Human Interactions 9-1

The Integration of Spirituality and Religion Content in Social Work Education: Where We’ve Been, Where We’re Going Stacey L. Barker

In response to the growing concern among social work students, prac-

titioners, and educators about the lack of content related to spirituality

and religion in social work education, the profession of social work has

seen more than a decade of scholarly activity and curriculum content

changes designed to address this very important issue. This paper ex-

amines the current place of spirituality and religion content in social

work education through the backdrop of the profession’s history; through

diversity theories, including cultural pluralism, people-of-color, popula-

tions-at-risk, and transculturality; through a human development lens,

including the theories of Fowler, Gilligan, and Borysenko; and through

transpersonal theory as an alternative for understanding spirituality and

religion. An overview of the empirical literature related to spirituality

and religion and social work education is provided.

I NTEREST IN EXPANDING SOCIAL WORK KNOWLEDGE AND SKILL THAT

addresses spiritual and religious issues in both education and

practice has grown significantly in the past two decades. This

focus within the profession parallels what has happened in popu-

lar culture, as demonstrated by the overtly spiritual and religious

themes in movies, books, and music, (Canda & Furman, 1999).

Effective social work practice requires that we acknowledge the

variety of ways to connect with client systems. Effective social

work practice in the 21st century cannot ignore the diversity of

spiritual and religious paradigms represented in the United States

and across the world.

Social Work & Christianity, Vol. 34, No.2 (2007), 146-166 Journal of the North American Association of Christians in Social Work

147

The inclusion of spirituality and religion within social work is

supported by the profession, including mandates from the National

Association of Social Workers (NASW) and the Council on Social

Work Education (CSWE). The NASW Code of Ethics (1999) includes

spiritual and religious diversity in its standards for cultural compe-

tence. In order to be accredited by CSWE, social work educational

programs must include spiritual and religious issues in their frame-

works for understanding diversity and human behavior (Council on

Social Work Education, 2001). CSWE standards indicate basic areas

in which students should be provided appropriate content

In the United States, the Educational Policy and Accreditation Stan-

dards (EPAS) of CSWE specifically mention “spiritual development” in

section 3.0 (objective 7) as content applicable to understanding human

behavior; religion is specifically mentioned in sections 1.2 and 3.0 (ob-

jective 3) in the context of professional practice without discrimination

(CSWE, 2001). While EPAS does allow for flexibility within particular

programs related to mission, goals, and objectives, EPAS establishes

basic requirements for content that programs must meet in order to

be accredited. This is the context in which knowledge and skills for

professional practice are packaged in our current system.

It is important, then, to examine social work education policy

in the United States, asking several important questions. How does

the overall system support the inclusion of spirituality and religion

content in accredited programs? How has spirituality and religion

content developed? Is diversity the most helpful context in which

to cover this content? And, what are alternative ways to think about

spirituality and religion? The goal of this paper is to provide a back-

drop for more in-depth exploration of these questions.

Defining Terminology

Before moving into a further discussion of the place for spiritual-

ity and religion content in social work education, it is important to

establish some definitions of the terminology related to these concepts.

As Canda and Furman (1999) point out, it can be very difficult to

define spirituality in a way that can be operationalized; attempting to

conceptualize the term “both clarifies and complicates the meaning of

the term” (p. 57). Spirituality in the social work profession is generally

SPIRITUALITY AND RELIGION CONTENT IN SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION

SOCIAL WORK & CHRISTIANITY148

associated with the human attempt to find meaning and purpose in

life through relationships with self, others, a higher power, and/or the

cosmos (Canda & Furman, 1999). Another definition of spirituality

emphasizes the dynamic and evolutionary process through which

humans seek purpose (Cowley, 1996). In other words, spirituality is

developmental. Spirituality is also understood to encompass beliefs

people have about reality beyond the material world (Miller & Tho-

resen, 2003; Larson, Swyers, & McCullough, 1997, Barker, 1995).

Further, spirituality is described as the core, the essence, the nature

of the individual (Carroll, 1998; Carroll, 1997). As the literature sug-

gests, there are many ways to define spirituality.

Religion is generally defined as a concept that is separate, yet over-

lapping spirituality. One generally accepted definition of religion is “an

institutional community pattern of beliefs, rituals, and values relating to

spiritual concerns” (Canda & Furman, 1999, p. 60). Others understand

religion as a means to relate to the sacred (Pargament, 2002), “believing”

(Gotterer, 2001, p. 188), a context in which one’s spirituality can be

explored and developed (Hill & Pargament, 2003), and “a communal

setting” through which beliefs are organized and spirituality is practiced

(Hodge & McGrew, 2005). Similar among the various definitions of

religion is the idea of organization and structure.

Although spirituality and religion are two separate concepts, it

is important to recognize that they can also be interconnected. For

example, spirituality for many people is expressed in the form of

religion. All major religions ultimately address spiritual concerns. In

thinking about what social workers need to know in order to practice

more effectively, content related to both concepts is necessary. In the

current political landscape of the United States, the impact of religion

on social welfare and social welfare policy cannot be ignored. In an

effort to acknowledge the distinctions between spirituality and reli-

gion, both terms will be used, side-by-side, throughout this paper.

Historical Context:

Spirituality and Religion in Social Work Education

Social work was founded in the context of Judeo-Christian

principles and the social gospel movement of the late 1800s. Indeed,

religion played a role in the early development of the profession

149SPIRITUALITY AND RELIGION CONTENT IN SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION

(Cnaan, 1999). According to Leighninger (2000), “although in the

early years the field of social work was predominately white and

Protestant, it also included Jewish, Catholic, and African-American

practitioners” (p. 19). As a matter of fact, Jewish and Catholic groups

often developed their own social service agencies and schools of

social work (Leighninger, 2000).

Motivated by Abraham Flexner’s 1915 address in which he de-

clared that social work was not yet a profession, practitioners began

to systematically organize the profession. This included de-identify-

ing with its overly moralistic and paternalistic religious roots to the

point of overlooking the significance of spirituality to holistic helping.

Examining social work education was part of this professionalization

process. In 1923, the Commission on Social Work Education, chaired

by Porter Lee, determined that the core of the social work curriculum

should be practice methods (Austin, 1986).

In 1944, the Curriculum Policy Statement from the American

Association of Schools of Social Work (AASSW), a precursor to the

Council on Social Work Education, outlined “The Basic 8” content

areas for social work education: social casework, social group work,

community organization, public welfare, social administration, social

research, medical information, and psychiatric information (Kendall,

2002). In January of 1952 in New York City, the Council on Social

Work Education (CSWE) was established. It included representation

from graduate schools and undergraduate departments of social work,

seven membership organizations who folded into CSWE, and social

work and social welfare employing agencies. While CSWE continues

to be the association responsible for social work education in the

United States, its governance has undergone changes over the years

(Kendall, 2002). The current structure of CSWE includes a Board of

Directors with representation based on program (BSW, MSW, Dean

and Director), race and ethnicity, practice, and at-large. Commissions

are designated that reflect “a variety of educational issues” (Colby,

Burwell, DiNitto, Hoffman, Hollaway, Joyner, Zastrow, Baskind, Wat-

kins, Francis, & Klinkert, 2004, p. 4) and advocacy.

A revised curriculum policy developed by CSWE in 1952

stipulated that social work programs’ curriculum focus on providing

students with a knowledge and understanding of social services, a

knowledge and understanding of human behavior, and a knowledge

SOCIAL WORK & CHRISTIANITY150

and understanding of social work practice (Kendall, 2002). Accord-

ing to Kendall (2002), who was directly involved with CSWE during

this formative time, this early curriculum policy statement specifically

included spirituality content. She said, “Human growth and behavior

required attention to normal physical, mental, and emotional growth

considered with due regard to social, cultural, and spiritual influences

upon the development of the individual” (p. 155).

In 1959, Boehm conducted a comprehensive study of the cur-

rent social work curriculum and suggested that it include theoretical

content from the social sciences addressing the individual, group,

and social environment; applied foundation content addressing hu-

man growth and development and social welfare policy; and practice

methods including casework, group work, community organization,

administration, and research (Austin, 1986). Austin (1986) makes no

specific mention of spirituality or religion in the original content areas

of human behavior and the social environment, social work policy and

services, or practice in his history of social work education.

It appears that CSWE Curriculum Policy Statements from the

1970s and 1980s made no specific mention of content related to spiri-

tuality and religion. A revised policy statement disseminated in 1992

included this content under sections about diversity, populations-at-

risk, and social work practice (Sheridan & Amato-Von Hemert, 1999).

The current EPAS guidelines require that social work educational

programs include spiritual and religious issues in their frameworks

for understanding diversity and human behavior (CSWE, 2001).

Beginning in the mid-1980s with the qualitative works of Canda

(1986, 1988), the case for the inclusion of spirituality and religion

content in social work has since been built around several survey

studies (Dudley & Helfgott, 1990; Sheridan, Bullis, Adcock, Berlin,

& Miller, 1992; Sheridan, Wilmer, & Atcheson, 1994; Sheridan &

Amato-von Hemert, 1999; Derezotes & Evans, 1995; Staral, 1999)

designed to explore the attitudes of practitioners, faculty, and stu-

dents towards the inclusion of spirituality content in social work

education and practice. While most practitioners and students agreed

that spiritual issues are important for clients and would address

spiritual issues with clients when appropriate, they felt inadequately

prepared through their educational programs to address spiritual

issues in practice

151SPIRITUALITY AND RELIGION CONTENT IN SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION

Theoretical Context:

Spirituality and Religion in Social Work Education

Currently, spirituality and religion content in social work educa-

tion is found most frequently in the context of diversity and human

development. Is it sufficient to address spirituality and religion only

from a diversity or human development perspective? This paper will

examine diversity theories and spiritual development theories for

their helpfulness in understanding spirituality and religion. It will

also examine transpersonal theory, which is not as widely used in

social work, as an all-encompassing spirituality theory that is thought

to be very much in line with social work values. Transpersonal

theory posits that spirituality is a universal characteristic of human

existence and would transform the bio-psycho-social framework

into a bio-psycho-social-spiritual framework.

Diversity and Multicultural Theories

According to Fellin (2000, p. 261), multiculturalism in social

work is “an organizing concept about human diversity.” There are

several distinct approaches for viewing human diversity within

multiculturalism; these include cultural pluralism, people of color,

populations-at-risk and oppression, and transculturality.

Cultural pluralism refers to the inclusiveness of all groups defined

as cultures, the recognition of many distinct cultural groups in the

United States (Fellin, 2000). It “has superseded previous notions of

assimilation and the ‘melting pot’” (Lum, 2000, p. 89). This inclusive

concept of multiculturalism goes beyond cultural and ethnic similari-

ties and differences to include groups that are distinguished by other

characteristics such as “social class, gender, sexual orientation, physi-

cal disability, or age” (Fellin, 2000, p. 262). Although spiritual and

religious diversity can often be tied directly to traditional definitions

of ethnicity and culture (e.g., Jewish heritage as both culture and

religion), cultural pluralism leaves room for spiritual and religious

diversity that is not necessarily defined by culture.

A second form of multiculturalism developed by Lum (2000)

posits a practice approach for social work based entirely on the con-

cept of “people of color.” Although this “people of color” approach

to multiculturalism addresses religion and spirituality as it relates to

SOCIAL WORK & CHRISTIANITY152

the “external and internal values for people of color” (Lum, 2000, p.

68), it does not consider religious and spiritual issues as they present

among the majority population (Fellin, 2000), and thus would be

limiting for use in social work education.

The third multicultural approach, which focuses on popula-

tions-at-risk, includes “marginalized groups, people of color as

well as others such as gay and lesbian persons” (Fellin, 2000, p.

265). Oppression theories emphasize power and the domination of

the majority culture over the minority culture; social justice would

be achieved when a society challenges its underlying assumptions

about the minority and reconstructs the organization of its social

life (Adams, Bell, & Griffin, 1997). Fellin (2000) asserts that it is

unclear in the literature whether or not the populations-at-risk para-

digm includes discrimination of groups based entirely on religion

regardless of their affiliation with another group clearly identified

as “at-risk.” For example, the experience of a white person who is

discriminated against because of her religion might not fit under this

model because racially, she is not in an “at-risk” category. This ap-

proach could be helpful in understanding how religious domination

in a society such as ours prohibits the spiritual quest and expression

of those who do not identify with the majority religion.

A fourth, more recent, approach to multiculturalism is transcul-

turality, defined as the ability “to relate comfortably and competently in

many different cultural contexts, while appreciating both differences and

commonality” (Robbins, Chatterjee, & Canda, 1998, p. 140). Transcul-

turality intrinsically addresses spirituality because it is said to be based

on the spiritual traditions of Native Americans, Hindus, and Buddhists

and it captures the overarching emphasis of all spiritual traditions. It is

an awareness of a common point of human connection within oneself

and in relationship to others (Robbins, Chatterjee, & Canda, 1998).

Transculturality as an approach focuses on practice competence, self-

awareness, and the universality of connection with others.

Multiculturalism, with its varied perspectives, provides a useful

place within social work education for content related to spiritual

and religious issues. A multicultural perspective is already the driving

force behind developing competence in practitioners. It helps social

workers understand the ever-changing, diverse face of the United

States. It recognizes the issue of diversity from the micro, mezzo,

153SPIRITUALITY AND RELIGION CONTENT IN SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION

and macro perspectives. Multiculturalism is most appropriately sup-

ported through qualitative research approaches (Robbins, Chatterjee,

& Canda, 1998), which continually gain popularity and credibility

in the social work profession.

Despite the contributions of multiculturalism, I am concerned

that many multicultural approaches do not explicitly address spiri-

tual and religious differences unless they apply to specific cultural

or ethnic groups. Multiculturalism, when applied to religious and

spiritual issues, could potentially do more harm than good by

perpetuating stereotypes of people who identify with particular re-

ligious or spiritual traditions. Multiculturalism may get in the way

of “starting where the client is” if practitioners approach clients with

knowledge about specific characteristics of diverse groups and the

expectations that clients take on those characteristics.

Spiritual Development Theories

Addressing spirituality from a human development perspective

is “a foundational attempt to honor holistic personal development”

from a bio-psycho-social-spiritual framework (Straughan, 2002, p.

146). It also implies that a person’s “spiritual capacity is not stagnant,

but indeed develops, changes, and potentially increases” (Straughan,

2002, p. 146). Faith development, a similar concept, encompasses

the quest for meaning making and is the process of “discovering

and creating connections among experiences and events” (Love,

2001, p. 8). The notion of faith is transcendent and imminent; it

lies “beyond the range of ordinary perception and experience and

is thus ultimately unknowable” (Love, 2001, p.8).

James Fowler built on the ideas of Piaget and Kohlberg in

developing his theory of faith development; Fowler attempted to

apply his theory to people of all beliefs, whether religious or non-

religious (Robbins, Chatterjee, & Canda, 1998). He based his work

on an empirical study that he conducted over a nine-year period;

his subjects were mostly white and primarily Christian and Jewish

(Robbins, Chatterjee, & Canda, 1998). Fowler has since added to

his thought on faith development and offered answers to questions

post-modern thinkers raised with his theories (Fowler, 2001).

Fowler’s first faith stage is undifferentiated faith, which begins

in infancy (Fowler, 1981). We develop our first “preimages” of God

SOCIAL WORK & CHRISTIANITY154

through an awareness of self as separate from, yet dependent upon, the

“immensely powerful others.” Intuitive-projective faith, beginning at age

two through age six, develops as imagination plays an important role in

our lives; “God images” come from family, church, and other sources

such as the media. From age seven to puberty, we express mythic-literal

faith in which we begin to construct a more orderly and dependable

world and sort out “real” from “fantasy.” In this stage, our understand-

ing of God often takes on the perspectives of others. Meaning is not

reflective or conceptual, only literal. During synthetic-conventional faith,

primarily encompassing adolescence, we have the increased ability to

reflect on our thinking. As adolescents, there is a version of egocentrism

that results in a “self-questioning deflation.” As we hunger for a God

who knows, accepts, and confirms us, God takes on a more personal

form. Faith is tacit; people in this stage rely on external authority and

meanings are not separable from what they symbolize. Fowler posits that

most people in the faith community remain in this stage. In adulthood,

individuative-reflective faith may be experienced. Individuative-reflective

faith is characterized by looking critically at the assumptive system of

values shared with family and the neighborhood. Authority is relocated

to the self while symbols are “demythologized.” For those who are able

to move into this stage, it often happens with a literal physical distancing

from the “community,” such as going to college or extensive traveling.

While Fowler claims that very few people reach his two higher levels

of faith development, which require critical reflection, comfortability

with paradoxes, openness to other faiths, and a commitment to social

action for justice, he strongly advocates “active efforts in . . . education

in general to encourage development to the last two stages” (Robbins,

Chatterjee, & Canda, 1998, p. 254).

Alternative ways of thinking about spiritual development are

more fluid and invite “the participation of voices of those persons

often unheard, including persons other than the young, White,

heterosexual, Judeo-Christian, able-bodied, male with sufficient

resources and power” (Straughan, 2002, p. 156). Hearing these “un-

heard voices” is necessary to the mission and goals of social work.

Gilligan’s 1982 model for spiritual development proposes a process

that is specific to women; Borysenko’s 1996 model of spiritual de-

velopment presents an understanding of spirituality that connects

it with a person’s cognitive, physical, and psychosocial learning

155SPIRITUALITY AND RELIGION CONTENT IN SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION

and transformation. Borysenko’s approach focuses on “recurring

themes of the inter-connectedness between people, nature, and

things” (Straughan, 2002, p. 158) rather than a step-by-step progress.

Stage theories, in general, are viewed as too categorical in nature,

not taking into account the often non-linear nature of life experi-

ences. Spiritual development theories begin to move us away from

an understanding of spirituality as merely a diversity issue and into

an understanding that recognizes the universal, spiritual aspects of

all human beings. Perhaps, however, our current understanding of

spirituality isn’t broad enough for all people to identify with because

it is inextricably linked to religion.

One benefit of utilizing spiritual development theories in our

educational content is the parallel process that can happen for

students; while considering the process, students are forced to ex-

amine their own spiritual development and any personal meanings

attached to it. According to Canda (1988), social workers should

participate in a self-awareness process through which they develop

self-understanding about their personal biases and experiences re-

lated to spirituality and religion. Another advantage to understanding

spirituality through developmental theories is, while spirituality is

given equal footing in a bio-psycho-social-spiritual model of under-

standing human behavior.

Transpersonal Theory

While primarily a psychological theory, transpersonal theory

is being offered by some social workers as a valuable lens for use in

social work (Canda, 1991; Cowley, 1993; Cowley & Derezotes, 1994;

Smith, 1995). Transpersonal theory posits a broad, non-religious

understanding of spirituality, establishing it as the core for reaching

optimal human functioning. Transpersonal theory is categorized as a

Fourth Force theory of psychology. The Four Forces is a schema used

to categorize the major Western therapeutic approaches in psychology

towards a holistic understanding of human development (Gardner,

2003, p. 14). First Force theories, namely psychoanalytic theory, grew

from “an Age of Repression as experienced by the guilt-ridden, inner-

directed man” (Cowley, 1996, p. 664). Second Force theories, namely

behavioral theories, rejected the reductionistic and deterministic

understandings of psychoanalysis and embraced the idea that human

SOCIAL WORK & CHRISTIANITY156

behavior can be objectified and operationalized (Cowley, 1996). Third

Force theories, such as humanistic theory, experiential theory, and

existential theory, seek “more heart and personal connection between

the healer and the client” (Cowley, 1996, p. 665).

Fourth Force theory is reflective of the “new age” in which the

context of culture is existentially and spiritually void, demoralized,

and dispirited. The social work profession is attempting to “resa-

cralize a professional context that has become increasingly secular”

(Cowley, 1996, p. 668). Transpersonal literature has been accumulat-

ing since the mid-1970s and includes such writers as Wilber, Fowler,

Frankl, Walsh, Grof, Crowley, and Canda (Cowley, 1996).

As a complementary approach, transpersonal theory seeks “to

help clients expand their consciousness, deal with issues of mean-

ing and purpose in life, and legitimize transpersonal (transrational)

experiences (Cowley, 1996, p. 672). Transpersonal theory is “a

perspective on human experience, development, and therapy that

focuses on our highest potentials for creativity, love, and spiritual

awareness” (Canda & Furman, 1999, p. 161). It assumes that all

human beings are spiritual beings.

Transpersonal theory understands human development in three

major phases. The first phase is the pre-egoic phase, which encom-

passes infancy through early childhood. In this phase, the child has

not yet developed a clear sense of ego (Canda & Furman, 1999). In

the egoic phase, beginning in older childhood, a person develops “a

clear sense of ego autonomy and capacity for rational thought along

with mature social relationships” (p. 164). The third phase, the trans-

egoic, is reached only by adults, if at all. In this phase, people realize

their fundamental connectedness to others; the self has the capacity for

enhanced intuition, empathy, and holistic thinking (Canda & Furman,

1999). Transpersonal theory has a place for all spiritual traditions, as

the “ultimate level of development” may be described as union with

whatever a particular spiritual tradition recognizes as the ultimate,

e.g., God, true self, or cosmic consciousness (p. 164).

How does transpersonal theory help social work? Understand-

ing a transpersonal perspective can broaden the understanding of

what spirituality is. A transpersonal perspective, at the same time,

accepts religion as a viable way to express spirituality but does not

limit spiritual expression solely to religion. This allows non-religious

157

people to identify with their quest for meaning in life and their con-

nection to each other.

Transpersonalists view human nature optimistically, believing

that people want to experience personal growth. This is a major

belief of the social work profession as well. This growth is inward,

characterized by a sense of balance and wholeness, and outward,

consisting of “mutual fulfillment, coresponsibility, and communion

between self and others” (Canda & Furman, 1999, p. 163).

In summary, transpersonal theory values the “ideal of optimal

health or well-being” of persons (Canda & Furman, 1999, p. 164)

as does the social work profession. A transpersonalist would assist

clients in seeking self-transcendence, creating personal balance

and self-integration, and “establishing harmony between oneself

and others” (p. 164). Although transpersonal theory has not been

significantly incorporated into current social work education and

practice, this theory has been recently introduced into social work

literature in relation to the profession’s quest for spiritually sensitive

practice (Robbins, Chatterjee, & Canda, 1998).

Transpersonal theory provides a place for spiritual and religious

issues in social work, focusing on the common human experience

of the search for meaning and purpose in life and the connection to

others and the cosmos. Transpersonal theory values the desire for

full human potential, yet asserts that few people find themselves in

the higher, more complex phases of transcendence. Social workers

who use transpersonal theory should be engaged in a developmental

process themselves, so they are not working with clients from some

lower level and phase and thus placing their own spiritual and reli-

gious values onto clients or taking an oversimplified view of differing

spiritual and religious traditions. Transpersonal theory is applicable

at the micro and macro levels, and specifically adds a planetary/cos-

mic emphasis to the bio-psycho-social-spiritual perspective so valued

by the social work profession (Robbins, Chatterjee, & Canda, 1998).

Transpersonal theory is very much in line with social work values

and ethics in its view of humanity’s potential and desire for growth

and its focus on the holistic person.

SPIRITUALITY AND RELIGION CONTENT IN SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION

SOCIAL WORK & CHRISTIANITY158

Empirical Context:

Spirituality and Religion in Social Work Education

Several survey studies have been conducted, mainly exploring

attitudes of practitioners, students, and faculty towards the impor-

tance of addressing spirituality and religion in social work education

and practice (Dudley & Helfgott, 1990; Sheridan, Bullis, Adcock,

Berlin, & Miller, 1992; Sheridan, Wilmer, & Atcheson, 1994; Sheri-

dan & Amato-von Hemert, 1999; Derezotes & Evans, 1995; Staral,

1999). An early study by Dudley & Helfgott (1990) explored the

views of fifty-three full-time faculty from four institutions in two

eastern states. The questionnaire included one question that asked

respondents whether they believed spirituality is “a fundamental as-

pect of being human.” This question begins to assess a transpersonal

understanding of spirituality; forty of the fifty-three respondents

agreed with the statement. However, respondents also affirmed that

spirituality is primarily an issue related to diversity. Most respondents

indicated that they would support spirituality and religion content

as an elective course and many disagreed that a spiritual component

in practice is more empowering to clients. Respondents were most

concerned with the conflict between the separation of church and

state over and above concerns with potential conflict between social

work’s mission and values. This study indicates openness to transper-

sonal understandings of spirituality, but also indicates that, for many,

the link between religion and spirituality is still very strong.

Sheridan, Wilmer, & Atcheson (1994) surveyed 280 full-time social

work educators from twenty-five schools of social work about including

spirituality and religion content. Four out of five (82.5%) supported the

inclusion of a specialized course, primarily as an elective. Also, faculty

with a positive attitude toward religion and spirituality were more likely

to support the inclusion of such content. The concepts of spirituality

and religion were clearly defined to distinguish them from one another.

This study asked respondents to choose a rationale for including spiri-

tuality and religion content—as relevant to multicultural diversity or as

part of an important dimension of human existence. The multicultural

diversity rationale received stronger support. Areas of conflict included

separation of church and state, clients’ belief, how content is taught,

and personal conflict for some faculty members.

159

Sheridan & Amato-Von Hemert (1999) surveyed 208 MSW stu-

dents from two schools of social work on their views of spirituality

and religion content in social work education and practice. Again,

the terms spirituality and religion were clearly defined. Along with

asking students questions similar to those asked of faculty in the

1994 study, there was an intervention component that asked how

spirituality or religion is used with clients. While most respondents

said that spiritually-oriented interventions are appropriate, most

indicated they had received little to no training in their social work

studies about this practice area. Again, the multicultural rationale for

the importance of including spiritual and religious content received

more support than the human existence rationale.

There are limitations to these survey studies in that they are cross-

sectional and correlational. No causal relationships can be established,

only descriptive information for use in further research. Surveys have

the potential for bias, as respondents self-report. Also, the information

gained through a structured survey does not allow the researcher to

probe for deeper responses to the questions or to clarify responses.

One published study focused specifically on curriculum develop-

ment regarding spirituality and religion. Russel (1998) surveyed 118

MSW program directors from accredited programs in 1995. At that

time, 17 programs were offering graduate courses on spirituality and/or

religion. Most of these courses were developed recently; another 15

schools planned to develop similar content courses. A content analy-

sis of course syllabi revealed a wide range of topics covered, reading

materials used, assignments given, and teaching modalities.

Russel, Ferraro, & Russo (2005) conducted a follow-up survey to

explore the quantity and elements of courses on spirituality or religion.

In the summer of 2004, 171 MSW programs that were accredited or

in candidacy status were questioned about the number and nature of

their courses in spirituality and/or religion, and to provide syllabi of

these courses. Fifty-seven programs offered a course with a spiritual

or religious focus and seven more planned to develop such a course.

Content analysis on thirty-three syllabi revealed a wide range of topics

covered, reading material utilized, and assignments given. The research

revealed that Yeshiva University in New York had the oldest course,

developed 48 years ago, and St. Louis University has offered such a

course for over 30 years. Interestingly enough, both of these schools

SPIRITUALITY AND RELIGION CONTENT IN SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION

SOCIAL WORK & CHRISTIANITY160

are sectarian, Jewish and Catholic, respectively. Curriculum develop-

ment in the area of spirituality and religion is still in its infancy, and

the current research examines only graduates programs with discrete

courses, omitting undergraduate programs and the infusion of religion

and spirituality content throughout other courses.

There has also been research conducted which focuses specifically

on transpersonal theory and social work. In an early study by Canda

(1988) he interviewed 18 social work scholars who explored potential

issues of conflict between spirituality and social work. Atheism, Chris-

tianity, existentialism, Judaism, Shamanism, theistic humanism, and

Zen were represented in the purposive sample. One prominent theme

emphasized spirituality as an integrating aspect of human experience.

Canda also concluded that social work as a profession “becomes a

means for expressing fundamental moral imperatives that arise from

one’s spiritual experience and convictions” (p. 11).

An unpublished study by Gardner (2005) investigated social

work students’ openness to transpersonal learning. This study assessed

transpersonal orientation to learning, respondent spirituality, religiosity,

and multiculturalism. It used a purposive sample of BSW and MSW

students enrolled at two mid-western universities. Students volunteered

to complete a survey. Two hundred four students responded. Findings

indicated that higher levels of multiculturalism meant higher levels

of transpersonal orientation to learning. This supports the notion

that, while appreciating diversity, transpersonal theory focuses on the

universality of the spiritual experience. Findings also indicated some

confusion for many students about the differences in the concepts of

religion and spirituality. To date, this is the only study known that uses

transpersonal assessment tools in social work education.

Social work research is often informed by knowledge from related

professions. This is true regarding transpersonal theory. Within the

field of psychology, MacDonald & Friedman (2002) systematically

reviewed the empirical literature on several assessment tools related

to transpersonal theory. There are more than 100 extant instruments

of spirituality and transpersonal constructs. One limitation is the

plethora of newly developed tools without any consistency in shared

measures across studies. Another is the poor to marginal effect size

in all of the studies reporting significant relationships between some

element of spirituality and functioning. There is no “empirically-based

161SPIRITUALITY AND RELIGION CONTENT IN SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION

organizational model through which the findings could be structured

and interpreted” (p. 114). MacDonald offers a five-dimension model

based on a factor analysis of all spirituality instruments; it includes

cognitive orientation towards spirituality, experiential/phenomeno-

logical dimension, existential well-being, paranormal beliefs, and

religiousness. In short, this study concludes that the association

between spirituality and functioning is complex, multidimensional,

and, in part, a product of how constructs are operationalized.

In summary, interest in the inclusion of spirituality and religion in

social work education content is relatively new. In recent years, spiri-

tuality and religion has become a relevant area for scholarly research.

As demonstrated in the literature, scholars have addressed the role of

spiritual assessment in practice (e.g., Cascio, 1998; Gilbert, 2000; Hodge,

2003, 2005; Mattison, Jayaratne, & Croxton, 2000; Sheridan, 2004),

explored the role of faith-based organizations and the provision of social

services (e.g., Cnaan, 1999), emphasized the significance of spirituality

and religion as a way of coping (e.g., Curlin, Roach, Gorawara-Bhat,

Lantos, & Chin, 2005; Galek, Flannelly, Vane, & Galek, 2005), and the

differential use of spirituality and religion among specific populations

and with particular problem areas (i.e., Andrews & Marotta, 2005,

Frame, Uphold, Shehan, & Reid, 2005; Galek, Flannelly, & Galek,

2005; Jackson, Paul, & Cook, 2005; Koenig, 2006; Neff & MacMaster,

2005 ). Finally, a plethora of research points to the positive outcomes of

spiritually-based interventions in health and mental health (i.e., Koenig,

2001). While these focus areas apply to the practice context, there are

implications for social work education.

There is a need for much more research in this area to further

refine our understanding of how spirituality and religion content

related to social work practice should best be included in social work

curriculum, and how practitioners’ knowledge and skill related to

spirituality improves client outcomes, both on micro and macro

levels, thus advancing the goals of the profession.

Implications for Social Work Education

The social work educational system has made tremendous prog-

ress over the years in recognizing the importance of spirituality and

religion in professional practice. As a result, both NASW and CSWE

SOCIAL WORK & CHRISTIANITY162

require curriculum that addresses these content areas. Educational

policy and accreditation standards have been revised to include

spirituality and religion content in the specific contexts of diversity

and human development (CSWE, 2001). Some preliminary research

explores how spiritual and religious content is included in programs

which are currently accredited by CSWE (Russel, 1998; 2005). While

this is a good start, some scholars continue to challenge the profes-

sion to move to an understanding of spirituality that moves from a

focus on appreciating differences to a focus on the common search

for meaning and purpose in life, a focus that addresses the “dis-ease”

of our times. While several significant attempts have been made to

conceptualize spirituality in such a way that it is broad enough to

bring diverse perspectives together in dialogue, this has led to a va-

riety of conceptualizations that are not used consistently across the

literature. What is a “common” understanding of spirituality that

is meaningful enough for empirical analysis? Also, we have little

evidence to show how teaching spirituality and religion content in

accredited programs is enhancing practice; social work is struggling

in general with measuring educational outcomes across the board.

One aspect of social work that has always distinguished its profes-

sionals from other human service providers is the multi-level practice

focus. As the social work profession continues to develop its under-

standing and use of spirituality and religion, it should maintain this

focus. Social work education should promote theoretical models that

encourage students to recognize the common quest for finding meaning

and purpose while embracing differences, participate in a self-awareness

process, and elevate the role of spirituality in human growth and well-

being. The way the profession defines spirituality should be applicable

in one-on-one work with clients while asserting a global impact that

will only happen as humans, individually and collectively, find mean-

ing and purpose in life. Would violence decrease? Would fewer people

feel depressed? Would awareness and concern for neighbor and the

environment increase? Would people’s ideas of self and place in the

larger context change their actions and behaviors? Would the world

become a more just place? These questions, which are ultimately of a

spiritual nature, are the goals of social work. Researchers must continue

to identify appropriate approaches to addressing spirituality and religion

in social work education and practice

163SPIRITUALITY AND RELIGION CONTENT IN SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION

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Barker, Stacey L., MSW, is Assistant Professor of Social Work,

Department of Social Work, Eastern Nazarene College, 23 East Elm

Avenue, Quincy, MA 02170. Email: [email protected]. Phone:

(617) 745-3564. Stacey is a doctoral student at the Mandel School

of Applied Social Sciences at Case Western Reserve University.

Keywords: Spirituality; Religion; Multiculturalism; Human Devel-

opment; Transpersonal Theory; Social Work Education.