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African (Black) Psychology: Issues and Synthesis Author(s): Joseph A. Baldwin Source: Journal of Black Studies, Vol. 16, No. 3 (Mar., 1986), pp. 235-249 Published by: Sage Publications, Inc. Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/2784169 Accessed: 04-09-2024 18:03 UTC

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AFRICAN (BLACK) PSYCHOLOGY Issues and Synthesis

JOSEPH A. BALDWIN Florida A&M University

Over the course of the past two decades, many of our progres- sive Black psychologists and social scientists have devoted a great deal of attention to formulating a conceptual-operational framework for the study of psychological phenomena as they bear on the cultural-survival condition of Black-African people (Akbar, 1975, 1976b; Baldwin, 1976, 1985; Khatib et al., 1975; Jackson, 1982; R. Jones, 1972, 1979, 1980; King et al., 1976; Nobles, 1972; Plumpp,,1973; Smith et al., 1979; Thomas,,1971; Welsing, 1970; White, 1970; Williams, 1978; Williams, 1981; Wright, 1974). Much of this activity has subsequently come to define the conceptual parameters of what we now regard as "African (Black) Psychology." However, as I have previously noted (Baldwin,,1976), there clearly exist some basic disagree- ments among Black psychologists concerning just what "Afri- can" and/ or "Black" Psychology means, consists of, and so on. Some have even questioned whether it should even exist in the first place. Thus, in our thrust toward formalizing this general

body of knowledge, it is appropriate that we try to bring some

degree of clarity to the meaning of the concept African (Black)

Psychology.

JOURNAL OF BLACK STUDIES, Vol. 16 No. 3, March 1986 235-249 ? 1986 Sage Publications, Inc.

235

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236 JOURNAL OF BLACK STUDIES / MARCH 1986

ISSUES IN CONCEPTUALIZING AFRICAN-BLACK PSYCHOLOGY

It is important to note first of all that although some Black psychologists have found it "difficult to justify" the existence of

what they refer to as "Black Psychology" (e.g., Guthrie, 1976; Hayes, 1972), most do at least appear to recognize basic prob- lems in the applicability of Western (white-European) Psychology to the experiences of Black or African people. Notwithstanding this, it is peculiar to observe that a substantial

number of Black psychologists, although accepting the exis- tence of or need for African-Black Psychology, do not concep- tualize it as an independent enterprise separate from Western Psychology (see Cross, 1971; Evans, 1971; Guthrie, 1976; Hayes, 1972; Jones, 1972; Mosby, 1972; Pugh, 1972; White, 1972; Williams, 1978).

It appears therefore that these kinds of issues do seem to represent very real problems for many Black psychologists, even though much of this controversy tends to border on the absurd in my view. I submit that this type of problem undoubt-

edly results from the intellectual-conceptual "dependency" (or incarceration) that Western oppression-education has indoctri- nated in many of our Black scholars, and Black people gener- ally (Baldwin, 1979, 1980b; Hare, 1969; Nobles, 1976b; Woodson, 1969). It should be clear that given the basic fact of cultural relativity across African and European populations (Akbar, 1975,1976b; Baldwin, 1976; Carruthers, 1981; Khatib, 1972; Khatib et al., 1975; Jackson, 1979, 1982; J. Jones, 1972; King et al., 1976), surely African (Black) Psychology needs no more of a justification of its existence than does Western Psychology. Although African Psychology, then referred to rather exclusively as "Black Psychology," did formally express itself in the Western world essentially as a reaction to Western

Psychology (Akbar, 1976b; Jackson, 1979), such an obscure mode of development certainly does not represent its natural state of evolution.

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Baldwin / AFRICAN (BLACK) PSYCHOLOGY 237

In so much as African people exist, in fact preexisted Euro- peans as a distinct and independent cultural entity apart from European people, then so does African (Black) Psychology, irrespective of when and how Black social scientists actually formalized it in Western society. African (Black) Psychology from this perspective thus derives naturally from the "world- view" or philosophical premises underlying African culture itself (as does Western Psychology relative to the worldview of European culture). Thus, as long as African people have existed, so has African (Black) Psychology, whether Black people ever actually formally expressed it (in the Western sense)

or not. Clearly then, the justification for African (Black) Psy- chology's existence as well as its independence from Western Psychology inheres in the fundamental distinctness between and independence of African and European Cosmologies (Baldwin, 1980b; Carruthers, 1972, 1981, 1984; Khatib, 1972; Dixon, 1976; Nobles, 1980; Williams, 1974).

Beyond these obvious fundamental problems among Black psychologists, substantive definitions of African-Black Psy- chology also evidence widespread disagreement as well. For example, according to Joseph White (1970, 1972), one of the first Black psychologists to employ the concept "Black Psy- chology" as such, and others (e.g., Mosby, 1972; Pugh, 1972; Williams, 1978), the term "Black Psychology" refers to an accu- rate workable theory of Black behavior drawn from the authen- tic experience of Black people in American society. Building upon White's conception, Louis Williams (1978: 3) proposes that

Black psychology is the psychological consequence of being Black. In this work, problems and issues of psychology have been presented from a variety of operational viewpoints, includ- ing those of Eastern, African, Western, and Afro-American experience. While the approach to psychology adopted in this treatment owes very little to each of these and other viewpoints, it centers on a general principle of the uniqueness of the Black Experience.... The general principle, Black Experience, has

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238 JOURNAL OF BLACK STUDIES / MARCH 1986

been taken from Joseph White's article ... out of the authentic experience of Black people we must build a viable Black Psychology ... this notion is central in the definition of Black Psychology.

Wade Nobles (1980), on the other hand, another Black psychologist employing this concept, and others (e.g., Akbar, 1975; Baldwin, 1976; Khatib, 1972; Khatib et al., 1975) find it applicable to African experience in general (including African- American experience). According to Nobles (1980: 31), "Afri- can (Black) Psychology is rooted in the nature of Black culture which is based on particular indigenous (orginally indigenous to African) philosophical assumptions." Nobles (1980: 35) further states that

Black Psychology must concern itself with the question of "rhythm." It must discuss, at some great length, "the oral tradition." It must unfold the mysteries of the spiritual energy known as "soul." It must explain the notion of "extended self" and the "natural" orientation of African peoples to insure the "survival of the tribe." Briefly, it must examine the elements and dimensions of the experiential communalities of African people . . . Black Psychology must concern itself with the mechanism by which our African definition has been main- tained and what value its maintenance has offered Black people. Hence, the task of Black Psychology is to offer an understand- ing of the behavioral definition of African philosophy and to document what, it any, modifications it has undergone during particular experiential periods.

From these relatively extreme conceptions of African (Black)

Psychology (Williams and Nobles), we can see that another basic point of diasgreement among Black psychologists con- cerns not only whether or not the concept of African (Black) Psychology should necessarily encompass the totality of Afri- can experience (or merely myopically encompassing only African-American experience) but also the fundamental mean- ing of the concept itself. One may very well question how such

an obscure distinction might be forged realistically in the first

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Baldwin / AFRICAN (BLACK) PSYCHOLOGY 239

place, and much of this problem in part derives from the influence of our Western training in psychology. Such training imposes an obscure kind of "uniqueness" on African-American experience apart from African experience, thus creating a pseu-

dophenomenon called African-American "subculture" presum- ably distinct in basic ways from its parent African culture. Also

evident in this controversy is the fact that many Black psy- chologists and social scientists tend to use the concepts African and Black (Afro-American, African-American, race versus cul- ture, and so on) quite differently. (I shall return to this problem

momentarily.) Some Black psychologists therefore have (pecu- liarly) found it necessary and tenable to conceptualize some form of basic distinction between these traditionally inter- changeable concepts.

A related fundamental point of disagreement among Black psychologists concerns whether the concept of African (Black) Psychology encompasses the study of all so-called psychologi- cal phenomena in the universe, including African experience as well as Western (European) experience, and so on (Baldwin, 1976, 1980b; Khatib,,1972; Khatib et al., 1975; Jackson,1979), or merely that characterizing Black or African people alone (Cross, 1971; Mosby, 1972; Pugh, 1972; White, 1970, 1972; Williams, 1978). The critical problem here seems to represent one of deciding whether or not African (Black) Psychology is to be "fundamentally relevant" to the survival condition and proactive thrust of African people. If we say "No! " then we have

obviously chosen to ignore a most vital fact of Black experience

by relegating it to the status of being irrelevant and insignificant

to a so-called Black or African scientific enterprise. I suggest that such a choice would be fatalistic and reduce the meaning and value of African (Black) Psychology for the Black world to blatant and irresponsible worthlessness. On the other hand, however, if we say "Yes!" and surely most of us recognize this logical necessity, then it seems clear that a psychology that focuses exclusively on African (Black) experience would contrib-

ute little toward enhancing the survival of African people given

that many impediments to Black survival reside in the social

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240 JOURNAL OF BLACK STUDIES / MARCH 1986

universe outside of the boundaries of African experience. I hope that as we move toward greater clarity in the meaning of African (Black) Psychology, we will achieve greater clarity concomitantly in its scope.

THE LOCUS OF PROBLEMS IN DEFINITION

Notwithstanding these very basic controversies in African (Black) Psychology, and no doubt deriving from and contribut-

ing to them, I noted earlier that there also exists a basic tendency among Black psychologists toward disagreement over whether the terms "Black" and "African" have the same mean- ing, hence the concepts Black Psychology and African Psy- chology (and this I believe is the hub of most of the issues raised thus far). For example, some Black psychologists suggest a basic distinction between the two concepts (Akbar, 1976b; Mosby, 1972; White, 1970, 1972; Williams, 1978), whereas others seem to use both concepts more or less synonymously (Akbar, 1975; Baldwin, 1976; Khatib, 1972,1980; Khatib et al., 1975; Nobles, 1976b, 1980).

I suspect that much of this problem is subtle in its occurrence,

but it is nevertheless a fundamental one. For example, from some of the earlier discussions, it was indicated that some Black

psychologists who use the term "Black Psychology" rather exclusively also confine their focus to the African-American population. In such cases, they tend to anchor Black Psy- chology in an obscure "reactive-type" of an American- or Western-created phenomenon called "Black culture" or "subcul- ture." We also observed that others who use the term "Black Psychology" apply it to African (Black) people generally (including African-Americans). In these cases, they tend to anchor African (Black) Psychology in the African Cosmologi- cal framework, which is relatively independent of Western culture.

In an article relevant to this general problem, Gerald Jackson (1979) proposes that African Psychology represents, more or

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Baldwin / AFRICAN (BLACK) PSYCHOLOGY 241

less, the "innovative-inventive" component of Black Psy- chology, which suggests that the former is subsumed under the latter (i.e., African Psychology as a component of Black Psy- chology). From his survey of the definitional controversy among Black psychologists, Jackson (1979: 271) observed that

the appellate "Black Psychology" is basically a generic designa- tion for an emerging perspective in the field of psychology. Its embryonic stage of development is clearly illustrated in its range of definitions. At one extreme, Black Psychology has been pictured not so much as a distinct academic discipline but as a reaction to an interpretation of psychology as a "White " or Eurocentric endeavor.... At the other end of the continuum, some have hailed Black Psychology as the "third great psy- chological-philosophical tradition with characteristic strengths and weaknesses."... Much more reflective of the contemporary application of Black Psychology, Sims (1977) stated that it is "concerned with redefining existing psychological principles and concepts, and developing additional models that will reveal the strengths of Black people . . . [it will] offer behavioral guidelines that have been examined in terms of their applica- bility to the specific needs and problems of Black people.". . . At the present time, it will be seen Black Psychology is a compos- ite of reactive, inventive and innovative components and extends . . . "to the total behavior in all situations of Black people throughout the world."

Although this type of problem and obscurity indeed appears to characterize the work of many Black psychologists, certainly

most of us would agree that to speak of Black people and Black experience outside of the context of African culture and African experience is utterly meaningless, if not nonsensical altogether. As Jackson (1979: 274-276) has further noted rela- tive to his notion of the "Inventive Component" of Black Psychology,

A more germinal line of investigation, Black Psychology pro- posed, is to view the behaviors attributed to Afro-Americans in terms of their African cultural and and philosophical anteced- ents.... An African referent also provides insight into contem-

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242 JOURNAL OF BLACK STUDIES / MARCH 1986

porary conflicts between Afro and Euro-Americans by showing their origin in the basic differences between an African and European ethos.... Black Psychology, it will be seen, not only provides a rationale for why certain cultural factors continued in the United States; ... Moreover, full comprehension of the meaning and significance of the papers by [Joseph] White had to await . . . the ascendancy of African psychology or the inventive component of Black Psychology . . . prior to the contemporary expression of an African perspective in psychology . . . Black Psychology was clearly defensive in posture.... African psychology, then, facilitated the conceptual advancement.

Thus, although much of this controversy remains, it is clear

that whichever terms one chooses to employ in this regard (Black Psychology or African Psychology), one must ulti- mately be referring to "African phenomena. " Whatever distor-

tions that continue to exist in these kinds of conceptions (i.e., the seemingly unnecessary Black/ African distinction) undoubt-

edly derive from the obscure psychological consequences of our oppression in Western society itself (Baldwin, 1979, 1980b; Hare, 1969; Nobles, 1976b). It is hoped, however, as African- Americans (including Black psychologists) continue to shed more and more of the psychological obscurities of Western oppression, the concept "African (Black) Psychology" will achieve popular usage among Black psychologists as the umbrella concept under which all other psychological concerns and issues are subsumed. This approach seems to be more functionally relevant to the survival of Black people given the clearer cultural-philosophical meaning (land-base, history, lan- guage, and so on) of African (Black) Psychology over that of Black Psychology (as I have described its confused and dis- torted usage to date). In view of this perspective, in the interest

of clarity, and given the fact that these concepts are in effect interchangeable/ synonymous, we should recognize that Afri- can Psychology is what we are about here.

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Baldwin / AFRICAN (BLACK) PSYCHOLOGY 243

A FUNCTIONALLY RELEVANT DEFINITION OF AFRICAN (BLACK) PSYCHOLOGY

In an earlier article (Baldwin, 1976), I tried to isolate and organize what then existed of these various issues and develop from those relevant issues a formal definition of the concept African (Black) Psychology. Also relevant to the issue of con- ceptualizing African (Black) Psychology, I have tried to distin- guish this concept from that of African (Black) personality. It is

my firm belief that although the phenomenon of Black personal-

ity is inherently a major substantive area of African (Black) Psychology, it is not the only substantive area subsumed thereunder. This perspective obviously finds it necessary and important to emphasize such a distinction between the concepts

of psychology and personality. Succinctly, this position is as follows:

African (Black) Psychology is defined as a system of knowledge (philosophy, definitions, concepts, models, procedures and prac- tice) concerning the nature of the social universe from the perspective of African Cosmology. "African Cosmology" thus provides the conceptual-philosophical framework for African (Black) Psychology [Baldwin, 1980a: 23].

What this definition means is that African (Black) Psy- chology is nothing more or less than the uncovering, articu- lation, operationalization, and application of the principles of the African reality structure relative to psychological phe- nomena. Hence an understanding of African Cosmology is essential to an understanding of African (Black) Psychology (Baldwin, 1976, 1980a; Khatib, 1972; Khatib et al., 1975; Nobles, 1980).

THE NATURE OF AFRICAN COSMOLOGY

Essentially, African Cosmology is governed by the overrid- ing theme or ontological principle of "Human-Nature Unity," or "Oneness with Nature," or "Harmony with Nature"

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244 JOURNAL OF BLACK STUDIES / MARCH 1986

(Carruthers, 1981; Mbiti, 1970; Nobles, 1976a, 1976b, 1976c, 1980). This means that humanity (consciousness) forms an integral-inseparable part of nature (Dixon, 1976), a "Oneness of Being. " All aspects of nature, then, including consciousness,

are interrelated and interdependent, forming one phenomenal reality a communal phenomenology (Nobles, 1980). A num- ber of supporting principles derive from the basic theme of African Cosmology. Among these supporting themes are emphases on groupness (survival of the group), sameness and commonality; corporateness, cooperation, collection responsi- bility, and interdependence. Taken together, this set or body of

principles making up African Cosmology defines the African Survival Thrust (or worldview). It is Africentric because it derives from, centers on, and thereby reflects-reinforces the basic nature of African people.' It is indeed the center of the universe. African (Black) Psychology therefore is about the interpretation, articulation, institutionalization, and perpetua- tion of the African Survival Thrust as it relates to psychological

phenomena in particular, and the universe in general (Baldwin, 1976, 1980a, 1980b; Khatib, 1972, 1980; Nobles, 1976a, 1980).

This rather general conception of African (Black) Psy- chology thus attempts to address all of the critical issues raised

in earlier discussions. For example, it should be clear from this conception that African (Black) Psychology, in deriving (natu- rally) from the framework of African Cosmology, is therefore

independent of Western Psychology. In addition, it should also be clear that this conception of African (Black) Psychology encompasses not only the phenomenon of Black or African personality but also European and Asian personality, and any other phenomenal aspects of the social universe. Of course, as I noted earlier, this framework suggests that Western Psychology

can be similarly defined relative to European Cosmology (albeit highly questionable as to its status within the Natural Order). Beyond this, however, it is further argued that African (Black)

Psychology is indeed "Human Psychology" or "Natural Psy- chology" (Akbar, 1976a, 1976b)2 because African people (including the diaspora) in their natural essence (being in

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Baldwin / AFRICAN (BLACK) PSYCHOLOGY 245

accord with the Natural Order) seem to represent the only true model of humanity (i.e., Natural Order or Natural Process).

Where the meanings of African and Black Psychology are concerned, perhaps the most critical aspect of this problem in definition lies in the fact that, unfortunately, any time Black psychologists set out to analyze and explain some so-called Black phenomona, we (the Black community) far too quickly and erroneously ascribe the label of Black or African Psy- chology to such work, irrespective of the cosmological or philosophical framework undergirding and directing these obscure endeavors (Baldwin, 1976, 1979; Khatib, 1972; Nobles, 1976a).3 We thus erroneously allow such false ascriptions when in reality such works are not in the slightest way appropriate to

the label of African-Black Psychology simply because it is focused on some so-called Black phenomenon. Upon closer examination, we almost invariably find that much of this obscure activity by Black psychologists is merely the same old Western Psychology tradition in "Blackface." African (Black) Psychology therefore means much more than simply Black psychologists focusing on Black phenomena, and Black psy- chologists, social scientists, and the Black community at large need to recognize this fundamental fact before these kinds of misrepresentations of Black Psychology get totally out of hand, if they haven't already (consult some issues of The Journal of Black Psychology for illustrations of this problem).

CONCLUSIONS

Thus it is argued here that Black Psychology is indeed African Psychology if correctly defined and understood, irre- spective of the fact that many misguided or uninformed Black psychologists erroneously apply the label of "Black Psy- chology" to their seemingly obscure and misrepresenting activi-

ties. Unfortunately, however, most of those who have rallied around an exclusive use of the concept Black Psychology have contributed greatly to (and generally continue to contribute to)

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246 JOURNAL OF BLACK STUDIES / MARCH 1986

the marked confusion and ambiguity in its definition, forging an unnatural separation between the terms "Black" and "African." Although we may not be able to immediately achieve agreement over these vital definitions between the conceptually liberated (Africentric) and incarcerated (Euro- centric) camps of Black Psychologists, we must not allow the conceptually incarcerated thinkers among us to legitimate their obscure and often potentially mentacidal activities by misrepresenting them as African (Black) Psychology.

We may conclude, based on this analysis, that African (Black) Psychology is therefore proactive as well as reactive, and it is most certainly political. Notwithstanding its reactive aspects, however, its thrust is clearly toward proactivity, that is, self-definition and self-determination. African (Black) Psy- chology seeks to reaffirm the human essence of "Africanity," and in so doing will affirm its centrality in the Natural Order.

NOTES

1. See Molefi Kete Asante's Afrocentricity: The Theory of Social Change. Buffalo:

Amulefi Publishers, 1980, for a detailed argument on the issue of Afrocentricity. I have

chosen to use Africentric instead of Afrocentric in order to pursue consistency with the

word "Africa." Nevertheless, Asante's concept and mine are similar.

2. See N. Akbar. "The Evolution and Development of Human Psychology for African-Americans,"in N. Akbar and J. Baldwin (Eds.), Back to the Source: Readings

in African Psychology. Manuscript is in progress.

3. See W. W. Nobles. "African Consciousness and Liberation Struggles: Implica- tions for the Development and Construction of Scientific Paradigms," in N. Akbar and

J. Baldwin (Eds.), Back to the Source: Readings in African Psychology. Manuscript is

in progress.

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Joseph A. Baldwin is a Professor of Psychology and Chairman of the Psychol-

ogy Department at FloridaA&M University. He is also apast National President

of The Association of Black Psychologists. He is a highly regarded scholar in the

area of African-American Psychology, with emphases on personality develop-

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Baldwin / AFRICAN (BLACK) PSYCHOLOGY 249

ment, mental health, and oppression. He received his Ph. D. in personality and

experimental socialpsychologyfrom the University of Colorado, and some of

his recent publications appear in the Journal of Black Studies, the Western Journal of Black Studies, and the Journal of Black Psychology.

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