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Diversity in Organizations, 5e

Chapter 2: Theoretical Background and Foundation

Bell | Leopold, Diversity in Organizations, 5th Edition. © 2025 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

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Introduction

In the years since the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was passed, managerial gains for non-dominant group members have been most prevalent in lower paid jobs where they supervise similar others

A social hierarchy is the ranking of individuals or groups, implicitly or explicitly, regarding a valued social dimension, such as race

Anti-Blackness: Individual and institutional attitudes, beliefs, behaviors, policies, and practices that devalue, minimize, and marginalize Black humanity, dignity, and worth

What can be done to foster diversity in organizations and society?

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What Is a “Minority?”

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Minorities and Non-Dominant Groups

Subordinated to majority or dominant group members in terms of power, prestige, and privilege

Not necessarily groups that are numerically fewer than majority group members

Common characteristics include identifiability, differential power, experience of discrimination, and group awareness

Surface-level diversity: Areas of difference that are immediately identifiable, such as race, sex, age, and some disabilities

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Examples of Dominant and Non-Dominant Groups

Table 2.1 Sample of Dominant and Non-Dominant Group Members in the United States.15

Dominant	Non-Dominant
Attractive	Unattractive or plain
Bosses	Subordinates
Christian	Non-Christian
College-educated	Not college educated
Male	Female
Married, two heterosexuals	Unmarried or in a same-sex marriage
Middle-aged	Older and younger
Native-born	Immigrants
Native, White-sounding English speaking	African American Vernacular or accented English speaking
No physical or mental disability	Physical or mental disability
Right-handed	Left-handed
Straight	LGBTQ
Tall	Short
Thin, “normal” weight	Heavy or obese
Wealthy	Poor
White/Anglo	People of color

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Quotable:

“Which types of differences are emphasized, and which are ignored is usually a choice made by the social groups that occupy positions of dominance within a society. These are the groups that have the power to make their definitions of who is one of them and who is different stick. Dominant groups not only select the qualities of difference that will be emphasized but also develop the rationale to explain why those differences mean one group should be treated differently from another.”

Edward Sampson

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Characteristics of Minorities (1 of 2)

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Characteristics of Minorities (2 of 2)

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Analysis of the Characteristics

Sometimes they do not apply to some non-dominant groups or are otherwise insufficient

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Social Categorization and Identity

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Prejudice and Discrimination

Prejudice: Irrational, negative evaluations of a group

Discrimination: Differential and pejorative actions that serve to limit the social, political, or economic opportunities of members of particular groups

Stereotype: Overgeneralization of characteristics to large groups of people

Prescriptive stereotyping: Perceptions about how people should behave based on their group membership

Descriptive stereotypes: Ideas about how people do or will behave based on their group membership

Proscriptive stereotyping: Perceptions of how members of a particular group should not behave

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Implicit Bias

Bias: Consists of attitudes, behaviors, and actions that are prejudiced in favor of or against one person or group compared to another

Implicit bias: A form of bias that happens automatically, without the perceiver’s knowledge, that affects their judgments, decisions, and behaviors

Can be tested with the Implicit Association Test (IAT)

Can occur in the microscopic amount of time individuals process information about others

Individuals motivated to avoid biased judgments show the greatest reduction in doing so

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Identity Quotable:

“In isolation, individual prejudice and racial animus may matter little; but when these are put into practice in connection with organizational processes such as racialized tracking, job-typing, or exclusion, they help shape the larger racial order.”

Victor Ray

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Social Categorization

Social categorization

Tendency to perceive oneself and others as belonging to particular groups

Involves ordering one’s social environment by groupings of persons

Social identity: Part of an individual’s self-concept that derives from:

Their membership in a particular social group

Value and emotional significance attached to that group membership

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Consequences of Social Categorization and Social Identity (1 of 4)

In-group favoritism and out-group biases

Similarity effect: Bias in which individuals select and hire demographically similar others

Can be negated via structured interviews

Attribution errors: While evaluating others’ behaviors:

Undermining the influence of external factors

Overestimating the influence of internal factors

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Consequences of Social Categorization and Social Identity (2 of 4)

Multiple group memberships: Make in-group and out-group relationships and social identities complex

Non-dominant groups as the in-group

Minority groups may favor members of out-groups and stereotype their own group members

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Consequences of Social Categorization and Social Identity (3 of 4)

Negative consequences include:

Internalized oppression: When members of devalued groups consciously or unconsciously accept or believe negative messages about their own abilities and intrinsic worth and those of other members of the same group

Internalized racism: When members of devalued races believe negative messages about their intrinsic worth and that of others of the same race

Internalized sexism: When women accept and believe negative messages about their own abilities and intrinsic worth as well as those of other women

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Consequences of Social Categorization and Social Identity (4 of 4)

Negative consequences include:

Stereotype threat: Occurs when one is concerned about being judged by a negative stereotype about one’s group

Consumer racial profiling: Differential treatment of consumers in the marketplace based on race/ethnicity

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Privilege: Normalizing and Preserving Inequality

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Privilege: Normalizing and Preserving Inequality

Privilege refers to unearned and sustained advantage that comes from one’s group membership

Those with privilege “often become angry when confronted by the fact of their privilege, having been taught to see their own accomplishments as based on their own efforts and hard work alone”1

Allies are dominant group members and others not being uniquely oppressed in a particular circumstance who work to end oppression through their support of, and advocacy for, those who are oppressed

1Feber, A. L. (2012). "The Culture of Privilege: Colour-Blindness, Postfeminism, and Christnormativity." Journal of Social Issues, 68(1)

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Privilege Quotable:

“Privilege is enjoyed by a dominant group—whether they are aware of their privileges or not, whether they want it or not, and whether they are well-intentioned or not—giving them economic, political, social, and cultural advantages over members of marginalized groups.”

E. J. R. David and colleagues

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Aversive Racism, Ambivalent Sexism, and Other New Racisms

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Forms of Racism

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Colorism

Colorism: A process that privileges light-skinned people of color over dark-skinned people of color in myriad situations, including such areas as education, housing, income, and marriage

Different from racism

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Forms of Sexism

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Discrimination Systems

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Discrimination Systems

In discrimination systems, there are disparities that systematically favor or disfavor certain groups and are reinforcing; these interrelated systems help maintain disparities by affecting individuals’ beliefs and values about color and shaping the distribution of resources, thus maintaining disparities; for example:

Residential location is related to quality of schooling and to the level of policing in an area

Differential treatment in the justice system affects ability to obtain employment

Differential treatment in credit systems affects ability to obtain employment

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“Diversity” and Non-Dominant Groups in Different Contexts

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“Diversity” and Non-Dominant Groups in Different Contexts

The study of diversity in different countries depends on national context, culture, political and socioeconomic structures, and history

The ideas about dominance, power, in-groups and out-groups, social categorization, stereotyping, inequality, and other concepts are relevant

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Diversity Quotable:

“Diversity is here to stay on a global scale. We can celebrate it or hate it, but we cannot neglect it or postpone it.”

Mustafa Özbilgin and colleagues

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Recommendations for Individuals and Organizations

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Individual and Organizational Recommendations (1 of 2)

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Individual and Organizational Recommendations (2 of 2)

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Key Terms (1 of 2)

Allies

Ambivalent sexism

Anti-Blackness

Attribution errors

Aversive racism

Benevolent sexism

Bias

Colorism

Consumer racial profiling

Descriptive stereotyping

Discrimination

Egalitarian

Employment discrimination

Hostile sexism

Identity groups

Implicit bias

Internalized oppression

Internalized racism

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Key Terms (2 of 2)

Internalized sexism

Neosexism

New racism

Non-dominant group members

Prejudice

Prescriptive stereotyping

Proscriptive stereotyping

Privilege

Racism

Sexism

Similarity effect

Social hierarchy

Social identity

Stereotypes

Stereotype threat

Stigma

Structural or systemic racism

Structured interviews

Surface-level diversity

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