of a preterite-present opposed to a future, ,or a present-future distinguished from a past, these distinètions being in their tµrn capable of depending on variations of aspl;ct, etc. But the line of separation is always a reference to the "present;" Now this "present" in its turn has only a linguistic fact as temporal reference: the coincidence of the event described with the i~stance of discourse that describes it. The temporal referent of the present can only be internal to the discourse. The Dictionnaire générale defines the "present"as "le tempsdu verbe qui exprime le temps où l'on est." But let,us beware of this; there is no other criterion and no other expression by which to indicate "the time at which one is" except to take it as "the tirpe at which one tS speáking." This is the eternally "present" moment, although' it never relates to the same events of an "objective" 'chronology because it is determined for each speaker by each of the instances of discourse related to it. Linguistic time is self-referential. Ultimately, human temporality with all its linguistic apparatus reveals the subjectivity inherent in the very ,using of language. , , Language is accordingly the póssibility of subjectivity because it always

contams the linguistic forms appropriate to the expression of subjectivity, ,and discourse provokes the emergence of subjectivity because it consists of discrete'instances. In some way language puts forth "empty" forms which each speaker, in the exercise of discourse, appropriates to himself and which he relates to his "person," at the same time defining himself as Iand a partner as you. The instance of discourse is thus constitutive of all the coordinates 'that define the subject and of which we have briefly pointed out only the most obvious.

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The establishment of i'subjectivity" in language creates the category of person-bo~h in language and also, we believe, outside of it as well. More- over, it has quite varied effeCts in ~he very, structure of languages, whether it be in the arrangement of the fórms or in semantic relationships. Here we must necessarily have particular languages in view in order to illustrate some <:ffectsof the change of perspective which "subjectivity" can introduce. We cannot say what the range 'of the particular phenomena 'we are pointing out may be in the universe of real languages ; for the moment it is less important to delimit them than to reveal them. English provides several convenient examples.

228 P~OBLEMS IN GENJmAL LINGUISTICS

In a general way, when I use the present of a verb with three persons (to use the traditional nomenclature), it seems that the difference in person does not lead to any change of meaning in the conjugated verb form. ] eat, you eat, and he eats have in 'common and as a constant that the verb form presents a description of an action, attributed respectively and in an identical fashion to "l," "you," and "he." Similarly, I suffer, you suffer, he suffers have the description of the same state in common. This gives the impression of being an obvious fact and even the formal alignment in the paradigm of the con- jugation implies this. Now a number of verbs do not have this permanence of meaning in the

changing of persons, such as.those verbs with which we denote dispositions or mental operations. In saying I suffer, I describe my present condition. In saying I feel (that the weather is going to change), I describe an impression which I feel. But what happens if, instead of] feel (that the weather is going to change), I say] believe (that the weather isgoing to change)? The formal sym- metry between Ifeel and] believe is complete. Is it so for the meaning? Can Iconsider] believe to be a description of myself of the same sort as] feeI? Am I describing myself believing when I say I believe (that ... )? Surely not. The operation of thought is not at all the object of the utterance; ] believe (that ... ) is equivalent to a mitigated assertion. By saying I believe (that ... ), I convert into a subjective utterance the fact asserted impersonally, namely, the weather is going to change, which is the true proposition. Let us consider further the following utterances: "You are .Mr. X., ]

suppose." "] presume that John received my letter." "He has left the hospital, from which I conclude that he is cured." These sentences contain verbs that are verbs of operation: suppose, presume, and conclude are all logical opera- tions. But suppose, presume, and conclude, put in the first person, do not behave the way, for example, reason andreflect do, which seem, however, to be very close. The forms ] reason and ] reflect describe me as reasoning and reflecting. Quite different are I suppose, ] presume, and I conclude. In saying I conclude (that ... ), I do not describe myself as occupied in concluding; what could the activity of "concluding" be? I do not represent myself as being in the process of supposing aI)d presuming when I say ] suppose, I presume. I conclude indicates· that, in .the situation' set forth, I extracta .relationship of conclusion touching on a given fact. It is this logical relation- ship which is materialized in a personal verb. Similarly, I suppose and I pre- sume, are veryfar from I pose and I resume. In I suppose and I presume, there is an indication of attitude, not a description of an operation. By including I suppose and I presume in my discourse, I imply that I am taking a certain attitude with regard to th~utteraIicè that follows. It will have been noted that all the verbs cited are followed by that and a proposition; this proposition

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Subjectivity in Language 229

is the real utterance, not the persónal verb form that governs it. But on the other hand, that personal form is, one might say, the indicator of subjectivity. It gives the assertion that follows the subjective context"c-doubt, presumption, inference-suited to characterize the attitude of the speaker with respect to the statement he is making. This manifestation of subjectivity does notstand out except in the first person. One can hardly imagine similar verbs in the second person except for taking up an argument again verbatim; thus, you suppose that he has left is only a way of repeating what "you" has just said: "I suppose that he has left." But if onercmoves the expression of person; leaving only "he supposes that ... ," we no longer have, from the point of view of Iwho utters it, anything but a simple statement. We will perceive the nature of this "subjectivity" even more clearly if we

consider the effect on the meaning produced by changing the person of certain verbs of speaking. These are verbs that by their meaning denote an individual act of social import: swear, promise, guarantee, certify, with locutional vari- ants Iiké pledge t~ ... , commit (oneself) to.•.. In the social conditions in which a language is exercised, the acts denoted by these verbs are regarded as binding. Now here the difference between the "subjective" utterance and the "nonsubjective" is fully apparent as soon.as we notice the nature of the opposition between the' 'persons" of the verb. We must bear in mind that the "third person" is the form of the verbal (or pronominal) paradigm that does not refer to a person because it refers to an object located outside direct address. But it exists and is characterized only by its opposition to the person. Iof the speaker who, in uttering it, situates it as "non-person." Here is its status. The form he ... takès its value frornthe fact that it is necessarily part of a discourse uttered.by "I." Now] swear is a form öf peculiar value in that it places the reality of the

oath uptm the one who says 1. This utterance is a performance; "to swear" consists exactly of the utterance I swear, by which Ego is bound. The litter- ance I swear is the very act which pledges me, not the description of the act that I am performing. In saying I promise, I guarantee, I am actually making a promise or a guarantee. The consequences (social, judicial, etc.) of my swearing, of my promise, flow from the instance of discourse containing I swear, 1 promise. The utterancé is identified with the act itself. But this con- dition is not given in the meaning of the verb, it is the "subjectivity" afdis- course which makes it possible. The difference will be seen when I swear is replaced by he swears. While I swear is a pledge, he swears is simply a des- cription, on the same plane as he runs, he smokes. Here it can be seen that, within the conditions belonging to these expressions, the same verb, according as it is assumed by a "subject". or is placed outside "person," takes on a different value. This is a consequence of the fact that the instance of

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discourse that contains the verb establishes the act at the Same time that it sets up the subject. Hence the act is performed by the instance of the utterance .of its "name" (which is "swear") at the same time that the subject is estab- lished by the instance of the utterance of its indicator (which is "I"). Many notions in linguistics, perhaps even in psychology, will appear in

a different light if one reestablishes them within the framework of discourse. This is language in so far as it is taken over by the man who is speaking and within the condition of intersubjectivity, which alone makes linguistic communication possible.

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TWENTY.TWO

Analytical Philosophy and Language

PHILOSOPHICAL INTERPRETATIONS of langUage generally arouse a certain apprehension in the linguist. Sincè he is little informed about the movement of ideas, the linguist isprone to think that the problems belonging to language, which are primarily formal problems, cannot attract the philosopher and" conversely, that the philosopher is especially interested within language in notions thát he, the linguist, cannot make use of. A certain timidity in the face of general ideas probably enters into this attitude. But the aversion of the linguist for everything that he summarily qualifies as "metaphysical" proceeds above all from a more and more vivid awareness of the formal specificity of linguistic facts, to which philosophers are not sensitive enough. It is thus with all the more interest that the linguist will study the concepts

of the philosophy called analytic. The Oxford philosophers have devoted themselves to the analysis of ()rdinary language, as it is spoken, in order to renew the very basis of philosophy by freeing it from abstractions and con- ventional frames of reference. A colloquium was held at Royaumont whose object was precisely the exposition and discussion of this philosophy.! According to one of its representatives; J. O; Drmson, the Oxford school grants to natural languages the value of an .exceptional object that merits the most elaborate investigations. The reasons were clearly stated. It is worth- while to quote them:

... The Oxford philosophers; almost without exception, approach philo-' sophy after avery extended study of the classical humanities. They are thus spontaneously interested in words, in syntax, in idioms. They would not wish to utilize linguistic analysis for the sole purpose of solving problems of philosophy, since the examination of a language interests them for itself. Hence these philosophers are perhaps the more ready for and more inclined to linguistic distinctions than other philosophers. . For them, natural languages, which philosophers usually stigmatize as

awkward and unsuited to thought, contain in reality an abundance of con- cepts and the most subtle distinctions, and fill avariety of functions to which philosophers ordinarily remain blind. In addition, since these languages