Wk8 DQ - Managerial Eonomics
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Baye_9e_Chapter_112.pptxPricing Strategies for Firms with Market Power
© 2017 by McGraw-Hill Education. All Rights Reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 11
Learning Objectives
Apply simple elasticity-based markup formulas to determine profit-maximizing prices in environments where a business enjoys market power, including monopoly, monopolistic competition, and Cournot oligopoly.
Formulate pricing strategies that permit firms to extract additional surplus from consumers—including price discrimination, two-part pricing, block pricing, and commodity bundling—and explain the conditions needed for each of these strategies to yield higher profits than standard pricing.
Formulate pricing strategies that enhance profits for special cost and demand structures—such as peak-load pricing, cross-subsidies, and transfer pricing—and explain the conditions needed for each strategy to work.
Explain how price-matching guarantees, brand loyalty programs, and randomized pricing strategies can be used to enhance profits in markets with intense price competition.
© 2017 by McGraw-Hill Education. All Rights Reserved.
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Review of Basic Profit Maximization
Firms with market power face a downward-sloping demand.
Implication: there is a trade-off between selling many units at a low price and selling a few units at a high price.
Managers of firms with market power balance these competing forces by selecting the quantity that equates marginal revenue and marginal cost , and charging the maximum price that consumer will pay for this level of output.
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Basic Pricing Strategies
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Basic Profit Maximization In Action
Suppose the (inverse) demand for a firm’s product is given by and the cost function is . What is the profit-maximizing level of output and price for this firm?
Answer:
The marginal revenue function is: .
The marginal cost function is: .
Equating these two functions yields , so . The profit-maximizing price is .
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Simple Pricing Rule: Monopoly and Monopolistic Competition
What if estimates of the demand and cost functions are not available?
Managers have a “crude” estimate of
marginal cost; the price paid to a supplier.
the price elasticity of demand, since it is typically available for a representative firm in an industry.
With this information, the monopoly and monopolistically competitive firm’s profit-maximizing price (markup) is computed from: MC =
, where .
So, set price such that: .
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Simple Pricing Rule In Action: Problem
The manager of a convenience store competes in a monopolistically competitive market and buys cola from a supplier at a price of $1.25 per liter. The manager thinks that because there are several supermarkets nearby, the demand for cola sold at her store is slightly more elastic than the elasticity for the representative food store. Specifically, the elasticity of demand for cola sold by her store is . What price should the manager charge for a liter of cola to maximize profits?
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Simple Pricing Rule In Action: Answer
The marginal cost of cola to the firm is , or per liter, and the markup factor is .
The profit-maximizing pricing rule for a monopolistically competitive firm is:
, or about per liter.
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Basic Pricing Strategies
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Simple Pricing Rule for Cournot Oligopoly
When each of the firms operating in a Cournot oligopoly has identical cost structures and produces similar products, the simple profit-maximizing price (markup) in Cournot equilibrium is:
, where is the market elasticity of demand.
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Beyond the Single-Price-Per-Unit Model
In some markets, managers can enhance profits beyond those resulting from charging all consumers a single, per-unit price.
Models that yield greater profits fall into three categories:
Pricing strategies:
that extract surplus from consumers.
for special cost and demand structures.
in markets with intense price competition.
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Models that Extract Surplus from Consumers
Strategies for surplus extraction:
Price discrimination (first, second and third degrees)
Two-part pricing
Block pricing
Commodity bundling
Each strategy is appropriate for firms with various cost structures and degrees of market interdependence.
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Surplus Extraction: First-Degree Price Discrimination
Price discrimination is the practice of charging different prices to consumers for the same good or service.
First-degree price discrimination is the practice of charging each consumer the maximum price he or she would be willing to pay for each unit of the good purchased.
Implication: the firm extracts all surplus from consumers and earns the highest possible profit.
Problem: managers rarely know each consumers’ maximum willingness to pay for each unit of the product.
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First-Degree Price Discrimination
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Price
Quantity
Demand
MC
Firm profit under first-degree
price discrimination
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Surplus Extraction: Second-Degree Price Discrimination
Second-degree price discrimination is the practice of posting a discrete schedule of declining prices for different ranges of quantity.
Implication: firm extracts some surplus from consumers without needing to know the identity of various consumers’ demand.
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Second-Degree Price Discrimination
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Price
Quantity
Demand
MC
Contribution to profits under
second-degree price discrimination
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Surplus Extraction: Third-Degree Price Discrimination
Third-degree price discrimination is the practice of charging different prices based on systematic differences in demand across demographic consumer groups.
Implication: marginal revenue will be different for each group. That is, if there are two groups, , for example.
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Surplus Extraction: Third-Degree Price Discrimination Rule
To maximize profits, a firm with market power produces the output at which the marginal revenue (left-hand side of the following equations) to each group equals marginal cost.
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Third-Degree Price Discrimination Rule In Action:
You are the manager of a pizzeria that produces at a marginal cost of $6 per pizza. The pizzeria is a local monopoly near campus. During the day, only students eat at your restaurant. In the evening, while students are studying, faculty members eat there. If students have an elasticity of demand for pizza of and faculty has an elasticity of demand of , what should your pricing policy be to maximize profits?
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Third-Degree Price Discrimination Rule In Action:
Assuming faculty would be unwilling to purchase cold pizzas from students, the conditions for effective third-degree price discrimination hold. It will be profitable to charge a “lunch menu” price and a “dinner menu” price. These prices are determined as follows:
Solving these equations yield, and .
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Surplus Extraction: Two-Part Pricing
Two-part pricing is a pricing strategy whereby a firm with market power charges a fixed fee for the right to purchase its goods, plus a per-unit charge for each unit purchased.
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Two-Part Pricing
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Price
Quantity
Demand
MC = AC
Fixed fee = $32 = profits
Consumer surplus = $0
Per-unit fee = $2
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Surplus Extraction: Block Pricing
Block pricing is a pricing strategy in which identical products are packaged together in order to enhance profits by forcing customers to make an all-or-none decision to purchase.
The profit-maximizing price on a package is the total value the consumer receives for the package.
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Block Pricing
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Price
Quantity
Demand
MC = AC
Profit with block pricing = $32
Price charged for a block of 8 units = $48
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Surplus Extraction: Commodity Bundling
Commodity bundling is the practice of bundling several different products together and selling them at a single “bundle price.”
Key assumption: Consumers differ with respect to the amounts they are willing to pay for multiple products sold by a firm.
Managers cannot observe different consumers’ valuations.
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Pricing Strategies for Special Cost and Demand Structures: Peak-Load Pricing
Peak-load pricing is a pricing strategy in which higher prices are charged during peak hours than during off-peak hours.
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Special Demand and Costs: Peak-Load Pricing
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Price
Quantity
Demand High
MC
MR High
Demand Low
MR Low
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Special Demand and Costs: Cross-Subsidies
Cross-subsidy is a pricing strategy in which profits gained from the sale of one product are used to subsidize sales of a related product.
Cross-Subsidization Principle:
Whenever the demands for two products produced by a firm are interrelated through costs or demand, the firm may enhance profits by cross-subsidization: selling one product at or below cost and the other product above cost.
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Special Demand and Costs: Transfer Pricing
Transfer pricing is a pricing strategy in which a firm optimally sets the internal price at which an upstream division sells an input to a downstream division.
Important since most division managers are provided an incentive to maximize their own division’s profits.
Transfer pricing aligns division manager’s incentives with that of the overall firm, and increases overall firm’s profit.
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Special Demand and Costs: Double Marginalization
Consider a large firm with two divisions:
upstream division is the sole provider of a key input.
downstream division uses the input produced by the upstream division to produce the final output.
Upstream division has market power and incentive to maximize divisional profits leads managers to produce where .
Implication: .
A similar situation exists for the downstream division; profit-maximization leads to .
Both divisions mark price up over marginal cost resulting in a phenomenon called double marginalization.
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Special Demand and Costs: Transfer Pricing Rule
Transfer pricing is used to overcome double marginalization.
A transfer pricing rule sets the internal price at which an upstream division sells inputs to a downstream division in order to maximize the overall firm profits.
Require the upstream division to produce such that its marginal cost, , equals the net marginal revenue to the downstream division:
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Intense Price Competition: Price Matching
Price matching is a strategy in which a firm advertises a price and a promise to match any lower price offered by a competitor.
Used to mitigate the stark outcome associated with firms competing in a homogeneous-product, Bertrand oligopoly.
Outcome: If all firms in the market adopt a price matching policy, all firms can set the monopoly price and earn monopoly profits; instead of the zero profits it would earn in the usual one-shot Bertrand oligopoly.
Potential issues:
Dealing with false consumer claims of low prices.
Competitor’s with lower cost structures.
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Intense Price Competition: Inducing Brand Loyalty
Brand loyal customers continue to buy a firm’s product even if another firm offers a (slightly) better price.
Strategy used to mitigate the tension of Bertrand competition.
Methods for inducing brand loyalty.
Advertising campaigns.
“Frequent-buyer” programs.
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Intense Price Competition: Randomized Pricing
Randomized pricing is a strategy in which a firm intentionally varies its price in an attempt to “hide” price information from consumers and rivals.
Benefits of randomized pricing to firms:
Consumers cannot learn from experience which firm charges the lowest price in the market.
Reduces the ability of rival firms to undercut a firm’s price.
Not always profitable.
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