History Analytical essay
jessica3
BalderramaandRodriquezDecadeofBetrayal.pdf
E n la s pu er t a s del con da do se ven de t oda s n a cion es
a lgu n os con su s h ijit os pidien do su s pr ovision es
''E l P a isa n o Repa t r ia do "
At t h e Cou n t y Welfa r e Office Ar e seen people of a ll n a t ion s
som e wit h t h eir lit t le on es Beggin g for food
'Th e Repa t r ia t ed Cou n t r ym a n "
Th e h ou se a n d ya r d of a Mexica n fa m ily m Sa n An t on io, Texa s, in Ma r ch 1939. (Libr a r y of Con gr ess/ F SA P r oject , ph ot ogr a ph by Ru ssell Lee.)
73
74 WE LF ARE
In 1929 t h e wor ld su dden ly fou n d it self en gu lfed in econ om ic fla m es. In t h e U n it ed St a t es, m illion s of bewilder ed/ jobless m en a n d wom en fou n d t h em - selves in dem ea n in g cir cu m st a n ces t h a t n on e of t h em h a d ever for eseen .
Som e wer e r edu ced t o r u m m a gin g in ga r ba ge ca n s for edible scr a ps. Ot h er s sold a pples on st r eet cor n er s or collect ed old n ewspa per s, r a gs/ a n d scr a p m et a l t o be sold t o ju n k dea ler s. Th ose t oo pr ou d t o st a n d in sou p lin es r ode
t h e r a ils in a n ever -en din g qu est for wor k . In t h e r ich est n a t ion in t h e wor ld, ch ildr en wen t t o bed wit h on ly gr u el in t h eir bellies. Th e good t im es of t h e "Roa r in g Twen t ies^ h a d gr ou n d t o a scr eech in g h a lt .
As t h e depr ession gr ew wor se/ st a t e a n d loca l gover n m en t s wit h la r ge for eign popu la t ion s scu r r ied t o pa ss la ws r est r ict in g em ploym en t t o n a t ive- bor n or n a t u r a lized cit izen s. E m ployer s wh o viola t ed t h e la w wer e su bject ed t o a fin e of five h u n dr ed dolla r s or a pr ison t er m of six m on t h s. If t h ey h ir ed
n on r esiden t s/ t h ey h a d t o ju st ify t h e r ea son for doin g so or t h ey wou ld n ot be pa id. Th is edict wr ea k ed h a voc wit h Mexica n s wh o h a d been loya l em -
ployees for m a n y yea r s. It a lso m a de it difficu lt for a n y Mexica n / wh et h er n a t ive or for eign bor n / t o get h ir ed.^
Mexica n colon ia s a n d ba r r ios st r u ggled t o su r vive a s t h e com bin ed t ide of
pr eju dice a n d u n em ploym en t en gu lfed t h em . Th e econ om ic r ipt ide er oded t h e colon ia s/ fr a gile socioecon om ic m oor in gs a n d ca r r ied t h em in t o t r ea ch - er ou s wa t er s. As h u sba n ds lost t h eir jobs/ wives st epped in t o t h e br eech a n d la u n ch ed a va lia n t effor t in a n a t t em pt t o su r vive. E ver y con ceiva ble effor t wa s m a de t o m a k e en ds m eet a n d k eep t h e fa m ily t oget h er . Mexica n fa m ilies wh o h a d a lwa ys t a k en pr ide in pa yin g t h eir own wa y fou n d t h em selves dr iven t o t h e br in k of despa ir . Wh en a ll else fa iled a n d h ope fa ded, t h ey swa llowed
t h eir pr ide a n d join ed t h e h or des a t t h e cou n t y welfa r e a gen cy's win dows. Bein g for ced t o seek welfa r e a ssist a n ce wa s a t r a u m a t ic exper ien ce t h a t Mexi-
ca n fa m ilies wou ld n ot soon for get . Th e a n gu ish / pa in , a n d sh a m e wou ld
h a u n t t h em for yea r s. P r ou d m en fou n d t h em selves st r ipped of t h eir r ole a s pr ovider s a n d pr ot ect or s,2
E ven t u a lly, even t h e feder a l gover n m en t got in t o t h e a ct by r equ ir in g
t h a t a ll fir m s su pplyin g it wit h goods a n d ser vices h ir e on ly U .S. cit izen s. In N or t h Ta r r yt own / N ew Yor k / Gen er a l Mot or s disch a r ged a ll a lien em ploy- ees in or der n ot t o lose it s feder a l con t r a ct s.3 N ea r ly ever y m a jor em ployer or con t r a ct or followed su it . Wh en t h e N ew Dea l wen t in t o effect / em ploy- m en t on WF A (Wor k s P r ogr ess Adm in ist r a t ion ) pr oject s wa s a lso den ied t o a lien s. H owever / except ion s wer e m a de for spou ses ofAm er ica n cit izen s a n d
vet er a n s wh o h a d ser ved in t h e m ilit a r y for ces of t h e U n it ed St a t es. Also exem pt ed wer e in dividu a ls wh o h a d ser ved in t h e a r m ed for ces of n a t ion s a llied wit h t h e U n it ed St a t es du r in g Wor ld Wa r I. Alien s exem pt ed fr om
E L CON DADO 75
m a k in g a for m a l decla r a t ion of in t en t by t h e Im m igr a t ion , N a t u r a liza t ion a n d Repa t r ia t ion la ws wer e n ot a ffect ed by t h e decr ee.4
In a n ir on ic t wist of bu r ea u cr a t ic in a n en ess/ in or der t o r eceive feder a l
r elief a ssist a n ce Am er ica n cit izen s h a d t o a gr ee t o a ccept em ploym en t on feder a lly fu n ded wor k pr oject s. At t h e sa m e t im e,, t h e feder a l gover n m en t decr eed t h a t welfa r e a llot m en t s sh ou ld be in cr ea sed by 30 per cen t for t h ose //for wh om n o Civil Wor k pr oject s a r e a va ila ble ... or wh o, beca u se of n a -
t ion a lit y/ ca n n ot t a k e pa r t on Civil Wor k s pr oject s/'5 As a r esu lt / in som e ca ses/ t h e a llot m en t s r eceived by a lien s wer e la r ger t h a n t h ose of cit izen s for ced t o wor k for t h eir welfa r e ch eck s. Th e in equ it y of t h e sit u a t ion r iled m a n y a id r ecipien t s/ t a xpa yer s, a n d la wm a k er s. It h elped t o fa n t h e fla m es of a n t ia lien feelin gs sweepin g t h e cou n t r y. Th u s/ Mexica n s fou n d t h em selves vict im s of a sit u a t ion n ot of t h eir own m a k in g. Given a ch oice/ t h ey wou ld h a ve pr efer r ed t o be a llowed t o wor k for t h eir la r gesse.
H owever / t h e oppor t u n it y t o fin d wor k elu ded Mexica n s, a s em ployer s ever ywh er e n ot on ly a cceded t o gover n m en t r est r ict ion s bu t h eeded t h e h u e a n d cr y of pa t r iot ic gr ou ps a n d or ga n iza t ion s t o sa ve a ll jobs for //r ea lAm er i- ca n s/' Sin ce few of t h e Mexica n im m igr a n t s bot h er ed t o a pply for cit izen - sh ip/ t h e r efu sa l t o h ir e for eign er s wa s deva st a t in g. Th e pr est igiou s N ew Yor k Tim es r epor t ed in 1937 t h a t "t wo m illion of t h e t wo a n d h a lf m illion Mexica n s in t h e U n it ed St a t es wer e ou t of wor k //6 U n em ploym en t a m on g Mexica n s r a n ged fr om 15 per cen t t o a s h igh a s 85 per cen t . Th e wide va r ia n ce wa s in flu en ced by t h e sea son of t h e yea r , loca le/ t ype of em ploym en t / a va il- a ble la bor for ce/ a n d t h e lega l r est r ict ion s a ga in st h ir in g n on dt izen s. As fa c- t on es a n d sh ops closed down , t h e wor k sch edu le in som e pla n t s wa s r edu ced t o on e or t wo da ys per week . As a r esu lt / wa ges a n d ea r n in gs plu m m et ed. In
cit ies lik e Ch ica go, Det r oit / Milwa u k ee, Bu ffa lo/ Ga r y/ In dia n a / a n d N ew Yor k / over 30 per cen t of a ll com pa t r iot s wer e ou t of wor k . In colon ia s a cr oss
t h e cou n t r y, em ploym en t dr opped by a n a ver a ge of 50 per cen t / E ven a gr icu lt u r a l em ploym en t pr oved t o be pr eca r iou s. As pr ices fell/ so
did wa ges. Wa ges for fa r m wor k er s dr opped t o fift een dolla r s or less for a sixt y-h ou r wor k week . In diver se pla ces lik e Ida h o a n d Mon t a n a / N ebr a sk a a n d Iowa , a n d Min n esot a a n d Mich iga n / t h e r a t e for wor k in g su ga r beet s fell fr om t wen t y-eigh t dolla r s t o t en dolla r s a n a cr e.8 At t h a t wa ge/ t h e dir t y/ ba ck br ea k in g wor k did n ot pr ovide a wor k m a n 's fa m ily wit h a decen t liveli-
h ood. U n em ploym en t / cou pled wit h fea r of t h e dr ea ded n or t h er n win t er s/ dr ove m a n y com pa t r iot s t o a ba n don lon g-in h a bit ed dom iciles. In t h e Ch i-
ca go a r ea , over 25 per cen t of t h e Mexica n popu la ce eit h er r et u r n ed t o Mexico or h ea ded for t h e Sou t h west / seek in g a wa r m er clim a t e if n ot gr een er pa s- t u r es.9
76 WE LF ARE
Addin g t o t h e pr eca r iou s sit u a t ion fa cin g Mexica n fa r m wor k er s wer e t h e r efu gees fleein g t h e Midwest Du st Bowl. Th e fier ce com pet it ion for t h e few sca r ce fa r m jobs gr ew wor se. Migr a n t fr u it pick er s wer e especia lly h a r d h it , bu t t h e im pa ct of t h e n ew jobless h or de wa s {elt t h r ou gh ou t t h e la bor m a r - k et . Sou t h er n Ca lifor n ia a n d t h e Gr ea t Cen t r a l Va lley beca m e popu la r dest i- n a t ion s for t h ose h om eless k n igh t s-er r a n t It is est im a t ed t h a t m or e t h a n 350,000 Du st Bowl r efu gees m a de t h eir wa y west . Th e n ega t ive im pa ct on t h e a r ea wa s so sever e t h a t t h e Los An geles Cou n t y Boa r d of Su per visor s a dopt ed a r esolu t ion cit in g t h e om in ou s t h r ea t t o wa ges a n d a ccept a ble st a n -
da r ds of livin g. Th e r esolu t ion u r ged em ployer s t o give h ir in g pr efer en ce t o loca l fa r m h a n ds in st ea d.10 H owever / k n owin g t h e la n gu a ge a n d cu st om s/ plu s
t h eir willin gn ess t o wor k for st a r va t ion wa ges, ga ve t h e "Ok ies// a decided a dva n t a ge over Mexica n wor k er s. Mexica n wor k er s r esen t ed t h e in t r u der s,
a n d ou t br ea k s o? violen ce bet ween t h e t wo com pet in g gr ou ps wer e n ot u n -
com m on .
An ot h er gr ou p er odin g t h e la bor st a t u s of Mexica n wor k er s in sou t h er n Ca lifor n ia wer e t h e F ilipin os. U su a lly devoid of a n y fa m ily a n d livin g in gr ou ps/ F ilipin o m en cou ld a ffor d t o wor k for lower wa ges. In Or a n ge Cou n t y/ t h e Com ision H on on fica Mexica n a a t t em pt ed t o con vin ce t h e La H a br a Cit - r u s Associa t ion t o h ir e r esiden t Mexica n s r a t h er t h a n t h e n ewcom er s. Ag-
gr a va t in g t h e sit u a t ion wa s t h e a t t en t ion t h a t lon ely F ilipin o m en pa id t o you n g Mexica n gir ls. Viewed by m a n y a s //h a ppy"go-Iu ck y// t h ey en joyed n eedlin g Mexica n fellow wor k er s by a ddr essin g t h em a s cu n a do [br ot h er - in -la w). Mexica n s h a r bor ed st r on g feelin gs of r esen t m en t t owa r d t h e F ilipi- n os a s a r esu lt of t h e du a l t h r ea t t h ey pr esen t ed."
U n em ploym en t a n d h u n ger go h a n d in h a n d, a n d colon ia s ever ywh er e felt t h e sh a r p pa in of depr iva t ion . Com it es de Ben eficen cia / Com ision es
H on or ifica s, Br iga da s de la Cr u z Azu l/ a n d ot h er gr ou ps a t t em pt ed t o st em t h e t ide of h u m a n su ffer in g. H owever / t h eir r esou r ces wer e ext r em ely lim - it ed. F ew of t h em sm -vived for a n y len gt h of t im e a n d even fewer en joyed
a n y m ea su r e of su ccess. Som e a gen cies a n d gr ou ps solicit ed h elp fr om t h e Mexica n gover n m en t . Th e posit ion of SRE (Secr et a r ia de Rela cion es E xt er ior es) wa s t o den y su ch r equ est s except in ext r em e ca ses. Th e n a t ion a l
t r ea su r y sim ply cou ld n ot r espon d t o t h e m yr ia d r equ est s r eceived fr om gr ou ps plea din g for a ssist a n ce.12 Typica l of t h e r equ est s wa s a let t er sign ed by t h ir t y-seven h ea ds of fa m ilies in Rock da le, Illin ois/ a n d for wa r ded t o t h e
Mexica n con su l in Ch ica go. Wr it t en in Spa n ish / t h e let t er im plor ed t h e con - su l t o a ct in t h eir beh a lf "befor e t h ey died of h u n ger / cold or wer e for ced by h u n ger t o r esor t t o a life of cr im e a n d dish on or for a piece of br ea d for t h eir wives a n d ch ildr en ."13 As a la st r esor t / t h ey a sk ed for h elp in r et u r n in g t o
gt CON DADO 77
Mexico. Th e let t er eloqu en t ly expr essed t h e fea r s a n d desir es of dest it u t e Mexica n s in colon ia s in ever y sect or of t h e la n d. Ma n y of t h em deem ed it desir a ^ per h a ps a s a wa y of sa vin g fa ce, t o r et u r n h om e r a t h er t h a n a ccept ch a r it y a n d br in g sh a m e u pon t h eir fa m ilies.
As loca l boot st r a p effor t s in t h e colon ia s fa iled/ Mexica n s r elu ct a n t ly be- t o qu eu e u p a t cou n t y welfa r e offices. Th e decision t o a pply for welfa r e
wa s n ot a n ea sy on e. Th is fin a l in dign it y wa s su bm it t ed t o on ly a ft er a ll effor t s t o fin d wor k h a d fa iled. Mea ger sa vin gs wer e st r et ch ed t o t h e a bso- lu t e lim it a n d a ll a va ila ble r esou r ces wer e exh a u st ed befor e su ccu m bin g t o t h e despised dole. Wa t ch in g t h eir ch ildr en st ea dily gr owin g m or e em a da t ed wa s a pit ifu l sigh t for pa r en t s. It h a u n t ed t h em t o see on ce h ea lt h y a n d h a ppy ch ildr en st ea dily losin g weigh t a n d su ccu m bin g t o disea se a s m a ln u t r it ion wr a ck ed t h eir fr a il bodies. In desper a t ion / m a n y pa r en t s felt t h ey h a d n o ot h er r ecou r se bu t t o a pply for pu blic a ssist a n ce. Applyin g for welfa r e wa s m a de bea r a ble beca u se fa m ilies t r u ly believed t h a t r elief wa s a t em por a r y m ea su r e. Th e econ om y of t h e r ich est n a t ion on ea r t h wa s bou n d t o t u r n
a r ou n d soon . N o on e en vision ed a deca de ot m iser y a n d su ffer in g. Th e Ga m ez fa m ily fr om In dia n a H a r bor r em em ber ed t h e st igm a of bein g on r elief: //Be-
in g on r elief wa s a wfu l. You cou ld t ell, by t h e wa y ch ildr en wer e dr essed, wh ich fa m ilies wer e on r elief a n d wh ich wer e n ot . Ou r clot h es ga ve it a wa y! Th ey wer e of good m a t er ia l a n d well-m a de. Th e t r ou ble wa s t h ey wer e a ll fr om t h e sa m e clot h a n d m a de fr om t h e sa m e pa t t er n ."14
In Ca lifor n ia , LosAn geles Cou n t y exper ien ced a su dden su r ge in r equ est s for welfa r e a ssist a n ce. In 1931, cou n t y welfa r e r olls esca la t ed fr om t h ir t y- five h u n dr ed in dividu a ls t o t h ir t y-five t h ou sa n d fa m ilies. N ot h in g of t h is
m a gn it u de h a d ever occu r r ed befor e. Th e cou n t y Depa r t m en t of Ch a r it ies wa s n ot su r e h ow t o pr oceed. It su ffer ed fr om a la ck of lea der sh ip du e t o a su ccession of su per in t en den t s of ch a r it ies.15 It fell u pon Rex Th om son , a n
en gin eer a n d a dm in ist r a t or by pr ofession r a t h er t h a n a t r a in ed socia l wor k er / t o st ep in t o t h e br ea ch a n d k eep t h e cou n t y's r elief pr ogr a m a floa t . P r evi"
ou sly, Mr . Th om son h a d been a ct in g in a con su lt in g ca pa cit y t o t h e Boa r d of Su per visor s. Im pr essed by h is ca n dor a n d a dm in ist r a t ive a bilit y/ t h e Boa r d
im plor ed h im t o t a k e over t h e bu r geon in g welfa r e depa r t m en t . As a r esu lt / Th om son fou n d h im self m a n a gin g a depa r t m en t t h a t en com pa ssed t h r ee- fou r t h s of t Ke cou n t y's em ployees a n d spen t 75 per cen t of t h e bu dget . Du e t o Th om son 's efficien cy, t h e depa r t m en t beca m e a m odel for welfa r e a gen - cies a cr oss t h e cou n t r y. Wh en t h e N ew .Dea l Dem ocr a t s ca m e t o power in
1933, m u ch of t h e feder a l welfa r e pla n wa s ba sed on t h e Los An geles m odel.16 Lit er a lly over n igh t / in spit e of h is lim it ed exper ien ce/ Rex Th om son be-
ca m e a self-st yled exper t on welfa r e a n d r epa t r ia t ion . H is a dvice a n d cou n sel
78 WE LF ARE
wer e sou gh t a t h om e a n d a br oa d. H e m a de n u m er ou s t r ips t o Mexico.
Th om son a t t r ibu t ed h is su ccess t o t h e fa ct t h a t / a s a n en gin eer / h e sa w people a s pieces or pa r t s of a m a ch in e. It wa s h is job t o pu t t h em in t h e r igh t pla ce a n d in t h e r iglit or der so t h e m a ch in e cou ld fu n ct ion pr oper ly. A t r ibu t e t o h is a cu m en a n d a bilit y wa s t h e efficien t —som e wou ld cla im r u t h less—m a n - n cr in wh ich t h e welfa r e depa r t m en t h a n dled t h e m on u m en t a l t a sk t h r u st u pon it . Th om son h a d pr eciou s lit t le t oler a n ce for in ept bu r ea u cr a t s. In cen sed by t h e in ept it u de of su bor din a t es, h e com pla in ed bit t er ly t o t h e ch a ir m a n o{ t h e Cou n t y Boa r d of Su per visor s a bou t t h e ca liber of cou n t y wor k er s. Th e ch a ir m a n r espon ded cogen t ly t h a t if t h e em ployees wer e n ot in ept / h e. Rex Th om son / wou ld n ot be t h eir lea der . A ch a gr in ed Th om son wen t ba ck t o t h e depa r t m en t a n d con t in u ed t o pr ovide a ggr essive lea der sh ip.17
RexTh om son 's a sser t iven ess wa s im per a t ive du e t o t h e in cr ea sed dem a n d
for welfa r e ser vices. Du r in g 1933-34, t h e wor st per iod of t h e depr ession / som e 126/000 {a m ilies/ of wh ich 10 per cen t wer e Mexica n s^ wer e on t h e dole in LosAn geles Cou n t y. Th is con st it u t ed over 600/000 in dividu a ls. Th e n u m - ber of r ecipien t s esca la t ed dr a st ica lly fr om t h e figu r es r epor t ed a t t h e en d of 1931. By t h e en d of 1934, a ccor din g t o officia l est im a t es sbct y t h ou sa n d h ea ds
of fa m ilies h a d sou gh t h elp.A bon d issu e of five m illion dolla r s plu s a 600/000- dolla r con t r ibu t ion fr om t h e Com m u n it y Ch est a gen cy h a d been spen t . Yet t h e a m ou n t fell fa r sh or t of wh a t wa s n eeded t o m eet loca l welfa r e n eeds. An glo fa m ilies r eceived a ba sic gr a n t of t h ir t y dolla r s a m on t h / bu t Mexica n s r eceived on ly t wen t y dolla r s. Th e fa ct t h a t Mexica n fa m ilies t en ded t o be
la r ger wa s con ven ien t ly ign or ed in det er m in in g t h e a m ou n t of t h e a llot - m en t s. Th e ju st ifica t ion for t h e lesser su m wa s t h a t Mexica n fa m ilies h a d a lower st a n da r d of livin g a n d cou ld get a lon g on a ch ea per diet ,18 Obviou sly^ t h e sm a ller a m ou n t cr ea t ed it s own self-fu lfillin g pr oph ecy, Bea n s/ t or t illa s/
sou p, a n d gr u el beca m e pa r t of a bla n d, r epet it ive diet . Am on g t h e n a t ion 's m a jor cit ies^ Los An geles h a d t h e la r gest n u m ber of
Mexica n s r eceivin g r elief. Th e r ea son wa s sim ple. Th er e wer e m or e Mexi- ca n s livin g t h er e t h a n wer e t o be fou n d a n ywh er e else. Bu t in spit e of t h e sever e cr isis/ m ost Mexica n fa m ilies ch ose n ot t o dem ea n t h em selves by a sk - in g for pu blic a id. Th er efor e, con t r a r y t o t h e widely h eld belief t h a t m ost Mexica n s wer e on welfa r e du r in g t h e depr ession / su ch wa s n ot t h e ca se. As a r u le, t h ey con st it u t ed 10 per cen t or less of t h e t ot a l n u m ber of fa m ilies on
cou n t y a id. Th a t wa s t h e ca se in Los An geles a n d elsewh er e. In Clevela n d/ Oh io/ for exa m ple/ a t ot a l of 100,000 n eedy fa m ilies r eceived welfa r e du r in g t h e 1932-34 per iod/ bu t on ly a sm a ll per cen t a ge of t h ose wer e Mexica n s. Con t r a r y t o t h e dou ble st a n da r d u t ilized in a lloca t in g welfa r e a id in Los An geles^ in Clevela n d a ll fa m ilies r eceived a food a llowa n ce of fou r dolla r s a week .19
E L CON DADO 79
In Illin ois, ou t of a t ot a l of 819/038 in dividu a ls r eceivin g u n em ploym en t r elief/ 85.1 per cen t wer e wh it e. Of t h e r em a in der /14.1 per cen t wer e N egr oes
a n d less t h a n 0.8 per cen t wer e Mexica n s or ot h er s.20 Most of t h e welfa r e
r ecipien t s r esided in Cook Cou n t y/ wh ich en com pa ssed t h e cit y of Ch ica go. Som e t wen t y-five t h ou sa n d Mexica n s n or m a lly r esided in t h e cit y a n d it s im m edia t e en vir on s. E l E xcelsior r epor t ed t h a t t h er e wer e t wen t y-on e t h ou -
ga n d Mexica n s wit h ou t wor k in Ch ica go. Th e t ot a l wa s a u gm en t ed by wor k - er s wh o h a d com e t o t h e cit y fr om ou t lyin g a r ea s in t h e va in h ope of fin din g em ploym en t . To pr even t t h e gr owin g n u m ber of in digen t s fr om becom in g a pr oblem or a bu r den / a r r a n gem en t s wer e m a de t o sh ip m ost of t h em t o
Mexico- Accor din g t o t h e n ewspa per / t h e m a jor it y of t h e r epa t r ia t es fr om t h e Ch ica go a r ea wer e t o be sen t dir ect ly t o Mexico Cit y. Th ey wou ld n ot be per m it t ed t o set t le in t own s or villa ges en r ou t e t o t h e ca pit a l. E l E xcelsior r epor t ed t h a t r epa t r ia t es fr om Det r oit a n d Dea r bor n / Mich iga n / a s well a s fr om Oh io/ wou ld a lso be a r r ivin g in t h e ca pit a l ver y soon . Th e n u m ber of r epa t r ia t es wa s expect ed t o in cr ea se a s a u t om obile a ssem bly lin es a n d ot h er fa ct or ies la id off m or e of t h eir Mexica n wor k er s.21 Th e com bin a t ion of u n - em ploym en t / h u n ger a n d t h e bit t er cold pr esen t ed a dr ea ded spect er t o Mexi- ca n en cla ves in t h e ea st er n cit ies.
Los An geles/ Clevela n d/ a n d Ch ica go wer e n ot a lon e in t r yin g t o cope wit h a n ever -in cr ea sin g n u m ber of welfa r e ca ses. Det r oit / P h ila delph ia / N ew Yor k / At la n t a / N ew Or lea n s, a n d Sa n An t on io wer e a m on g cit ies r eelin g
u n der t h e st a gger in g cost s of t r yin g t o pr ovide a sa fet y n et for t h e in digen t s in t h eir m idst . Ava ila ble r esou r ces sim ply pr oved t o be in a dequ a t e for t h e t a sk . Clevela n d fa ced a deficit of seven m illion dolla r s in m eet in g it s ba sic r elief n eeds. Ch ica go desper a t ely n eeded a n a ddit ion a l n in e m illion dolla r s t o cover expen ses. P h ila delph ia est im a t ed it n eeded fift een m illion dolla r s
m or e t o m eet it s obliga t ion s. N ew Yor k Cit y's welfa r e a ppr opr ia t ion of five m illion dolla r s pr ovided a id t o less t h a n 7 per cen t of i-t s n eedy in h a bit a n t s.22 It wa s est im a t ed t h er e wer e fift een h u n dr ed Mexica n s a m on g t h e jobless N ewYor k er s wh o n eeded a ssist a n ce." In Sa n An t on io/ Texa s/ 2/000 Mexica n
wor k er s fou n d t h em selves in dir e st r a it s. Mor e t h a n 475 h a d been la id off fr om t h eir cit y jobs.24 Th ey join ed t h e gr owin g r a n k s of t h eir com pa t r iot s a r ou n d t h e cou n t r y wh o h a d been dism issed in or der t o com ply wit h t h e
edict for biddin g h ir in g Mexica n N a t ion a ls a n d ot h er a lien s on pu blic pr oject s. Wh en a pplyin g for welfa r e in Texa s/ Mexica n s wer e oft en su bject ed t o
discr im in a t ion . Am on g t h e com pla in t s lodged by t h e Con su l Gen er a l in Sa n An t on io wit h t h e Mexica n em ba ssy in Wa sh in gt on / D.C.^ wa s t h e ch a r ge
t h a t som e welfa r e a u t h or it ies wer e dem a n din g t h a t Mexica n s wh o wer e le-
ga l r esiden t s pr esen t t h eir n a t u r a liza t ion pa per s in or der t o qu a lify for pu b-
8o WE LF ARE
lie a ssist a n ce. If t h ey did n ot h a ve pa per s, t h ey wer e in st r u ct ed t o t a k e st eps t o obt a in Am er ica n cit izen sh ip. Sin ce t h e welfa r e fu n ds in volved wer e fed- er a l m on ies/ t h e U S. St a t e Depa r t m en t wa s a sk ed t o in t er ven e a n d in st r u ct
Texa s welfa r e officia ls t o en d t h e discr im in a t or y pr a ct ice.25 Despit e t h e pr o- t est s, Texa s a u t h or it ies con t in u ed t o em ploy t h eir bia sed t a ct ics. Welfa r e pa y- m en t s in Texa s a ver a ged on ly $7.08 a m on t h per fa m ily. Texa s wa s n ot a lon e in it s fr u ga lit y. Ot h er st a t es a lso offer ed n igga r dly a ssist a n ce. On a m on t h ly ba sis/ Ok la h om a pr ovided $4.96 a n dAr k a n sa s offer ed $4.86 per fa m ily. Ca li- for n ia offer ed wh a t m u st h a ve seem ed lik e a pr in cely su m by com pa r ison / $31.35 a m on t h .26 If br ok en down on a per -ca pit a ba sis/ r elief cost s for U .S.
cit ies fr om J a n u a r y 1931 t o Sept em ber 1931 a ver a ged $6.59 for Det r oit / $3.40 for Los An geles/ $2.41 for Ch ica go/ a n d $1.69 for Min n ea polis. Ot h er expen -
dit u r es r a n ged fr om $0.79 for Den ver , $0.53 for Ka n sa s Cit y/ $0.49 for Da l- la s/ $0.29 for E l P a so/ $0.34 for H ou st on , a n d $0.15 for Sa n An t on io.27
It is/ t h er efor e, n ot su r pr isin g t h a t Ca lifor n ia beca m e a m a gn et for t h ose down a n d ou t on t h eir lu ck . Mor e u n em ployed t r a n sien t s flock ed t o t h e Golden St a t e t h a n t o a n y ot h er st a t e in t h e U n ion . In t h e m on t h of Sept em - ber 1936, m or e t h a n 14/000 people en t er ed t h e st a t e. In 1937, n ea r ly 105/000 m igr a n t s cr ossed t h e bor der in t o Ca lifor n ia .28 It is est im a t ed t h a t bet ween 1933 a n d 1939, a t ot a l of 957,000 people m igr a t ed t o Ca lifor n ia . Of t h is n u m ber / a ppr oxim a t ely 300,000 even t u a lly r eceived som e for m of st a t e or feder a l a id. St a t e a u t h or it ies est im a t ed t h a t n ea r ly t h ir t een m illion dolla r s/ exclu sive of a dm in ist r a t ive cost s/ wa s expen ded in t h eir beh a lf.29 In self-de- fen se/ Ca lifor n ia in st it u t ed a r esiden cy r equ ir em en t of on e yea r befor e a n a pplica n t cou ld be eligible for pu blic a ssist a n ce. E ven if fa m ilies did n ot r e- ceive a id or fin a n cia l a ssist a n ce/ sou t h er n Ca lifor n ia 's m ild clim a t e m a de
ca m pin g ou t or sleepin g in a r u n -down ja lopy ea sier t o bea r . Appr oxim a t ely 97 per cen t of t h ose en t er in g t h e st a t e a n d seek in g welfa r e wer e Am er ica n s u n a ble t o cope wit h t h eir pligh t .
N ever t h eless/ la bor u n ion s, vet er a n s' or ga n iza t ion s/ t a xpa yer s' a ssocia -
t ion s, a n d pa t r iot ic gr ou ps join ed t h e ch or u s of pr ot est a ga in st spen din g fu n ds t o a ssist a lien s. On e of t h e m ost voca l gr ou ps wa s t h e N a t ion a l Clu b of Am er ica for Am er ica n s, In c. Th e gr ou ps h ea dqu a r t er ed in Sa n Diego/ pa in s-
t a k in gly t r a ck ed t h e cost of pr ovidin g a id t o a lien s in Ca lifor n ia . Th e su r vey con clu ded t h a t / du r in g a seven t een -m om h per iod, t h e st a t e h a d spen t
2/899/546 dolla r s a n d Los An geles Cou n t y 3/885/314 dolla r s. Th is a m ou n t ed t o a gr a n d t ot a l of 6/784,860 dolla r s/ exclu sive of a dm in ist r a t ive cost s. Ar m ed wit h t h is in for m a t ion / t h e clu b dem a n ded t h a t boa r ds of su per visor s in a ll Ca lifor n ia cou n t ies m a in t a in pr ecise r ecor ds r ega r din g t h e cost of a lien r e- lief. Th e in for m a t ion wou ld t h en be sh a r ed a m on g t h e cou n t ies a n d t h e pu b-
E L CON DADO 8i
lie via t h e m edia . Th is wou ld en a ble in t er est ed pa r t ies t o exer t pr essu r e on cou n t y boa r ds/ t h e st a t e legisla t u r e, a n d Con gr ess t o den y a ssist a n ce t o a lien s wh en ever t h e issu e ca m e u p for a vot e in t h eir r espect ive ch a m ber s.30 Th e
r a t ion a l Clu b of Am er ica for Am er ica n s r eceived widespr ea d su ppor t for it s a ggr essive st a n ce in beh a lf of welfa r e r efor m .
Respon din g t o pu blic pr essu r e a n d followin g Texa s's exa m ple/ t h e Los An geles Cou n t y Boa r d of Su per visor s r u led t h a t pot en t ia l r ecipien t s of cou n t y a id m u st pr esen t a cer t ifica t e ver ifyin g t h eir lega l en t r y in t o t h e cou n t r y or pr ovide pr oof of cit izen sh ip. Th e en for cem en t of t h is r equ ir em en t led t o a va r iet y of vexin g pr oblem s. Ma n y Mexica n s h a d a r r ived in t h e U n it ed St a t es lon g befor e for m a l en t r y r est r ict ion s wer e en for ced. Ot h er s/ especia lly t h ose wit h a t r a n sien t lifest yle/ h a d lost t h eir pa sspor t s or lega l pa per s. Som e h a d n o wa y of ver ifyin g on e yea r of con t in u ou s r esiden cy in t h e cou n t y. Com -
plica t in g m a t t er s wa s t h e fa ct t h a t t h er e wer e m a n y differ en t wa ys of eva d- in g t h e welfa r e pa per t r a il. Th e syst em sim ply cou ld n ot cope wit h t h e va r ied pr oblem s t h a t a r ose. In on e in st a n ce/ t h e m ot h er of five ch ildr en wa s a ppr e- h en ded for h a vin g en t er ed t h e U S. illega lly a n d wa s su m m a r ily depor t ed. H owever , sin ce t h e ch ildr en wer e Am er ica n cit izen s, t h ey cou ld n ot be for ced t o lea ve t h e cou n t r y. Th e cou n t y^ t h er efor e/ in cu r r ed t h e expen se of h a vin g
t o h ir e a h ou sek eeper t o look a ft er t h e ch ildr en u n t il su ch t im e a s t h ey cou ld be r eu n it ed wit h t h eir m ot h er .31
Mexica n s com pr ised less t h a n 10 per cen t of t h e r elief r ecipien t s a cr oss t h e cou n t r y even t h ou gh m edia h ype a n d officia l pr on ou n cem en t s m a de it a p- pea r a s if t h e va st m a jor it y of t h ose on welfa r e wer e eit h er Mexica n s or of Mexica n ext r a ct ion . Typica l of t h e in fla m m a t or y st a t em en t s wer e t h e com -
m en t s a t t r ibu t ed t o H . M. Bla in e/ m em ber of t h e Los An geles Cou n t y Boa r d of Su per visor s. Wh ile on a visit t o Mexico Cit y, Mr . Bla in e a llegedly r e- m a r k ed t h a t t h e m a jor it y of t h e Mexica n s in t h e Los An geles colon ia wer e eit h er on r elief or wer e pu blic ch a r ges.32 Th ose bla t a n t a ccu sa t ion s fr om a pu blic officia l in fu r ia t ed t h e Mexica n pr ess. It t ook n a t ion a l u m br a ge a t wh a t wa s con sider ed t o be a n in su lt t o Mexico's h on or . Du e t o h is r em a r k s a n d t h e ou t r a ge t h ey evok ed, it wa s r u m or ed t h a t Su per visor Bla in e h a d t o be sm u ggled ou t of Mexico beca u se Am er ica n a u t h or it ies fea r ed for h is per - son a l sa fet y.
Rea ct in g t o Su per visor H . M. Bla in e/s in oppor t u n e r em a r k s/ E l U n iver sa l Gr dfico, a . lea din g ca pit a l da ily, h ea dlin ed a st or y en t it led "U n gr a t efu l At t i- t u de t owa r d Mexica n s Wh o H a ve Wor k ed in t h e U n it ed St a t es/" Th e a r t icle cla im ed t h a t Mexica n wor k er s con t r ibu t ed m or e t h a n 200 m illion dolla r s a
yea r t o Ca lifor n ia 's a gr icu lt u r a l pr osper it y. Th eir la bor h a d en r ich ed t h e a g-
r icu lt u r e ba r on s wh ile wor k er s wer e pa id st a r va t ion wa ges. N ow t h ey wer e
82 WE LF ARE
bein g ca llou sly sh ipped ou t of t h e cou n t r y or den ied desper a t ely n eeded a s- sist a n ce. Th e n ewspa per ch a llen ged t h e officia l r epor t t h a t on ly 12/000 Mexi- ca n s h a d been r epa t r ia t ed. In a ct u a lit y it a lleged, 49/000 people h a d been sh ipped h om e fr om Los An geles/ Sa n Ber n a r din o, a n d Or a n ge cou n t ies. Th e n ewspa per a lso st a t ed t h a t of t h e 100/000 people on welfa r e in Los An geles, on ly 10,000 wer e Mexica n s. Th e a r t icle cla im ed in self-r igh t eou s in dign a - t ion t h a t a ll t h e r ecipien t s wer e Am er ica n bor n . It pr ou dly a sser t ed t h a t n o Mexica n N a t ion a ls wer e on r elief.33
Rega r dless of t h e a ct u a l fa ct s/ a llega t ion s k ept t h e a n t i-Mexica n sen t i-
m en t in fla m ed t h r ou gh ou t t h e n a t ion du r in g t h e deca de. Loca l/ st a t e, a n d n a t ion a l officia ls wer e in cessa n t ly bom ba r ded wit h let t er s a n d pet it ion s. In - dividu a ls a n d or ga n iza t ion s dem a n ded t h a t im m edia t e a ct ion be t a k en t o cu r t a il t h e em ploym en t of Mexica n s. Th ey a lso wa n t ed t h em r em oved fr om t h e r elief r olls a n d sh ipped ba ck t o Mexico/ wh er e t h ey believed a ll Mexica n s belon ged. Typica l of t h e r equ est s wa s a h a n dwr it t en let t er fr om L. Cla r k t o P r esiden t F r a n k lin D. Roosevelt . Mr . Cla r k st a t ed in pa r t : "Ou r t own s a r e
over r u n wit h t h e Mexica n popu la t ion . Th ey br eed lik e r a t s/ live in h u t s, m ost ly a r e depen den t on da y la bor . Th u s t h ey r u n h ea vily on ch a r it y bot h m edica l a n d food su pplies."34 Cla r k t h en r epea t ed t h e st er eot yped ch a r ges of t h e "gr ea t m en a ce" posed by t h e Mexica n s u n less st eps wer e t a k en t o sh ip
t h em h om e. Regr et fu lly/ Cla r k 's t ir a de r epr esen t ed t h e t h in k in g of m a n y Am er ica n s.
On e of t h e fa ct or s t h a t t r igger ed su bst a n t ia l opposit ion t owa r d t h e r elief pr ogr a m s wa s t h e loss of ch ea p/ depen da ble fa r m la bor . Seek in g liva ble wa ges/ fa r m la bor er s m igr a t ed t o t h e cit ies. H owever , m ost of t h em wer e u n a ble t o
fin d wor k a n d som e gr a vit a t ed t o t h e r elief r olls. Accor din g t o a gr icu lt u r a l em ployer s/ on ce fa r m h a n ds h a d exper ien ced t h e ea se of livin g on welfa r e,it beca m e vir t u a lly im possible t o get t h em ba ck on t h e fa r m .35 E m ployer s' fea r s wer e bor n e ou t by t h e fa ct t h a t despit e t h e h igh r a t e of u n em ploym en t / a sh or t a ge of pick er s developed in t h e Sa n J oa qu in Va lley. Relief a u t h or it ies in t h e su r r ou n din g cou n t ies t r ied t o in du ce welfa r e r ecipien t s t o a pply for t h e jobs by pr om isin g t h em ga solin e a n d food r a t ion s for t h e jou r n ey.36 H ow- ever / t h er e wer e few t a k er s willin g t o u n der go t h e h a r dsh ips t h a t fa r m wor k en t a iled.
Con sequ en t ly, despit e t h e com bin ed effor t s of em ployer s a n d welfa r e a u t h or it ies t o r ecr u it fa r m wor k er s/ t h e r esu lt s wer e a bysm a l. Th e sit u a t ion
wa s ser iou s a n d get t in g wor se. As cr ops r ipen ed/ t h e n eed for wor k er s gr ew
m or e u r gen t . Th e t a ct ic decided u pon wa s t o r em ove a ll fa r m h a n ds fr om t h e r elief r olls in cou n t ies loca t ed wit h in t h e Sa n J oa qu in Va lley.37 Th e st a t e
E m er gen cy Relief Adm in ist r a t ion wa s a sk ed t o cooper a t e in t h e ven t u r e.
; ^ CON DADO 83
fit h ln a week / five h u n dr ed wor k er s wer e decla r ed in eligible for welfa r e a id
^ n d t er m in a t ed. H owever / t h e st a t e E m ploym en t Bu r ea u r epor t ed t h a t on ly ggven t y-ft ve for m er welfa r e r ecipien t s h a d sh own u p on loca l fa r m s, seek in g v^ or k .38 Ma n y welfa r e cr it ics sa w t h is r esu lt a s pr oof posit ive t h a t bein g on t h e dole r u in ed a per son 's wor k et h ic a n d self-est eem . Ot h er s cr it icized t h e fa ct t h a t people on r elief got a s m u ch m on ey or per h a ps m or e t h a n t h ey cou ld ea r n a s fa r m wor k er s.39
Am on g t h ose com pla in in g a bou t t h e loss of Mexica n fa r m wor k er s wa s U r . Geor ge P . Clem en t s, secr et a r y of a gr icu lt u r e for t h e Los An geles Ch a m - ber of Com m er ce. In a let t er t o W. F r a n k P er son s/ dir ect or of E m ploym en t
Ser vice, U .S. Depa r t m en t of La bor / Clem en t s st a t ed: //Th e Mexica n , h ow-
ever / even u n der t h e m ost h a r a ssin g con dit ion s su ch a s h ou sin g com m is-
sion s/ sa n it a t ion la ws/ r eligiou s fu n k a n d com m er cia l t h iever y^ filled ever y r equ ir em en t for a gr icu lt u r e a n d r ou gh in du st r y even t o t h e loss of h is h ea lt h , h is m or a ls/ h is ea r n in gs a n d h is a t t it u de t owa r d life/' U n der st a n da ble Dr . Clem en t s la m en t ed/ "Wh en t h e sob sist er s ofAm er ica / pa r t icu la r ly t h ose in Ca lifor n ia , cou ld n ot get r id of t h e Mexica n in a n y ot h er wa y/ t h e F ilipin o wa s br ou gh t in t o displa ce h im , [a n d F ilipin os a r e] t h e m ost wor t h less^ u n - scr u pu lou s/ sh ift less/ disea sed/ sem i-ba r ba r ia n t h a t H a s ever com e t o ou r sh or es... even [wor se t h a n ] t h e n egr o [sic}." Clem en t s a lso voiced h is ca n -
did opin ion r ega r din g ot h er r a cia l gr ou ps: "t h er e a r e on ly t h r ee r a ces in t h e wor ld wh om civiliza t ion h a s n ot t ou ch ed—t h e Scot ch , t h e In dia n (a n d t h e Mexica n is a n In dia n )/ a n d t h e Ir ish ."40 Su ch views by a r espect ed r epr esen " t a t ive of t h e Ch a m ber of Com m er ce wer e obviou sly n ot in t en ded for pu blic
con su m pt ion ,
Dr . Clem en t s wa s n ot a lon e in deplor in g t h e su dden dea r t h of depen d- a ble/ exper ien ced field h a n ds t o h a n dle sou t h er n Ca lifor n ia 's exot ic fr u it s a n d veget a bles. Relief a u t h or it ies wer e r epea t edly im plor ed t o desist fr om
r epa t r ia dn g in digen t Mexica n s u n t il a ft er t h e cr ops h a d been h a r vest ed. Cot t on gr ower s in Ar izon a a n d Texa s/ lik e t h eir cou n t er pa r t s in t h e Cen t r a l Va lley/ cou ld n ot lu r e cit y people t o h a r vest t h eir cr ops. An glo wor k er s es-
ch ewed pick in g cot t on a t t h e pr eva ilin g r a t e per pou n d. Th ey k n ew t h a t even if t h ey wer e delet ed fr om t h e r elief r olls t em por a r ily/ t h ey cou ld a lwa ys get r ein st a t ed.41
Ar ou n d t h e cou n t r y, Mexica n s beca m e t h e vict im s of a ser ies of cr u el
dilem m a s. Th ey lost t h eir jobs a s a r esu lt of la ws en a ct ed t o pr even t t h em fr om bein g h ir ed on pu blic pr oject s. F a r m jobs declin ed du e t o less a cr ea ge bein g pla n t ed. Du e t o com pet it ion fr om //los Ok ies/' t h ey su ffer ed fr om a
dr op in wa ges. Th e pr iva t e sect or su ccu m bed t o dem a n ds t h a t it h ir e on ly 'r ea l Am er ica n s.^ Also a ffect in g t h eir sit u a t ion wer e r equ ir em en t s t h a t de-
84 WE LF ARE
n ied t h em a ccess t o welfa r e pr ogr a m s. Th ose t h a t did get a id r a n t h e r isk of
bein g depor t ed or r epa t r ia t ed. In P en n sylva n ia / for exa m ple. Secr et a r y of Welfa r e E . Ar t h u r Sween y pr oposed depa r t in g a lien s wh o h a d becom e pu b- lie ch a r ges a s a r esu lt of bein g h ospit a lized. H e est im a t ed t h a t 1/359 pa t ien t s/ m a n y of t h em m en t a lly ill, cou ld be sh ipped h om e. Th e sa vin gs t o t a xpa yer s wou ld a m ou n t t o 422,000 dolla r s a n n u a lly. Mr . Sween y a lso believed t h a t n ea r ly t wo t h ou sa n d a ddit ion a l pa t ien t s cou ld be per su a ded t o lea ve //volu n - t a r ily.// In t h e h ope of a u gm en t in g t h ese figu r es/ h e or der ed a t h or ou gh in - vest iga t ion of t h e st a t u s of a ll a lien s r eceivin g a n y for m of pu blic a ssist a n ce.42
Ot h er st a t es a n d cou n t ies a lso a t t em pt ed t o get r id of a s m a n y a ilin g a lien s a s possible in or der t o con ser ve welfa r e fu n ds.
In Det r oit , t h e Depa r t m en t of P u blic Assist a n ce con du ct ed a n especia lly
a ggr essive r epa t r ia t ion ca m pa ign . A specia l Mexica n Bu r ea u wa s est a blish ed in t h e loca l colon ia t o pr om ot e r epa t r ia t ion . Th e Mexica n Bu r ea u oft en de- n ied dir ect r elief fu n ds t o Mexica n s. In st ea d/ t h ey wer e given m ea l t ick et s a n d for ced t o ea t a t ca fet er ia s wh er e t h ey h a d t o en du r e pu blic h u m ilia t ion . As elsewh er e, Det r oit socia l wor k er s did n ot lim it t h eir a ct ivit ies on ly t o Mexica n N a t ion a ls/ bu t in clu ded Mexica n Am er ica n s. "Alt h ou gh Mr . M. h a d cit izen sh ip/' a n d wa s t h er efor e a lega l r esiden t / t h e ca se wor k er "dem a n ded t h a t h e r epa t r ia t e h im self in view of t h e depen den cy of h is fa m ily." An ot h er
socia l wor k er det er m in ed t h a t r epa t r ia t ion wa s best for //Ma r y Lou (a ge fif- t een ), bor n in Wa yn e/ Mich iga n /' even t h ou gh sh e "did n ot wish t o r et u r n t o Mexico/'43
Occa sion a lly, a m on g t h e t r a gic wr eck a ge of h u m a n lives/ a biza r r ely h u - m or ou s even t br ou gh t a ch u ck le t o n ewspa per r ea der s or r a dio list en er s. In
Ch ica go, a n a lien a ppea r ed in cou r t a n d com pla in ed t h a t Ke n eeded a size-42 pa ir of pa n t s r a t h er t h a n t h e size-36 given h im by t h e loca l r elief a gen cy. J u dge Th om a s Gr een sa w r ed a n d excla im ed: "You h a ve a lot of n er ve. Aft er bein g in t h is cou n t r y n in et een yea r s wit h ou t becom in g a cit izen a n d a ft er livin g on r elief for five yea r s, you k ick a bou t it , If you don 't lik e t h is cou n - t r y—or t h e pa n t s—get ou t !"44 Th e ju dge t h en pr oceeded t o fin e t h e dis-
fr a u gh t welfa r e r ecipien t t wo h u n dr ed dolla r s on ch a r ges of disor der ly con du ct . On a m or e ser iou s bu t sim ila r n ot e/ F eder a l J u dge J oh n A. P et er s in P or t la n d/ Ma in e/ a dm on ish ed fift y-on e n ew ca n dida t es for U .S. cit izen sh ip t o "a void t h e a lph a bet ica l r elief a gen cies a s you wou ld t h e pla gu e. Th is cou n t r y
is n o pla ce for dr on es or a n y leisu r e cla sses. P eople su ppor t ed by t h e gover n - m en t a r e sim ply ea t in g off t h eir fellow-cit izen s// h e a sser t ed. H e exh or t ed t h em £0 be "wor k er s" in t h eir a dopt ed cou n t r y.45 J u dge P et er s's r em a r k s r ep-
r esen t ed a pr eva ilin g view t h a t a ccept in g welfa r e wa s in essen ce //u n -Am er i-
E L CON DADO 85
ca n .'
Reelin g fr om t h e loss of jobs a n d den ia l of welfa r e/ colon ia s ever ywh er e bega n t o or ga n ize in or der t o dem a n d a n d pr ot ect t h eir r igh t s. Th e m ood
r ega r din g a pplyin g for or a ccept in g welfa r e bega n t o ch a n ge. Th er e wa s a gr owin g feelin g t h a t t h ey h a d ea r n ed it t h r ou gh t h e swea t of t h eir br ow. Th eir wor k h a d con t r ibu t ed sign ifica n t ly t o t h e va st wea lt h t h e n a t ion h a d a m a ssed. Th u s, it wa s on ly fa ir t h a t t h ey sh ou ld be eligible t o r eceive a ssis-
t a n ce a lon g wit h ot h er s t em por a r ily down on t h eir lu ck . As t h e depr ession wor sen ed/ seek in g r elief lost a gr ea t dea l of it s St igm a a m on g Mexica n s. H ow
cou ld it be a disgr a ce, sin ce n ea r ly 85 per cen t of t h e people on welfa r e wer e Am er ica n s—wh it e An glo-Sa xon s. Th a t sim ple fa ct wa s ver y r ea ssu r in g t o
t h e Mexica n popu la t ion . It ser ved a s pr oof t h a t An glos/ for a ll t h eir va u n t ed pr et en se of su per ior it y, wer e n ot a ble t o cope wit h t h e depr ession a n y bet t er t h a n / a n d in som e ca ses n ot a s well a s, t h ose t h ey com m on ly disda in ed a s //du m b Mexica n s."
In or der t o qu a lify for welfa r e a ssist a n ce, t h e qu est ion of U .S. cit izen sh ip a t fir st a ppea r ed t o be a m a jor st u m blin g block . H owever / it cea sed t o be a n in su r m ou n t a ble obst a cle. Ba r r io lea der s poin t ed ou t t h a t wh ile t h e pa r en t s m igh t n ot be Am er ica n cit izen s/ m ost of t h eir ch ildr en cer t a in ly m et t h a t cr it er ia . Th er efor e/ t h e ch ildr en wer e en t it led t o a id t h e sa m e a s ever yon e
else. Th er e wa s a lso t h e gr owin g con vict ion t h a t Mexica n s m er it ed a id m or e t h a n som e ot h er gr ou ps/ especia lly r ecen t E u r opea n a r r iva ls. Ma n y Mexi-
ca n s cou ld n ot u n der st a n d wh y cit izen sh ip st a t u s h a d su dden ly a ssu m ed su ch over r idin g im por t a n ce. It h a d n ever been a fa ct or befor e, eit h er in get t in g wor k or for t h ose wh o h a d ser ved in t h e m ilit a r y du r in g Wor ldWa r I. Mexi-
ca n im m igr a n t s h a d ser ved t h eir a dopt ed cou n t r y well. N ow it wa s t h e n a t ion 's obliga t ion t o r espon d in k in d, U n for t u n a t ely/ Am er ica n s did n ot see t h e sit u - a t ion in t h e sa m e ligh t .
Mexica n s wer e for ced t o figh t a n u ph ill ba t t le t o obt a in wh a t t h ey per -
ceived t o be r igh t fu lly du e t h em . Da lla s/ Texa s/ beca m ? on e of t h e h ot beds of a ct ivit y a s colon ia s u n it ed t o seek t h eir r igh t s. Th er e, t h e Tr a de U n it y Lea gu e a n d U n em ployed Cou n cils st a ged a ser ies of in doct r in a t ion m eet in gs. Th e
object wa s t o m a k e people a wa r e of t h eir r igh t s a n d t h e r ecou r se a va ila ble in or der t o a ch ieve t h em . At a m eet in g h eld in F a ir P a r k on F ebr u a r y 25,1931, or ga n izer s disclosed a list of im m edia t e dem a n ds. F ir st a n d for em ost wa s a dem a n d for ga in fu l em ploym en t or com pen sa t ion equ iva len t t o a livin g wa ge. Th a t wa s followed by a dem a n d for im m edia t e a id for t h ose wh o wer e u n -
em ployed a n d for poor fa r m wor k er s. N o on e wa s t o be evict ed for fa ilu r e t o pa y t h eir r en t . U t ilit ies wer e t o be pr ovided fr ee of ch a r ge t o t h e poor a n d t h e u n em ployed.47
In Los An geles/ in t h e h ope of a voidin g sim ila r dem on st r a t ion s a s well a s
86 WE LF ARE
k eepin g Mexica n s off t h e welfa r e r olls/ a va r iet y of a lt er n a t ive pr oject s pr oposed. Th e loca l Mexica n Ch a m ber of Com m er ce cr ea t ed a com m it t ee t o look in t o t h e fea sibilit y of est a blish in g a Mexica n La bor Bu r ea u . Th e i]
wa s t o develop a cen t r a l la bor clea r in gh ou se t h a t wor k er s a n d em ployer s cou ld u t ilize t o t h eir m u t u a l a dva n t a ge. It wou ld dea l pr im a r ily wit h loca l a gr icu lt u r a list s wh o n eeded a ssu r a n ce t h a t a depen da ble la bor pool wou ld be
a va ila ble t o m eet t h eir sea son a l or on goin g n eeds. Th e cooper a t ion of t h e Ch a m ber of Com m er ce wa s sou gh t in pr om ot in g t h e en dea vor . Ra m on C.
Ar m en da r iz/ a m em ber of t h e Mexica n or ga n izin g com m it t ee/ wa s desig- n a t ed t o ser ve a s t h e lia ison bet ween t h e t wo Ch a m ber s.48 Cost of oper a t i]
t h e la bor bu r ea u wa s est im a t ed a t a bou t t h ir t y t h ou sa n d dolla r s a yea r . In a n effor t t o m a k e t h e oper a t ion self-su ppor t in g/ it wa s su ggest ed t h a t m em ber s pa y a m on t h ly fee. In dividu a ls ga in fu lly em ployed wou ld be ch a r ged on e dolla r , t h ose wor k in g on ly pa r t -t im e wou ld pa y fift y cen t s. An yon e wor k in g less t h a n seven da ys per m on t h wou ld be exem pt fr om m em ber sh ip fees.45
Th e con cept of h a vin g a ca pt ive wor k for ce a n d r edu cin g r elief expen di- t u r es wa s ca r r ied a st ep fu r t h er by t h e Los An geles Ch a m ber of Com m er ce. It pr oposed set t in g u p Mexica n villa ges in r u r a l a r ea s/ wh er e t h e wor k er s cou ld be h ou sed a n d r ea dily look ed a ft er . Th is pla n wa s n ot pr om pt ed by a n y ben ign a t t it u de or sen se of m or a l r espon sibilit y. Ra t h er / it wa s m ea n t t o k eep t h e Mexica n s fr om bein g exposed t o a life of ea se by livin g on r elief in t h e cit ies. As on e Ch a m ber of Com m er ce in t er depa r t m en t m em o st a t ed: "By t h e
t im e t h e n ew dea l [sic] a n d t h e m or e a bu n da n t life get t h r ou gh wit h t h ese
Mexica n s/ a gr icu lt u r e is n ot goin g t o get a n y sa t isfa ct or y la bor su pplies fr om t h e big cit ies a n d t h e soon er t h ey [t h e gr ower s] r ea lize t h is, t h e soon er t h ey will get com m a n d of t h eir own sit u a t ion /'50 To m a k e t h e pr oposed pla n a t - t r a ct ive t o Mexica n wor k er s/ it wa s su ggest ed t h a t t h ey be gu a r a n t eed a cer -
t a in n u m ber of wor k da ys du r in g t h e yea r . Th is wa s viewed a s a st r on g in du cem en t for wor k er s t o r em a in in t h e a r ea a n d t o be a va ila ble wh en ever
n eeded. Th e a ssu r a n ce of a job wou ld en a ble t h em t o sa t isfy t h eir ba sic n eeds/ a n d it wou ld k eep t h em off t h e welfa r e r olls.
An a lt er n a t ive pr oposa l wa s t o est a blish Mexica n villa ges a s a dju n ct s t o t h e loca l m ission s. P ossible sit es in clu ded Mission s Sa n F er n a n do, Sa n Ga br iel/
a n d Sa n J u a n Ca pist r a n o. In t h e villa ges/ IVt exica n s wou ld be t r a in ed t o per - for m cu lt u r a l r it u a ls a n d t o pr odu ce a va r iet y of h a n dicr a ft s. Bot h a ct ivit ies cou ld becom e vir t u a l gold m in es for t h e ou t -of-wor k pa r t icipa n t s. Th e a r -
r a n gem en t wa s a lso viewed a s a n oppor t u n it y t o cou n t er t h e n ega t ive wa y
in wh ich Mexica n s wer e n or m a lly per ceived in sou t h er n Ca lifor n ia . H ope- fu lly, a n en h a n ced im a ge of t h e Mexica n wou ld be pr oject ed t o t h e pu blic. In essen ce/ t h ey wou ld be qu a in t / livin g dior a m a s.sl On e loca l sa ge obser ved
t CON DADO 87
Mission Sa n J u a n Ca pist r a n o wa s fa m ed for t h e yea r ly r et u r n of t h e illows/ bu t t h a t in t h is in st a n ce t h e Mexica n s wou ld be t h e r ea l pigeon s.
so m a n y ot h er "pie in t h e sk y" sch em es pr oposed du r in g t h e depr es- t h is on e a lso died on t h e dr a win g boa r d. In a u n iqu e a t t em pt t o k eep
cit r u s wor k er s in t h e Sa n Ga br iel Va lley a wa y fr om cit ies a n d off welfa r e/ a \ /VP A su r vey gr ou p pr oposed bu ildin g on e t h ou sa n d h ou ses for Mexica n s g^ ployed in t h e or ch a r ds. Th e WP A pla n n er s design ed a m odel u n it of 500
feet wit h t wo bedr oom s/ 9' X 11' ea ch ; a k it ch en / 10' X 11'; a n d a
livin g r oom , 11' X 14'. All h ou ses h a d t h e a dded lu xu r y of scr een ed win dows a n d door s. Th e pr oposed pr oject wa s h a lt ed wh en loca l r esiden t s com pla in ed t h a t t h e h ou ses wer e "t oo good for Mexica n s/
As in ept a s t h e sch em es m a y a ppea r t h ey r epr esen t ed effor t s t o con cea l cr it ica l socia l issu es. Civic lea der s a n d loca l bu sin essm en wer e willin g t o con -
sider a n yt h in g t h a t m igh t wor k . Th e m ission villa ge wa s m er ely a va r ia t ion of a fa vor it e t h em e in sou t h er n Ca lifor n ia . Loca t ed t h r ee m iles n or t h of Cla r em on t wa s t h e P a ct u a H ills t h ea t r e/r est a u r a n t cen t er . Mexica n m u si-
da n s/ a r t ist s/ a n d you t h s wer e h ir ed t o sin g, pla y m u sic, a n d ser ve food t o t h e t ou r ist s,53 Th e r ela xed/ ca r efr ee a m bia n ce ca pt u r ed t h e fla vor a n d cr ea t ed
t h e m ood of din in g in old Mexico. Ru r a l F a du a H ills h a d it s u r ba n cou n t er - pa r t in down t own Los An geles's Olver a St r eet wit h it s cu r io sh ops a n d pic- t u r esqu e r est a u r a n t s. Th e Olver a St r eet m er ch a n t s com m ission ed t h e fa m ou s
a r t ist Da vid Alfa r o Siqu eir os t o pa in t t h e Am er ica Tr opica l m u r a l. Bu t h is por t r a ya l of t h e Am er ica s wa s deem ed t oo con t r over sia l a n d ba d for bu si- n ess."
All gr ou ps a n d a gen cies a ct ed in wh a t t h ey deem ed t o be t h eir own best in t er est s. A ca se in poin t wa s t h e st a n ce t a k en by t h eAF L (Am er ica n F eder a - t ion of La bor ) wh en it wa s a sk ed t o spea k u p in beh a lf of Mexica n wor k er s wh o wer e bein g la id off t h r ou gh ou t t h e la n d. Th e u n ion r eplied t h a t wit h
t h r ee m illion of it s own m em ber s u n em ployed a n d m a n y ot h er s fa cin g r e- du ct ion in wor k in g h ou r s/ it wa s in n o posit ion t o offer a n y h elp t o Mexica n wor k er s. Th e Mexica n pr ess cor r ect ly poin t ed ou t t h a t t h e la bor u n ion 's r a -
t ion a le r a n g h ollow sin ce it h a d n ever en dea vor ed t o h elp Mexica n wor k er s. E ven wh en t h er e wa s n o econ om ic cr isis/ t h e AF L h a d t u r n ed a dea f ea r t o plea s for h elp fr om Mexica n wor k er s wh o wer e fa cin g st a r va t ion .55 In t r u t h / r a t h er t h a n a sym pa t h et ic fr ien d/ t h e u n ion wa s a n ea r n est foe.56 La ck of su ppor t by or ga n ized la bor sim ply com pou n ded t h e m a gn it u de of t h e pr ob- lem s fa ced by Mexica n s st r ivin g t o a void goin g on r elief.
In spit e of t h e odds a ga in st t h em a n d t h e fa ilu r e of pla n s design ed t o a id t h em / Mexica n s con t in u ed t h eir effor t s t o esca pe t h e dole. H owever / t h ey wer e n ot a lwa ys su ccessfu l. Da t a for Los An geles Cou n t y ca n be viewed a s
WE LF ARE
r epr esen t a t ive of t h eir sit u a t ion t h r ou gh ou t t h e n a t ion . Accor din g t o t h e feder a l cen su s of 1930, Mexica n s com pr ised 175,601 or 7.95 per cen t of t h e cou n t y's 2,208/000 popu la t ion . An in vest iga t ion of 64/403 u n em ploym en t ca ses in 1933 r evea led t h a t 6/970 ca ses in volved Mexica n s or Mexica n Am er i- ca n s. Th eir com bin ed t ot a l a ccou n t ed for 10,8 per cen t of t h ose u n em ployed. A det a iled exa m in a t ion of 11,717 welfa r e ca ses fou n d t h a t 5.4 per cen t of t h e t ot a l n u m ber wer e Mexica n Am er ica n s bor n in t h e U n it ed St a t es a n d 9.0 per cen t wer e cit izen s of Mexico.57 Th is per cen t a ge is less t h a n t h eir r epr e-
sen t a t ion eit h er in t h e popu la t ion or a m on g t h e r a n k s of t h e u n em ployed. Du r in g 1933, t h e n u m ber of Mexica n a lien s a dded t o r elief r olls t h r ou gh -
ou t t h e cou n t r y in cr ea sed sign ifica n t ly. Th e r ea son for t h e in cr ea se wa s a t -
t r ibu t a ble dir ect ly t o t h e feder a l gover n m en t . In t h e fa ce of r isin g cost s for loca l, st a t e/ a n d n a t ion a l welfa r e pr ogr a m s/ t a xpa yer s h ou n ded t h eir elect ed r epr esen t a t ives for fisca l r elief. In r espon se t o r epea t ed r equ est s by st a t es a n d cou n t ies for feder a l fu n din g/ t h e gover n m en t a gr eed t o a ssist t h em wit h
t h e fin a n cia l bu r den im posed by esca la t in g welfa r e cost s. H owever / t o qu a lify for feder a l a ssist a n ce/ st a t e a n d cou n t y gover n m en t s wer e for bidden t o m a k e
a n y dist in ct ion or t o sh ow a n y pr efer en ce bet ween cit izen s a n d n on cit izen s.
Bot h gr ou ps wer e deem ed eligible t o r eceive dir ect st a t e or cou n t y a id. Sin ce t h e feder a l gover n m en t pr ovided 35 per cen t of t h e welfa r e fu n ds, pr im a r ily t h r ou gh loca l civil wor k s pr ogr a m s/ pa r t icipa t in g a gen cies h a d n o ch oice bu t t o com ply wit h t h e dir ect ive.58
E a r l E . J en sen / su per in t en den t of ch a r it ies for t h e cou n t y of Los An geles, m ir r or ed t h e sen t im en t s of welfa r e depa r t m en t s a cr oss t h e la n d. In a r epor t t o t h e Boa r d of Su per visor s, J en sen com pla in ed t h a t //we fin d a pecu lia r sit u - a t ion , a n d a m ost u n sa t isfa ct or y on e/ wh er e t h e Mexica n a lien 's m on t h ly
bu dget h a s been in cr ea sed 30 per cen t a n d yet we r efu se t o a llow h im t o do a n y wor k in r et u r n for t h e sa m e/ even if h e wer e willin g t o do so."59 J en sen 's
con cer n wa s well fou n ded, for t h e cost of pr ovidin g for t h e cou n t y's t en t h ou sa n d in digen t Mexica n fa m ilies a m ou n t ed t o 200,000 dolla r s per m on t h or 2/400/000 dolla r s a yea r .60 F a ced wit h t h is t r em en dou s expen dit u r e/ t h e
cou n t y sou gh t t o a llevia t e it s fin a n cia l bu r den by ever y m ea n s possible.
In spit e of som e sh or t com in gs/ t h e va r iou s welfa r e pr ogr a m s in t r odu ced by t h e N ew Dea l h elped t o r elieve t h e st r a in on st a t e a n d loca l gover n m en t s, U n der t h e n ewly est a blish ed Socia l Secu r it y syst em / Mexica n s wer e eligible for old-a ge pen sion s/ a id t o depen den t ch ildr en / a n d a id t o t h e blin d. N Iost of t h e r ecipien t s wer e con cen t r a t ed in t h e st a t es of Ar izon a / Ca lifor n ia / Colo- r a do/ N ew Mexico/ a n d Texa s. In Ca lifor n ia / t h er e wer e r epor t edly 55/863 Mexica n s pa r t icipa t in g in t h e Socia l Secu r it y pr ogr a m s. Th e st a t e ea sily ou t - dist a n ced it s closest r iva ls, Color a do a n d Texa s/ n ea r ly fou r t o on e in t h e
I^ CON DADO 89
ir n ber of Mexica n s bein g ser ved. H owever / t h e figu r es in dica t in g h ow m a n y wer e r eceivin g a ssist a n ce t en d t o be m islea din g. In som e in st a n ces/
ie da t a wa s in com plet e or t h e st a t es did n ot pr ovide a ll t h r ee Socia l Secu -
i r it V pr o8r a m s- Texa s, for exa m ple, did n ot im plem en t eit h er t h e a id t o de- 'n den t ch ildr en or t h e a id t o t h e blin d pr ogr a m s. Th e n u m ber of Mexica n s
:icipa t in g in feder a l-a ssist a n ce pr ogr a m s r em a in ed r ela t ively sm a ll. As la t e a s 1937, it wa s est im a t ed t h a t n a t ion wide on ly 100,000 Mexica n s wer e wor k in g on WP A pr oject s.61
Th e em ploym en t sit u a t ion wa s a dver sely effect ed wh en t h e Seven t y-sixt h Con gr ess su ccu m bed t o pu blic pr essu r e a n d decla r ed t h a t a lien s wer e in eli- dble for em ploym en t on WP A pr oject s. Accor din g t o Sect ion 3/ Tit le I, of
t h e r evised E m er gen cy Relief Act of 1937, t h e Wor k s P r ogr ess Adm in ist r a - t ion "sh a ll n ot k n owin gly em ploy on su ch pr oject s a lien s illega lly wit h in t h e lim it s of t h e U n it ed St a t es or a lien s wh o h a ve n ot filed decla r a t ion of in t en t ion t o becom e cit izen s."62 Th e n ew r est r ict ion s a pplied t o a ll a lien s/ n ot m er ely t o N Iexica n s. In N ew Yor k Cit y,. 1,873 a lien s lost t h eir jobs. In N ew J er sey/ t h e t ot a l wa s 717; a n d in P en n sylva n ia /1/107 for eign er s wer e la id off. Wh ile Mexica n s a cr oss t h e cou n t r y wer e in volved in t h e la yoffs, t h e t oll wa s h ea viest in Ca lifor n ia a n d in t h e Sou t h west . Th e va st m a jor it y of t h e 100/000 Mexica n s em ployed on WP A pr oject s r esided in Ca lifor n ia a n d Texa s.63
In Sa n An t on io^ N lexica n s pr ot est ed t h e la yoffs by st or m in g a n d st on in g t h e loca l WP A office. In a n a t t em pt t o defu se t h e t en se sit u a t ion / r epr esen t a -
t ives of t h e Mexica n em ba ssy in Wa sh in gt on / D.C-, m et wit h U .S. St a t e De-
pa r t m en t officia ls t o seek t h eir cooper a t ion in a m elior a t in g t h e pligh t of t h ose wh o h a d been disch a r ged fr om WP A pr oject s.64 Con gr ession a l legisla t ion h a d sim ply m a de a ba d sit u a t ion wor se. Du e t o t h e n ew r egu la t ion s, m a n y of t h e in dividu a ls disch a r ged wou n d u p on cou n t y or st a t e r elief r olls. In Ca li- for n ia / st a t e sen a t or Ra lph Swin g of Sa n Ber n a r din o in t r odu ced a bill t o exclu de a lien s fr om t h e st a t e r elief r olls. Alt h ou gh t h e pr oposed legisla t ion
wa s a im ed a t a ll a lien s/ t h e Mexica n pr ess poin t ed ou t t h a t in Ca lifor n ia t h e
la r gest a lien popu la t ion wa s of Mexica n or igin . Gover n or Cu lber t Olson su bsequ en t ly vet oed t h e m ea su r e. Th e Mexica n pr ess h a iled t h e a ct ion a s a cou r a geou s a n d ju st st a n ce on t h e pa r t of t h e gover n or .65
Gover n or Olson ^ s a ct ion / a lt h ou gh h a iled a br oa d a s a h u m a n e gest u r e/
wa s da m n ed by m a n y vocifer ou s r esiden t s. Th er e wa s a st r on g differ en ce of opin ion a bou t wh et h er t h e st a t e legisla t u r e cou ld lega lly a ppr opr ia t e or ex- pen d pu blic fu n ds for a lien r elief. In a n a t t em pt t o set t le t h e dispu t e, a lega l opin ion wa s sou gh t fr om t h e st a t e a t t or n ey gen er a l's office. In h is r espon se/
st a t e a t t or n ey gen er a l E a r lWa r r en poin t ed ou t t h a t n eit h er t h e st a t e Con st i- t u t ion n or t h e codes or st a t u t es of Ca lifor n ia con t a in ed a n y in h ibit ion or
90 WE LF ARE
r est r ict ion a ga in st gr a n t in g r elief t o a lien s. Th e a t t or n ey gen er a l cit ed Sec- t ion 17 of Ar t icle I of t h e Ca lifor n ia Con st it u t ion / wh ich st a t ed; "F or eign er s of t h e wh it e r a ce/ or ofAfr ica n decen t [sic]/ eligible t o becom e cit izen s of t h e U n it ed St a t es u n der t h e n a t u r a liza t ion la ws t h er eof, wh ile bon a fide r est -
den t s of t h is St a t e/ sh a ll h a ve t h e sa m e r igh t s in r espect t o t h e a cqu isit ion , possession , en joym en t , t r a n sm ission a n d in h er it a n ce of a ll pr oper t y/ ot h er
t h a n r ea l est a t e/ a s n a t ive-bor n cit izen s/'66
It wou ld be a ssu m ed t h a t a lega l opin ion fr om t h e st a t e's a t t or n ey gen er a l wou ld h a ve set t led t h e qu est ion a n d la id t h e issu e t o r est . Bu t in Los An ge-
les/ t h e Boa r d of Su per visor s a sk ed t h e cou n t y cou n sel for a n opin ion r e- ga r din g m edica l a id for Mexica n a lien s wh o wer e pa t ien t s in t h e Olive View Sa n it a r iu m or t h ose r eceivin g Ou t side Medica l Relief. Th e ch ief qu est ion
posed t o t h e cou n t y cou n sel wa s wh et h er t h e cou n t y or t h e Mexica n gov- er n m en t wa s r espon sible for fu r n ish in g m edica l ca r e,67 H owever / t h e opin -
ion of t h e cou n t y cou n sel wa s a ca dem ic/ for t h e posit ion of Mexica n gover n m en t officia ls r em a in ed a da m a n t . Th ey wer e con vin ced t h a t m a n y Mexica n s wh o wer e n ow h ospit a lized or in st it u t ion a lized in m edica l fa cili- t ies h a d sa cr ificed t h eir h ea lt h t o en r ich t h e U n it ed St a t es/ n ot Mexico. Th er e- for e/ it wa s n ow u p t o t h e Am er ica n a u t h or it ies t o pr ovide in digen t pa t ien t s wit h pr oper m edica l ca r e. Th is poin t of view wa s in essen ce sh a r ed by Ca li- for n ia Gover n or Cu lber t Olson . In r em a r k s a t t r ibu t ed t o h im / h e r epu t edly st a t ed: "Ma n y of t h ese people, pa r t icu la r ly t h e Mexica n s, wer e in vit ed t o com e h er e a n d in m a n y wa ys br ou gh t h er e so t h ey cou ld wor k t o cr ea t e t h e wea lt h of t h is st a t e. Th ey wor k ed for low wa ges t o h elp cr ea t e t h is wea lt h a n d a r e en t it led t o sh a r e in it /''68
N ot ever yon e in Ca lifor n ia or elsewh er e sh a r ed Gover n or Olson fs gen er -
ou s poin t of view. Most people did n ot ca r e a bou t wh a t t h e Mexica n s h a d con t r ibu t ed; t h ey sim ply wa n t ed t o get r id of t h em . A lea din g spok esm a n
vodfer ou sly a dvoca t in g r em ova l of Mexica n s fr om st a t e a n d loca l welfa r e r olls in or der t o cu t t h e cost s of t h e pr ogr a m wa s Siegfr ied Goet ze, a h ou sin g a n d pla n n in g con su lt a n t , In J a n u a r y of 1940, h e su bm it t ed a det a iled pla n for get t in g r id ofin digen t s t o t h e gover n or / t h e st a t e legisla t u r e/ a n d t h e Los An geles Cou n t y Boa r d of Su per visor s. Goet ze's pla n wa s pr om pt ed by h is con t en t ion t h a t in Los An geles Cou n t y a lon e t h er e wer e a bou t 4/000 welfa r e ca ses in volvin g Mexica n fa m ilies. Th ese fa m ilies/ h e a sser t ed, r eceived a p-
pr oxim a t ely t wo m illion dolla r s per yea r fr om t h e st a t e Relief Adm in ist r a - t ion . Goet ze cit ed a st u dy of 188 fa m ilies/ wh ich fou n d t h a t 64.8 per cen t of
t h ose su r veyed wer e h ea ded by a n a lien . Th e st u dy a lso r evea led t h a t t h e fa m ilies h a d r esided in t h e cou n t y a n a ver a ge of 17.11 yea r s.69
Mr . Goet ze a ccu sed welfa r e officia ls a n d socia l wor k er s of dr a ggin g t h eir
1-gX.CON DADO 91
a n d n ot a ddr essin g t h e a lien welfa r e pr oblem . Th er efor e, h e pr oposed u p a st a t ewide com m ission u n der t h e dir ect ion of a fu ll-t im e cza r .
t e com m ission wou ld be em power ed t o la u n ch a con cer t ed, st a t ewide ef-
I for t t o r 1^ r e^ le^ r olls °f Mexica n r ecipien t s. To a ssu r e t h e su ccess of t h e coin n u sslon / ^ r Goet ze r ecom m en ded t h a t t wen t y-five t h ou sa n d dolla r s be a lloca t ed t o t h e a gen cy for it s fir st yea r of oper a t ion . Th er ea ft er , h e pr o-
;ed/ "t h e bu dget sh a ll n ot exceed 10 per cen t of t h e a ct u a l sa vin g t o t h e st a t e in a lien r elief, ba sed on 1939 St a t e ReliefAdm m ist r a t ion expen dit u r es/'70
Th is ploy/ h e believed/ wou ld wh et t h e com m ission 's a ppet it e for goin g a ft er Mexica n a lien s in a n a ggr essive m a n n er . Acr oss t h e cou n t r y people wh o
sh a r ed Goet ze's zea l a lso cla m or ed for get t in g Mexica n s off r elief r olls. In In dia n a H a r bor , socia l wor k er s t h r ea t en ed Mexica n s wit h loss ofwel-
fa r e a id. ;;We/ll st a r ve/" people pr ot est ed. "N o/ n o you h a ve a n a lt er n a t ive;
[you ca n ] .. .go t o Mexico/" wa s t h e r et or t .71 It wa s blin dly or con ven ien t ly
a ssu m ed t h a t "a ll Mexica n s" wou ld be bet t er off in Mexico/ wit h t h eir own
k in d. Th e n a t u r a l in clin a t ion t o r edu ce expen ses pr om pt ed welfa r e a gen cies t o cooper a t e wit h t h e Im m igr a t ion Bu r ea u . Welfa r e a gen cies r epor t ed t h e
n a m es a n d a ddr esses of a lien s t o t h e Im m igr a t ion Ser vice/ a lt h ou gh t h ey wer e for bidden t o do so by welfa r e r egu la t ion s. In a scen a r io en dlessly r e-
pea t ed t h r ou gh ou t t h e cou n t r y/ Mr s. Ma n u el Del Ca m po a gr eed t o lea ve in or der t o obt a in r elea se of h er h u sba n d/ wh o wa s in ja il a wa it in g depor t a t ion . Mr s. Del Ca m po a n d h er five ch ildr en wer e sh ipped t o Mexica li, Ba ja Ca li- for n ia . Su ch pr ocedu r es wer e r ega r ded a s "pr a ct ica l" for a ll con cer n ed. H ow-
ever / even t h ou gh fa m ilies left t h r ou gh t h eir own volit ion , t h e im m igr a t ion a u t h or it ies m on it or ed t h eir expu lsion . Th is wa s don e so t h a t t h eir r een t r y
cou ld be pr even t ed on t h e gr ou n ds t h a t t h ey h a d been pu blic ch a r ges.72 Despit e t h e in gen iou s effor t s/ wh olesa le r epa t r ia t ion of welfa r e r ecipien t s
pr oved t o be a ba n k r u pt policy. In spit e of t h e h a r dsh ips t h ey fa ced in colon ia s a r ou n d t h e cou n t r y/ m a n y Mexica n s sim ply decided t o st a y pu t a n d a wa it a bet t er t om or r ow. Ch ildr en pla yed a decisive r ole in a r r ivin g a t t h e decision . Th eir pr ot est a t ion s a ga in st r et u r n in g t o wh a t t h ey con sider ed a for eign cou n - t r y oft en t ipped t h e sca les in con vin cin g fa m ilies t o r em a in in t h e U n it ed St a t es. Resolu t e pa r en t s r esolved t o do so even if it m ea n t r esor t in g t o sca v-
en gin g in or der t o su r vive. Th ey oft en did n ot k n ow wh er e t h eir n ext m ea l wa s com in g fr om / bu t pr a yer a n d h ope su st a in ed t h em du r in g t h eir da r k est h ou r s.
In Au gu st of 1941, t h e execu t ive dir ect or of t h e Depa r t m en t of P u blic Assist a n ce of Los An geles Cou n t y im plor ed t h e Boa r d of Su per visor s t o r e- m ove a ll in digen t Ca n a dia n a n d Mexica n cit izen s fr om t h e welfa r e r olls.
In clu din g t h e Ca n a dia n s, wh o wer e few in n u m ber / ga ve t h e pr oposa l a cer -
92 WE LF ARE
t a in degr ee of im pa r t ia lit y. Th e dir ect or sin gled ou t t h ose a lien s wh o wer e n ot lega lly eligible t o r eceive em er gen cy a id. H e fu r t h er a dvised t h a t a lien s sh ou ld be n ot ified t h a t a ll cou n t y a id wou ld be discon t in u ed a s of Sept em ber 30,1941.73 H owever Wa yn e Alien , cou n t y ch ief a dm in ist r a t ive officer , a d- vised t h e Boa r d of Su per visor s t h a t a n y pla n t h a t m er ely offer ed in digen t s a . fr ee t r ip t o t h e bor der wa s doom ed t o fa ilu r e. Su ccess wa s depen den t u pon som e for m of t r a n sit ion a l a ssist a n ce bein g r en der ed t o t h e welfa r e r ecipi-
en t s.74 J oh n An son F or d/ a m em ber of t h e Boa r d of Su per visor s/ su ppor t ed Wa yn e Alien 's pr oposa l. H e a dvised h is collea gu es t h a t a su fficien t su m o{ m on ey wou ld h a ve t o be pr ovided t o ea ch F a m ily t h a t volu n t eer ed t o be t a k en off t h e r elief r olls a n d a gr eed t o r et u r n t o Mexico. Accor din g t o F or d/ "Du e t o t h e fa vor a ble r a t io of five Mexica n dolla r s [pesos] t o on e Am er ica n dolla r / a con t r ibu t ion of a few m on t h s/ r elief m on ey per fa m ily wou ld go a lon g wa y t owa r d givin g ea ch fa m ily ... fin a n cia l a id t h a t wou ld , - . a ssu r e t h em a ga in st su ffer in g in t h eir n ew en vir on m en t ."75
Wa yn e Alien poin t ed ou t t h a t t h e a ct u a l cost of m a in t a in in g a fa m ily on welfa r e t ot a lled fift y-six dolla r s a m on t h . H e, t h er efor e/ r ecom m en ded t h a t on e h u n dr ed dolla r s be given t o ea ch fa m ily. Th e su m wou ld be pa id in t en
equ a l m on t h ly in st a llm en t s, eit h er t h r ou gh t h e a u spices of t h e Mexica n gov- er n m en t or t h e n ea r est Am er ica n con su la t e office. Som e su per visor s be-
lieved t h a t on e h u n dr ed dolla r s wa s excessive a n d ba lk ed a t a ppr ovin g t h e a m ou n t . Th ey ch a n ged t h eir m in ds wh en it wa s poin t ed ou t t h a t t h e su m wa s less t h a n t h e cost of t wo m on t h s of pu blic a ssist a n ce. It wa s du ly n ot ed
t h a t a t t h e r a t e of exch a n ge, t h en in effect , in digen t r epa t r ia t es wou ld a ct u - a lly get t h e equ iva len t of t h e ba sic a m ou n t t h ey h a d r eceived wh ile on r elief. Th e su per visor s a lso a gr eed t o in for m t h e Mexica n gover n m en t t h a t if a fa m ily wh o a ccept ed t h e ca sh set t lem en t r et u r n ed t o t h e U n it ed St a t es wit h in a per iod of t wo yea r s/ t h e cou n t y wou ld n ot be r espon sible for t h eir well- bein g.77
Th e su per visor s wer e ela t ed wit h t h eir sch em e. On Tu esda y/ Decem ber 2/ 1941, t h ey a ppr oved t h e in gen iou s pla n . H er e wa s a golden oppor t u n it y t o pa r e t h e r elief r olls/ get r id of t h e Mexica n s/ a n d sa ve t h e belea gu er ed t a x-
pa yer s m on ey. P u n dit s won der ed wh y n o on e h a d com e u p wit h t h is br il- lia n t idea befor e. Wh y h a d it t a k en so lon g, a deca de, befor e devisin g wh a t
a ppea r ed t o be a fool-pr oof pla n ? H owever / wh en t h e pu blic lea r n ed of t h e pr oposed "givea wa y" of t h eir t a x dolla r s/ t h er e wa s wide-spr ea d opposit ion t o t h e en vision ed la r gesse. On e let t er r eceived by t h e su per visor s r ega r din g t h e pa ym en t of on e h u n dr ed dolla r s decla r ed t h a t "it sh ows you a r e u n fa - m ilia r wit h con dit ion s in Mexico/ wh er e $100.00 of ou r m on ey is a sm a ll for t u n e/ a n d it will ser ve n o good pu r pose/ on ly m a k in g m or e Mexica n s a n x-
gl, CON DADO 93
iou s t o com e h er e t o sh a r e in t h e ea sy m on ey."78 Th e let t er wr it er u r ged t h e
su per visor s t o t a k e a cou r a geou s st a n d in r esolvin g t h e pr oblem , a n d su g-
jest ed t h a t a ll em ploya ble in digen t s be pu t t o wor k in cu t t in g weeds, dig- gin g dit ch es, a n d collect in g beer bot t les. An ot h er let t er r eceived on Mon da y/ Decem ber 8,1941, a lso pr ot est ed t h e on e-h u n dr ed-dolla r pa ym en t a n d a sk ed wh y t h ose on welfa r e sh ou ld be pa yed [sic] t o r et u r n t o t h eir own cou n t r y.79
E l Con da do: Docu m en t s
Repa t r ia t ion P r oposa l. Su per visor J oh n An son F or d t o Los An geles Boa r d of Su per visor s, 18 N ovem ber 1941.
Sou r ce: Los An geles Cou n t y Min u t es/ Vol. 273: P a ge 385.
ME MO TO BOARD OF SU P E RVISORS RE TH E MOST ACCE P TABLE BASIS OF RE P ATRIATION OF ME XICAN S
BY J OH N AN SON F ORD
Th e wor k in g ou t of a r epa t r ia t ion pr ogr a m for Mexica n a lien s in Los An geles Cou n t y wh ich will a ssu r e fa ir a n d equ it a ble t r ea t m en t for t h e Mexica n s wh o volu n t a r ily pa r t icipa t e/ will ben efit bot h Los An geles
Cou n t y a n d Mexico fin a n cia lly a n d in m a n y ot h er r espect s. F u r t h er m or e/ su ch a pr ogr a m ca n be m a de t h e m ea n s of en gen der in g a n d st r en gt h en in g bon ds of good will bet ween t h e t wo r epu blics a n d will ser ve a s eviden ce of
sin cer e good n eigh bor lin ess/ spr in gin g fr om t h e people of a gr ea t st a t e close t o a n d in t im a t ely a ssocia t ed wit h Mexico.
Th e pr ogr a m a bou t wh ich we will con fer wit h Mexica n feder a l officia ls is design ed a s a lon g-r a n ge, con t in u in g r ela t ion sh ip r a t h er t h a n a br ief or spor a dic depor t a t ion effor t . It ca n be m a de a n in va lu a ble con t r ibu t ion t o bet t er F a n Am er ica n u n der st a n din g.
A fa ct or ca u sin g Los An geles Cou n t y a n d t h e St a t e of Ca lifor n ia t o give con sider a t ion a t t h is t im e t o a n ew pr ogr a m of r epa t r ia t ion of Mexica n a lien s/ is t h e specia l in t er est t h a t Mexica n N a t ion a ls h a ve sh own in r et u r n in g t o t h eir n a t ive la n d. I believe t h e pr ogr a m ca n be wor k ed ou t
t h a t a n in cr ea sin g n u m ber will wa n t t o t a k e a dva n t a ge of t h e oppor t u n it y. We fin d t h a t t h e Mexica n gover n m en t h a s been en cou r a gin g t h e r et u r n
of it s N a t ion a ls/ if su ch r et u r n s ca n be a ccom plish ed u n der con dit ion s wh ich in clu de (a ) Set t lem en t of t h e r epa t r ia t es wh er e a gr icu lt u r a l la n ds or in du st r ia l occu pa t ion s a r e m a de a va ila ble in a dva n ce a n d su it a ble t o t h e ba ck gr ou n d a n d exper ien ce of sa id r epa t r ia t es; (b) Th e n ecessit y of
pr ovidin g for ea ch fa m ily a su fficien t su m of m on ey eit h er fr om t h e Mexica n feder a l gover n m en t / t h e loca l Mexica n gover n m en t / or fr om
Ca lifor n ia or Los An geles Cou n t y sou r ces/ or bot h , su fficien t t o gu a r a n t ee sa id fa m ilies a ga in st wa n t du r in g a n a dju st m en t per iod a n d/or su fficien t t o a ssist sa id r epa m a t ed per son t o est a blish h im self wit h fa r m or cr a ft t ools/
or ot h er wise/ t h er eby givin g h im fu r t h er a ssu r a n ce of self-su ppor t . Du e t o t h e fa vor a ble r a t io of five Mexica n dolla r s for on e Am er ica n
dolla r / a con t r ibu t ion of a few m on t h s' r elief m on ey per fa m ily wou ld go a
;- ^ CON DADO 95
t owa r d givin g ea ch fa m ily of r epa t r ia t es t h a t fin a n cia l a id t h a t
^ Qu ld r ea son a bly a ssu r e t h em a ga in st su ffer in g in t h eir n ew
en vir on m en t .
An im por t a n t st ep t owa r d t h e su ccessfu l oper a t ion of su ch a pr ogr a m of t r a n sfer t o Mexico wou ld be obt a in in g cooper a t ion fr om t h e Mexica n Secr et a r y of In t er ior a n d t h e Secr et a r y of Socia l Ser vice in Mexico Cit y in
£;on ser vln @ a n (^ su per visin g su ch Mexica n a n d Am er ica n fu n ds a s wou ld be r ided t o t h e r epa t r ia t es.
A ca r efu l socia l su r vey sh ou ld be m a de of ea ch fa m ily con sider ed for
t h is pr ogr a m t o t h e en d t h a t t h e Mexica n a u t h or it ies a n d ou r selves m a y cooper a t e in givin g t h em r ea son a ble secu r it y in t h eir h om ela n d.
P r efer a ble fa m ilies sh ou ld be select ed wh er e a ll t h e m em ber s in clu din g
t h e you n g people in volved a r e in a ccor d wit h t h e pr ogr a m a s a r ea l fa m ily
oppor t u n it y.
Aft er ch eck in g t h e cost s ca r efu lly - I fa n d t h a t t h e t r ip by t r a in will cost som ewh a t m or e t h a n by a u t o. Accor din gly I a sk for a u t h or iza t ion t o t a k e a Cou n t y ca r beca u se of t h e gr ea t er m obilit y it will a ffor d, especia lly if t h er e a r e la n d r e-set t lem en t s t o be visit ed.
J oh n An son F or d
Gr ea t Dem on st r a t ion , Tr a de U n ion U n it y Lea gu e a n d U n em ployed Cou n cils. Da lla s, Texa s, 25 F ebr u a r y 1932.
Sou r ce: Mexico Cit y/ Ar ch ivo de la Secr et a n a de Rela don es E xt er ior es, IV-349-1.
GRE AT WORLDWIDE DE MON STRATION Wedn esda y/ F ebr u a r y 25, a t 10:00 a .m .
F a ir P a r k
Wor k er s, em ployed a n d u n em ployed, join t h e gr ea t wor ldwide dem on st r a t ion a ga in st u n em ploym en t a n d for im m edia t e a id t o st a r vin g wor k er s.
F igh t a ga in st u n em ploym en t a n d dem a n d WORK OR WAGE S! You n g wor k er s/ join a n d figh t a ga in st lon g wor k in g h ou r s a n d lower wa ges. Wor k in g wom en / m ot h er s/ wives com e t o t h e gr ea t dem on st r a t ion .
Ch ildr en com e a n d join you r fa t h er s/ m ot h er s, br ot h er s/ a n d sist er s in t h eir dem a n ds for WORK OR WAGE S. Wor k er s of a ll r a ces/ cr eeds/ a n d
96 DOCU ME N TS
n a t ion a lit ies com e wit h u s, t o t h e gr ea t dem on st r a t ion . Vet er a n s of t h e
wa r join in you r dem a n ds wit h ou r br ot h er s. Or ga n ize you r selves in t h e gr ea t Tr a de U [n ]ion U n it y Lea gu e a n d in t h e U n em ployed Cou n cils.
Rea d VIDA OBRE RA [Wor k er s' Life] wh ich will t ell you t h e t r u t h a bou t t h e WORKE RS' pr oblem s.
OU R IMME DIATE DE MAN DS Im m edia t e Appr ova l of N a t ion a l Secu r it y a ga in st U n em ploym en t .
Im m edia t e Aid for t h e U n em ployed a n d for poor cou n t r y people. Im m edia t e su spen sion of a ll la ws a ga in st va gr a n cy. Th a t a ll pu blic bu ildin gs of t h e cit y/ t h e st a t e/ a n d t h e n a t ion be pla ced
a t t h e disposa l of t h e u n em ployed a n d of poor cou n t r y people.
Th a t poor cou n t r y people n ot be evict ed for fa ilin g t o pa y r en t ,
F or t h e defen se of t h e U n ion of Soviet Repu blics.
Aga in st t h e Im per ia list Wa r .
We h ope t h a t ever yon e will begin a t on ce t o pr epa r e t h e m a sses for t h e Gr ea t Wor ldwide dem on st r a t ion . Sh ow solida r it y wit h t h e In t er n a t ion a l pr olet a r ia t .
Aga in st a ll depor t a t ion of for eign wor k er s. P olit ica l/ socia l/ a n d econ om ic equ a lit y of t h e N egr o m a sses.
F r ee wa t er / ga s/ elect r icit y, a n d food for t h e u n em ployed a n d poor cou n t r y people. Lower Ren t for t h ose wh o on ly wor k pa r t -t im e.
BY TH E ORGAN IZIN G COMMITTE E Tr a de U n ion U n it y Lea gu e & U n em ployed Cou n cils of Da lla s/ Texa s.
Va m os, va m os ca m in a n do
A la pa t r ia ca r in osa Qu e com o Ma dr e P ia dosa Su s h ijos est a esper a n do
"Adios P a isa n os," Cor r ido
Let 's go/ let ^ s be on ou r wa y
To ou r lovin g h om ela n d Wh ich lik e a m er cifu l m ot h er
Is wa it in g for h er ch ildr en
"F a r ewell Cou n t r ym en /' Ba lla d
Th e r epa t r ia t ion of Mexica n m en , wom en , a n d ch ildr en fr om t h e r a ilwa y st a t ion
in Los An geles on Ma r ch 9,1932.
(Los An geles P u blic Libr a r y, Secu r it y P a cific H ist or ica l Collect ion .)
97
98 RE F ATRIATIQ
Repa t r ia t ion of u n wa n t ed im m igr a n t s is n ot a n ew or n ovel ph en om en a ,
n a t ion s exer cise t h eir lega l pr er oga t ive t o r id t h em selves of u n desir a ble a lien s wh en ever su ch a ct ion su it s a n a vowed pu r pose. Du r in g n or m a l t im es, vol.
u n t a r y depa r t u r es by Mexica n im m igr a n t s a s a r esu lt of sea son a l em plc m en t gen er a t ed a n a t u r a l cyclica l r ot a t ion . Th e t r a ffic goin g sou t h wa g a u gm en t ed by in dividu a ls wh o wer e r et u r n in g h om e t o st a y a ft er spen din i sever a l yea r s in t h e U n it ed St a t es. Som e of t h em wer e a ccom pa n ied by wives
a n d you n g ch ildr en . A few of t h e r et u r n ees h a d been a ble t o sa ve en ou gh m on ey t o set t h em selves u p in a sm a ll bu sin ess or / h opefu lly t o a cqu ir e a pa r cel of good fa r m la n d. Am on g t h e sou t h bou n d t r a veler s wer e com pa t r iot s wh o wer e r et u r n in g h om e t em por a r ily t o visit fa m ily a n d fr ien ds du r in g t h e off-sea son . Aft er a br ief st a y/ t h ey wou ld u n der t a k e t h e t r ek n or t h on ce a ga in . It wa s n ot u n u su a l for t h em t o r et u r n t im e a n d a ga in t o t h e sa m e loca le in t h e U n it ed St a t es, oft en t o t h e sa m e em ployer .
H owever , a ft er WQjcld.Wa r U h e.in sa t ia ble n eed for ja bpr bega n t o ebb a s t h e U n it ed St a t es r et u r n ed t o a pea cet im e econ om y. Su ch a sit u a t ion did n ot bode weIF for Mexica n wor k er s. Th e fir st por t en t of t h in gs t o com e occu r r ed du r m g t h e sh or t bu t sever e r ecession of t h e ea r ly 1920s. F a ced wit h a n ex- cess of wor k er s/ r epa t r ia t ion beca m e a n a ccept a ble m ea n s for get t in g r id of
u n wa n t ed a lien s. Repa t r ia t ion wa s a ch ea p/ effect iye^ wa y of r edu cin g t h e su dden ly bloa t ed/ idle wor k for ce. Mexica n im m igr a n t s wh o h a d lost t h eir jobs wer e r et u r n ed Kom e in gr ea t n u m ber s. Th is su ccessfu l r em edy for get - t in g r id of u n wa n t ed wor k er s wou ld n ot be for got t en .
F or t u n a t ely, t h e depr ession wa s sh or t lived a n d wa s r epla ced by a boom - in g econ om y fed by a spir a lin g gr owt h / t h e lik es of wh ich h a d n ever been seen befor e. Th e per iod beca m e k n own a s t h e "Roa r in g Twen t ies/' Opt i- m ism per va ded t h e n a t ion a l m ood. In cr ea sin g n u m ber s of wor k er s wer e
n eeded t o h elp feed t h e vor a ciou s n eeds of t h e n ewly u n lea sh ed in du st r ia l
gia n t . Th e U n it ed St a t es a ga in .t u r n ed sou t h t o t a p ..t h e, gr ea t r esou r ce of
Mexica n wor k er s. Ma n y of t h ose wh o h a d left du r in g t h e depr ession r e- t u r n ed t o sh a r e a n ew in t h e a bu n da n t life. Th en ca m e t h e st ock -m a r k et cr a sh in Oct ober of 1929. F or t h e secon d t im e in a deca de/ t h e bot t om H a cTF a llen ou t of t h e econ om y.
On ce a ga in / u Lbeca m e n ecessa r y t o r id t h e cou n t r y of wor k er s wh o wer e n o lon ger n eeded. Besieged welfa r e bu r ea u cr a t s welcom ed r epa t r ia t ion a s a pa n a cea . Repa t r ia t ion en dea vor s/ u n lik e t h ose con cer n in g depor t a t ion , sel-
dom in volved t h e feder a l gover n m en t . It wa s pr im a r ily a loca l u n der t a k in g ca r r ied ou t by cit y, cou n t y/ a n d st a t e gover n m en t s/ or by a com bin a t ion of a ll t h r ee. Civic or pr iva t e ch a r it a ble a gen cies oft en a bet t ed t h eir effor t s. In In di-
a n a / t h e r epa t r ia t ion pr ogr a m wa s fin a n ced la r gely by con t r ibu t ion s fr om loca l bu sin esses, wh ich , in t u r n / wer e offer ed scr ip for pa yin g loca l t a xes.1
g^ E GRE SO 99
ie in t en t of r epa t r ia t ion wa s t h r ee-fold; t o r et u r n in digen t n a t ion a ls t o >ir own cou n t r y, in t h is ca se Mexico; t o sa ve welfa r e a gen cies m on ey; a n d
t n cr ea t e jobs for r ea l Am er ica n s. H a vin g t h eir h a r d-ea r n ed t a x dolla r s u sed
t oi su ppor t in dolen t a lien s did n ot set well wit h pr oper t y own er s a n d bu si- pess in t er est s. Th eir r a n cor wa s fu r t h er in cen sed by t h e k n owledge t h a t ver y few of t h e Mexica n im m igr a n t s ever r en ou n ced t h eir a llegia n ce t o Mexico a n d beca m e Am er ica n cit izen s. Su ch in gr a t es wer e deem ed u n wor t h y of r e-
ceivin g a n y pu blic ben efit s. To a void t h e h u m ilia t ion of officia l r epa t r ia t ion / m a n y Mexica n N a t ion -
a ls "volu n t a r ily" left t h e U n it ed St a t es. Bu ffet ed by u n em ploym en t a n d a n t i- Mexica n h yst er ia / Mexica n s sou gh t t h e secu r it y of t h e m ot h er cou n t r y. Th ey elect ed t o fa ce depr iva t ion in t h eir h om ela n d r a t h er t h a n en du r e t h e dispa r -
a gem en t h ea ped u pon t h em in E l N or t e. In Mexico/ t h ey m igh t su ffer h u n - ger pa in s, bu t a t lea st t h ey wou ld be t r ea t ed lik e h u m a n bein gs.
Th r ea t s of ph ysica l violen ce in du ced m a n y Mexica n s t o a ba n don jobs a n d lon g-est a blish ed dom iciles. Mor e t h a n t wo h u n dr ed Mexica n t en a n t fa r m -
er s in Mississippi wer e for ced t o pu ll u p st a k es a n d solicit r epa t r ia t ion a ssis- t a n ce fr om t h e con su la t e in N ew Or lea n s.2 In Ter r e H a u t e/ In dia n a / Mexica n
r a ilr oa d wor k er s wer e for ced t o "give u p t h eir jobs" wh en a m ob of on e h u n dr ed m en a n d wom en m a r ch ed on t h eir wor k ca m p a n d dem a n ded t h a t t h ey qu it im m edia t ely.3 In Ma la k off/ Texa s, a ga n g of r u ffia n s bom bed t h e h ea dqu a r t er s occu pied by t h e Societ y of Mexica n La bor er s. Sign s wer e dis- pla yed wa r n in g Mexica n r esiden t s t o lea ve t own . /'Th er e is in t en se excit e-
m en t a n d fea r a m on g Mexica n N a t ion a ls of ser iou s bodily in ju r y// Lu is Lu pia n / Mexica n Con su l Gen er a l In Sa n An t on io, in for m ed Texa s Gover n or
Ross S. St er lin g.4 Th e con su l dem a n ded t h a t t h e gover n or pr ovide a dequ a t e pr ot ect ion for Mexica n wor k er s. Th e gover n or in st r u ct ed t h e Texa s Ra n ger s t o con du ct a n in vest iga t ion of t h e sit u a t ion . Th is wa s t a n t a m ou n t t o h a vin g
t h e fox gu a r d t h e ch ick en coop. In t h e colon ia s/ t h e r epu t a t ion of t h e r in ch es (Ra n ger s) left a gr ea t dea l t o be desir ed. Th eir m ist r ea t m en t a n d h a r a ssm en t of Mexica n os wa s legen d.
As t h e depr ession wor sen ed, r epa t r ia t ion / depor t a t ion , a n d volu n t a r y or
in du ced depa r t u r es spr ea d t h eir om in ou s sh a dow a cr oss t h e widt h a n d br ea dt h of t h e U n it ed St a t es. Tr a in s/ ca r s/ t r u ck s/ a n d bu ses st r ea m ed sou t h wa r d fr om
ever y cor n er of t h e la n d. Los An geles, P h oen ix/ E l P a so/ Den ver , Ka n sa s Cit y,
Ch ica go, Det r oit , P it t sbu r gh , N ew Yor k / N ew Or lea n s, Sa n Diego/ Sa n F r a n - cisco/ P or t la n d/ Sea t t le/ a n d F a ir ba n k s, Ala sk a , spewed for t h t h eir h u m a n
jet sa m . Th ose t oo poor t o a ffor d a n y k in d of t r a n spor t a t ion join ed t h e m a ss exodu s on foot / ca r r yin g t h eir belon gin gs on t h eir ba ck s. An a r t icle in Livin g Age ca lled t h e h ea r t -wr en ch in g scen e "A Ca r a va n of Sor r ow/'5
N o m ea n s of t r a n spor t a t ion wa s over look ed in expedit in g t h e m a ss m i-
1 00 RE P ATRIATION
gr a t ion . Air t r a vel wa s t h en in it s in fa n cy/ bu t t h er e is on e k n own in ciden t of a r epa t r ia t e bein g sh ipped h om e by a ir .6 In a ddit ion t o ca r s, t r u ck s/ bu ses/ or t r a in s/ sh ips wer e a lso u t ilized. N a t ion a ls wh ose h om et own s wer e on t h e
west er n or ea st er n coa st s of Mexico or on t h e Yu ca t a n P en in su la wer e oft en
sh ipped h om e on em pt y oil t a n k er s/ fr u it boa t s, a n d coa st a l ca r go st ea m er s. In N ew Yor k , t h e H en r y L. Doh er t y Com pa n y m a de pa ssa ge a va ila ble t o
r epa t r ia t es on em pt y Wa r d Lin e t a n k er s on t h e sh ips' r et u r n t r ip t o t h e Mexi- ca n gu lf por t s of Ta m pico a n d Ver a cr u z.7 N ew Or lea n s wa s a lso u sed a s a
por t of depa r t u r e by Mexica n s wh o r esided in t h e Midwest or in t h e sou t h - er n st a t es. H a lf fa r es of t en dolla r s, offer ed by t h eAm er ica n F r u it St ea m sh ip Cor por a t ion / a t t r a ct ed r epa t r ia t es a n xiou s t o r et u r n h om e. In m ost in st a n ces/
sh ipboa r d em ploym en t wa s pr ovided a s a goodwill gest u r e. It a llowed dest i- t u t e r epa t r ia t es t o ea r n t h eir r oom a n d boa r d for t h e t r ip h om e. U n for t u -
n a t ely/ t h e t r ips h a d t o be su spen ded wh en Mexica n st evedor es a n d lon gsh or em en object ed t o r epa t r ia t es bein g u sed a s cr ew m em ber s on t h e
sh ips. E ven t u a lly, Secr et a r fa de Rela cion es E xt er ior es in t er ven ed a n d set t led t h e dispu t e, a llowin g t h e voya ges t o r esu m e.8
Wh en ever possible/ H . L. Doh er t y a n d ot h er com pa n ies pa id t h e cost of t h e t r ip, or fu n ds wer e solicit ed fr om pu blic a gen cies a n d pr iva t e don or s. Th e ch ief expen se wa s food/ wh ich r a n ged fr om fift y cen t s a da y for ch ildr en t o on e dolla r for a du lt s. Th e voya ge h om e wa s a difficu lt t r ip a t best / for t h e t a n k er s a n d ca r go vessels wer e n ot equ ipped t o h a n dle la r ge n u m ber s of pa ssen ger s. Wom en wit h ba bies a n d sm a ll ch ildr en wer e given pr ior it y in t h e lim it ed n u m ber of ca bin s a va ila ble. Ot h er r epa t r ia t es fou n d wh a t ever a ccom m oda t ion s t h ey cou ld in t h e em pt y h olds or on t h e open deck s. Ga l- leys a n d h ea ds (k it ch en a n d r est -r oom fa cilit ies) wer e st r a in ed t o t h e m a xi-
m u m . Ma n y won der ed if t h ey h a d m a de a m ist a k e in a ccept in g pa ssa ge on t h e r u st y sh ips. Mer cifu lly/ t h e t r ips a s a r u le wer e of sh or t du r a t ion .
In sou t h er n Ca lifor n ia / sh ips wer e a lso u sed t o t r a n spor t in digen t s t o E n sen a da , Gu a ym a s/ Ma za t la n ^ Aca pu lco, a n d ot h er coa st a l por t s. Wh en t h e
sh ippin g ser vice wa s fir st in a u gu r a t ed/ it wa s h a iled a s a m a r velou s/ if n ot in gen iou s, idea . H opes a n d expect a t ion s soa r ed in a n t icipa t ion of bein g a ble t o r epa t r ia t e la r ge n u m ber s of in digen t N a t ion a ls a t a m in im a l cost . Wh en t h e P r ogr eso fir st dock ed in Sa n P edr o t o pick u p pa ssen ger s/ it s a r r iva l t r ig- ger ed a ser ies of pa r t ies t o celebr a t e t h e occa sion . Rela t ives a n d n eigh bor s h ost ed fiest a s t o fet e a n d sa y a dios t o t h ose wh o h a d been ch osen t o m a k e t h e m a iden voya ge. F a r ewell pa r t ies closely r esem bled a wa k e. H a lf-h ea r t ed a t t em pt s a t ga iet y fell fla t a n d wer e pu n ct u a t ed wit h sor r owfu l t ea r s.
Th e Mexica n con su la t es in Sa n Diego a n d Los An geles oft en cooper a t ed wit h ea ch ot h er in or der t o m a xim ize t h e n u m ber of r epa t r ia t es sh ipped
101^ RE GRE SO
'. Th e m in im u m n u m ber on a cost -effect ive ba sis wa s t wo h u n dr ed in -
jividu a ls/ a n d sh iploa ds of five h u n dr ed or six h u n dr ed wer e n ot u n com - jn on . On on e occa sion / eigh t h u n dr ed wer e on boa r d t h e coa st a l fr eigh t er pfogr eso wh en it weigh ed a n ch or a n d sa iled fr om Sa n Diego. It wa s ca lcu - la t ed t h a t t h e a ver a ge cost per pa ssen ger wa s eigh t dolla r s.9 Th is m ea ger
:ipen d pu r ch a sed "u n com for t a ble a ccom m oda t ion s [beca u se] it wa s n ot a vessel/' r eca lled r epa t r ia t ion coor din a t or Adolfo Ta pia .10 Mor e-
over / "t h e sh ip wa s fu ll/' m a k in g for pit ifu l con dit ion s, a ccor din g t o Alida ica / wh o visit ed t h e vessel befor e it depa r t ed." Repa t r ia t e Seba st ia n a
Br ion es Ca sa s a n d sou t h er n Ca lifor n ia colon ia lea der Lu ca s Lu cio sa dly r e- ca lled t h e h ea r t -r en din g exper ien ce.12 Alicia Apoda ca st a t ed sh e will n ever for get t h e pit ifu l scr ea m s of a wom a n pa ssen ger a s t h e sh ip left it s ber t h : "Let u s off! ... I a m ju st goin g t o die, [I h a ve] n o m on ey, n o on e k n ows m e in t h a t t own in Mexico/'13 Lik e so m a n y ot h er a spect s of t h e r epa t r ia t ion
n igh t m a r e/ t h e P r ogr eso ven t u r e n ever lived u p t o it s billin g. Aft er t h e ves- sel h a d m a de a few t r ips, SRE discon t in u ed t h e ser vice beca u se it wa s n ot con sider ed t o be cost effect ive. H owever , t h e Mexica n gover n m en t con t in -
u ed t h e pr a ct ice of em ployin g gu n boa t s su ch a s t h e N icolds Avila for t r a n s-
por t in g u n em ployed Mexica n s h om e fr om Cu ba a n d Cen t r a l Am er ica .14 Wh ile sh ips wer e u sed in t er m it t en t ly t r a in s wer e t h e m ost com m on m ea n s
of t r a n spor t a t ion for r epa t r ia t es bein g sh ipped h om e by welfa r e a u t h or it ies. Tr a in s of ever y t ype a n d descr ipt ion wer e u sed t o expedit e t h e pr ocess. Ac- com m oda t ion s wer e u su a lly lim it ed t o secon d-cla ss pa ssen ger ca r s^ bu t som e-
t im es even boxca r s a n d ca t t leca r s wer e pr essed in t o ser vice. On r a r e occa sion s/
pu llm a n s a n d com pa r t m en t ca r s wer e a lso u t ilized. Tr a in t r ips fr om su ch
pla ces a s P it t sbu r gh / Ch ica go, Det r oit / Ga r y/ In dia n a , a n d ot h er ea st er n cit - ies oft en beca m e t est s of sh eer en du r a n ce. Th e t r ip t o t h e bor der m igh t t a k e over a week / a s t h e t r a in s ch u gged a lon g a t a sn a il's pa ce. F ir st -cla ss pa ssen -
ger a n d fr eigh t t r a in s t ook pr eceden t / a n d oft en ca u sed t h e r epa t r ia t ion t r a in s
t o be sh u n t ed off on t o a sidin g. Ra ilr oa ds wer e u t ilized beca u se t h ey wer e t h e ch ea pest for m of t r a n spor -
t a t ion . Tr a in s wit h h u n dr eds/ som et im es over a t h ou sa n d^ r epa t r ia t es a boa r d
r egu la r ly left collect ion cen t er s su ch a s Det r oit / Ch ica go/ St . Lou is/ Den ver / P h oen ix/ Ok la h om a Cit y/ a n d Los An geles. F a r es on bot h sides of t h e bor der a ver a ged a bou t a pen n y a m ile.15 H owever / in m a n y in st a n ces/ t o en cou r a ge
r epa t r ia t es t o lea ve/ specia l fa r es or dea ls wer e wor k ed ou t . In Ch ica go/ t h e
In la n d St eel Com pa n y pr ovided fr ee fa r es t o La r edo/ Texa s/ for 170 for m er em ployees. In Den ver , t h e Sa n t a F e Ra ilr oa d offer ed h a lf-fa r es t o E l P a so. Repa t r ia t es fr om Tor r in gt on , Wyom in g/ dem a n ded a 50 per cen t r edu ct ion in fa r es. Belzon i/ Mississippi/ offer ed Mexica n s h a lf-fa r es t o t h e bor der in
102 RE P ATRIATION
or der t o in du ce t h em t o lea ve. Ka n sa s Cit y, Missou r i/ a lso m a de h a lf-fa r es
a va ila ble. In Det r oit / r a ilr oa d fa r es wer e r edu ced 60 per cen t t o h elp in digen t Mexica n s a void t h e on sla u gh t of win t er . N ot get t in g in on t h e discou n t r a t e cou ld pr ove cost ly Ok la h om a Cit y wa s for ced t o pa y $1,060.85 t o pr ovide pa ssa ge for eigh t y-n in e r epa t r ia t es,16
Repa t r ia t es fr om t h e Midwest a n d N or t h ea st wer e u su a lly sh ipped h om e a ft er t h e su ga r -beet sea son wa s over . Th e su dden exodu s fr om pla ces lilig Mich iga n , Min n esot a , N ebr a sk a / a n d Color a do st r a in ed t h e fa cilit ies on bot h sides of t h e bor der . Cou n t y welfa r e a gen cies a n d em ployer s/ su ch a s t h e Gr ea t
West er n Su ga r Com pa n y, oft en cooper a t ed wit h ea ch ot h er in m a k in g r epa - t r ia t ion a r r a n gem en t s. Th ey wou ld t h en sh a r e t r a n spor t a t ion expen ses. In
m ost in st a n ces/ fa r es wer e pa id on ly t o t h e bor der . Con su ls oft en en t r ea t ed
welfa r e a u t h or it ies t o pa y t h e r epa t r ia t es/ fa r es t o t h eir fin a l dest in a t ion in Mexico.
In a ddit ion t o a gr icu lt u r a l wor k er s/ a s fa ct or ies/ sh ops/ m ills, a n d m in es closed t h eir door s, t h e n u m ber of u n em ployed Mexica n N a t ion a ls gr ew a la r m - in gly In m a n y of t h e n or t h er n a n d ea st er n st a t es/ la r ge n u m ber s of N a t ion - a ls opt ed for goin g h om e. On on e occa sion / over t h r ee h u n dr ed Mexica n os
{r om Lu ca s Cou n t y, Oh io/ boa r ded a specia l r epa t r ia t ion t r a in com m ission ed by st a t e a u t h or it ies.18 In m a n y ca ses, on e of t h e pr im e in cen t ives for lea vin g wa s t h e wea t h er . F or m er r a ilr oa d wor k er s, m igr a n t field h a n ds/ a n d u n em -
ployed fa ct or y wor k er s oft en lived in em pt y boxca r s/ a ba n don ed sh a ck s/ a n d m a k esh ift sh elt er s wit h ou t h ea t , wa t er , or in door plu m bin g. Wit h ou t food or coa l or t h e m on ey wit h wh ich t o bu y eit h er / win t er cou ld becom e a h igh ly per ilou s per iod. F a ced wit h t h e pr ospect of n ot get t in g t h eir jobs ba ck , dest i- t u t e Mexica n s ch ose t o for ego spen din g yet a n ot h er m iser a ble win t er in st r u g- glin g n ot on ly t o k eep body a n d sou l t oget h er / bu t a lso t o k eep fr om fr eezin g t o dea t h ,
Mexica n s wh o left oft en did so wit h t h e u n spok en expect a t ion t h a t t h ey wou ld som eda y r et u r n . Ir on ica lly/ t h ey wer e lea vin g wit h t h e sa m e expect a - t ion wit h wh ich t h ey h a d a r r ived m a n y yea r s befor e. Lu r ed by t h e pr om ises of t h e en ga n ch ist a s/ t h ey h a d com e pa r solo u n poqu it o t iem po (for on ly a lit t le wh ile). N ow/ ir on ica lly/ t h ey wer e goin g ba ck t o Mexico h opefu lly for 'on ly a lit t le wh ile/'Alt h ou gh it wa s t h e m ot h er cou n t r y, for m a n y of t h em
Mexico wa s n o lon ger h om e. TH eir liYes^ t h eix..boj)es/a ^ wer e
n ow r oot ed deepin t h esoil of t h eir a dopt ed cou n t r y. It did n ot m a t t eTt h a t t h ey h a d n ever a pplied for U .S. cit izen sh ip or t h a t t h ey con t in u ed t o h on or t h eir n a t ive la n d a n d clu n g t o it s cu lt u r a l t r a dit ion s. In m ost in st a n ces, in spit e of a ll t h e a dver sit y t h ey h a d su ffer ed, t h ey h a d developed a gr u dgin g a ffect ion a n d a dm ir a t ion for t h e cou n t r y t h ey h a d h elped t o bu ild.
E L RE GRE SO 103
E ven m en a n d wom en wh o h a d been bor n in Mexico, bu t h a d spen t m ost
of t h eir lives in t h e U n it ed St a t es/ r esist ed lea vin g. Sist er s Dor a Ra ya a n d Ir ffla Am pa r a n o r em em ber t h a t t h eir m ot h er r efu sed t o a ccom pa n y t h eir
• r ba ck t o Mexico. Th eir m ot h er h a d h ea r d t h a t ch ildr en wer e dyin g
beca u se of con dit ion s in Mexico. Lik e a n y pr ot ect ive m ot h er , sh e fea r ed for ^ er own you n gst er s' h ea lt h a n d well-bein g. Sh e pr efer r ed t o r em a in in t h e U n it ed St a t es a n d r a ise h er Am er ica n -bor n ch ildr en a lon e r a t h er t h a n r e- t u r n t o Mexico.19 Th e fea r s of wom en wh o r esist ed goin g t o Mexico wer e n ot
m n dless. Ca r m en M.sa t m ez's you n ger br ot h er died of pn eu m on ia wh en
t h e fa m ily wa s for ced t o r et u r n t o Mexico du r in g t h e win t er . Sh e r ecou n t ed t h a t t h e fa m ily a r r ived in Ca n a n ea on t h e h eels of a t er r ible win t er st or m . It wa s fr eezin g cold a n d five feet of sn ow cover ed t h e gr ou n d. Bein g fr om sou t h - er n Ca lifor n ia / t h e fa m ily wa s t ot a lly u n pr epa r ed for t h e blizza r dlik e con di- t ion s. Th ey did n ot even own a n y wa r m win t er clot h in g. In h is wea k en ed con dit ion / h er br ot h er wa s u n a ble t o su r vive t h e t r ip a n d t h e bit t er cold.20
Older ch ildr en h a d t o dea l wit h t h e difficu lt ch oice of wh et h er or n ot t o
a ccom pa n y r epa t r ia t ed pa r en t s. E liseo Ma r t fn ez a gr eed t o go wit h h is fa t h er / even t h ou gh h e a n d h is br ot h er wer e ea r n in g a com bin ed sa la r y of n in e
dolla r s a da y. F or Mexica n wor k er s/ t h is wa s a n except ion a lly good in com e du r in g t h e depr ession . E liseo a gr eed t o a ccom pa n y h is fa t h er / even t h ou gh h is u n cle a dvised h im a ga in st r et u r n in g t o Mexico a n d h is br ot h er elect ed t o st a y beh in d.21 In t h is in st a n ce/ a s in m a n y ot h er ca ses/ t h e fa m ily wa s split wh en a n older son or da u gh t er decided t o r em a in in t h e U n it ed St a t es. E n r iqu e An gel wa s a m on g t h ose wh o ch ose n ot t o a ccom pa n y h is pa r en t s. Th ey wer e r et u r n in g t o Mexico a n d pla n n ed t o set t le in Agu a sca lien t es. An gel's deci- sion wa s u n der st a n da ble beca u se h e h a d r ecen t ly been m a r r ied. H owever /
t h e ch oice wa s n ot a n ea sy on e/ for E n r iqu e dea r ly m issed h is br ot h er a n d you n ger sist er s.22 Th is t r a u m a t ic sen se of loss wa s a n exper ien ce sh a r ed by
t en s of t h ou sa n ds of fa m ilies. Yet t h e r epa t r ia t ion t r a in s con t in u ed t o r oll sou t h . As a r esu lt / sm a ll ba r -
r ios vir t u a lly disa ppea r ed, On ce bu st lin g colon ia s t ook on t h e eer ie look of a ba n don ed gh ost t own s. Rows of h ou ses st ood em pt y/ lon ely sen t in els a n d m u t e wit n esses t o t h e life a n d la u gh t er t h a t h a d on ce filled t h eir sm a ll/ din gy r oom s. Sou t h er n Ca lifor n ia com m u n it y lea der Lu ca s Lu cio r eca lled t h a t t h e
en t ir e Mexica n colon ia of "t h e Ba st a n ch u r y Ra n ch [in Or a n ge Cou n t y] wa s r epa t r ia t ed. Th ey wer e ver y poor ... wen t on t h e h a lf fa r e of t h e Sou t h er n
P a cific."23 U r ba n a r ea s wer e n ot spa r ed. In Los An geles/ "m a n y h om es in t h e
Belveder e dist r ict h a ve been a ba n don ed by t h eir own er s/7 on e jou r n a l r e- por t ed.24 Disca r ded fu r n it u r e lit t er ed t h e ya r ds a s gr a ss a n d weeds r ea sser t ed t h eir dom a in . N o on e wa s su r e wh er e a ll t h e r esiden t s h a d gon e. In som e
io4 RE P ATRIATION
ca ses/ fa m ilies sim ply m oved on t o som e ot h er pla ce in sea r ch of wor k . AI- t h ou gh a t t em pt s wer e m a de t o r ecor d t h e m a ss m igr a t ion / Mexica n con su ls.
cou n t y welfa r e a gen cies, a n d loca l officia ls lost t r a ck of h ow m a n y fa m ilies m er ely left t own or wer e a ct u a lly r epa t r ia t ed. Th e la ck of pr ecise figu r es is
n ot su r pr isin g sin ce t h e m a jor it y of t h e r epa t r ia t es/ con t r a r y t o popu la r m yt h or belief/ pa id t h eir own wa y/ pr ovided t h eir own t r a n spor t a t ion / a n d left wit h ou t officia l in t er ven t ion . Th er efor e/ t h er e wa s n o a dequ a t e wa y of k eep- in g t r a ck of t h e a ct u a l n u m ber of people wh o r et u r n ed t o Mexico.
Most N a t ion a ls disda in ed a n y officia l a ssist a n ce a n d sim ply loa ded t h eir
belon gin gs on over loa ded ca r s a n d t r u ck s a n d st a r t ed t h e a r du ou s jou r n ey sou t h wa r d. Au t om obiles/ especia lly a m on g Mexica n os in sou t h er n Ca lifor - n ia , wer e pr ized possession s. N ea r ly 25 per cen t of Mexica n fa m ilies own ed a n a u t om obile. s Tr a velin g by ca r wa s a h a za r dou s u n der t a k in g/ especia lly on t h e r oa ds sou t h of t h e bor der . Com ision P r esiden t Ca t a r in o Cr u z r em em - ber ed t h a t "m a n y [r epa t r ia t es] depa r t ed in t h eir old ca r s, r isk in g dea t h by h u n ger or t h ir st . Roa ds wer e n o good in Mexico/'26 Th e r oa ds wer e so poor t h a t E l P a so Con su l Gen er a l Lu is Medin a Ba r r on issu ed a wa r n in g a bou t t h e
r oa d fr om Ciu da d J u a r ez t o Villa Ah u m a da . Repa t r ia t es wer e in st r u ct ed t o ca r r y t wen t y ext r a ga llon s of ga solin e/ a ga llon of oil, a n d on e of wa t er a n d beddin g or coa t s in ca se t h ey h a d t o spen d t h e n igh t on t h e r oa d.27
H owever , t o ea se t h e t r ip for r epa t r ia t es wh o wer e dr ivin g t h eir own ca r s/ a r r a n gem en t s wer e som et im es m a de by welfa r e a u t h or it ies t o sh ip t h eir h ou seh old goods a n d belon gin gs by t r a in a t gr ea t ly r edu ced r a t es. Th is a r - r a n gem en t in du ced som e wh o wer e u n decided t o a ba n don t h eir dom icile
a n d r et u r n t o t h e la n d of t h eir bir t h . To h elp t h em on t h eir wa y a n d t o pr o- vide a n a dded in du cem en t for t h em t o lea ve, som e com m u n it ies don a t ed sm a ll su m s of m on ey t o be u sed t o pu r ch a se ga s/ oil/ a n d food a lon g t h e wa y. Su ch don a t ion s seldom cover ed t h e jou r n ey's a ct u a l expen ses, a n d fa m ilies som et im es fou n d t h em selves st r a n ded a lon g t h e r oa d. P eople wer e for ced t o beg for food a n d h a n dou t s in or der t o su r vive.
In Los An geles/ a n t icipa t in g t h e a dven t of officia l r epa t r ia t ion , t r a in s bou n d for Mexico h a d been lea vin g ever y Mon da y fr om Cen t r a l St a t ion / loca t ed a t F ift h a n d Ma in st r eet s. Officia lly, t h e fir st r epa t r ia t ion t r a in or ga n ized by t h e cou n t y Welfa r e Depa r t m en t wa s sch edu led t o lea ve on F ebr u a r y 10, 1931.28 H owever / t h e in a bilit y t o obt a in t en -dolk r fa r es dela yed t h e depa r - t u r e u n t il Ma r ch 23. Wh en t ot a l expen ses wer e in clu ded for it em s lik e food
a n d m edica l a t t en t ion , t h e a ct u a l cost per r epa t r ia t e wa s $14.70. Ch ildr en
u n der t welve t r a veled a t h a lf-fa r e. Repor t edly/ fift y t h ou sa n d N a t ion a ls a n d t h eir ch ildr en wer e r epa t r ia t ed fr om Los An geles du r in g a five-m on t h pe- r iod. Th is wa s est im a t ed t o be on e-t h ir d of t h e Mexica n popu la t ion t h en livin g in t h e cit y.29
E L RE GRE SO 105
Los An geles Cou n t y beca m e t h e h ot bed of t h e r epa t r ia t ion m ovem en t . :a l gr ou ps t r ied t o m a k e t h e depa r t u r e a s plea sa n t a n d a s fest ive a s pos-
iible. In Los An geles/ ch u r ch gr ou ps, su ch a s t h e Mou n t H ollywood Ch u r ch 's Goodwill t o Mexico Com m it t ee u n der t h e lea der sh ip of P a st or E r n est Besig, dist r ibu t ed t oys a n d goodies t o t h e ch ildr en . Rever en dAlla n A. H u n t er st a t ed t h a t h e wou ld "n ever for get get t in g on t h e t r a in wit h Besig . . , a n d ou r
feelin g of in ju st ice. We t h ou gh t it wa s u t t er ly u n ju st wh a t wa s bein g don e. Th er e wa sn 't m u ch we cou ld do except m a k e t h ese gest u r es of fr ien dsh ip."30 Occiden t a l College st u den t s, led by Ma r ia Bu st os J effer son , r ecit ed poem s a n d r ea din gs. Th ey a lso per for m ed da n ces a n d sk it s t o u plift t h e spir it s of t h e r epa t r ia t es. Ma r ia ch is ser en a ded t h e r epa t r ia t es wit h old fa vor it es. Bu t a t - t em pt s t o in ject a sen se of fest ive ga iet y in t o t h e h ea r t -r en din g scen e a t t h e
t r a in st a t ion pr oved fu t ile.31 Cr u sa din g J ou r n a list Ca r ey McWilIia m s com m en t ed on t h e t r a u m a t ic
scen e pr esen t ed by r epa t r ia t ed fa m ilies. H e obser ved t h a t "r epa t r ia dos a r - r ived [a t t h e t r a in st a t ion ] by t h e t r u ck loa d—m en / wom en / a n d ch ildr en — wit h dogs, ca t s/ a n d goa t s ... h a lf-open su it ca ses/ r olls of beddin g, a n d lu n ch
ba sk et s/'32 McWillia m s wa s pr esen t wh en t h e fir st t r a in loa d o^ r epa t r ia t es spon sor ed by t h e Ch a r it ies Depa r t m en t depa r t ed fr om Los An geles. Lu ca s Lu cio/ Com ision H on on fica pr esiden t a n d or ga n izer of Or a n ge Cou n t y r e- pa t r ia t es, a lso com m en t ed on t h e sober in g scen e. H e n ot ed t h a t "t h e m a jor - it y of t h e m en wer e ver y qu iet a n d pen sive" wh ile //m ost of t h e wom en a n d
ch ildr en wer e cr yin g/'33 Th is sor r owfu l scen e wa s r epea t ed t im e a ft er t im e
a t r a ilr oa d st a t ion s a cr oss t h e n a t ion / a s fa m ilies sa id t ea r fu l goodbyes t o loved on es. Sociologist E m or y Boga r du s a lso cit ed t h e est r a n gem en t of fa m - i!y life a s a r esu lt of r epa t r ia t ion : "Th e m ot h er is in a dilem m a . Sh e wa r n s t o go ba ck wit h h er h u sba n d t o Mexico bu t doe? n ot wa n t t o deser t h er older
ch ildr en / wh o beg t o r em a in in t h e U n it ed St a t es. Sh e fa ces a divided fa m ily. Sh e is pu lled st r on gly in t wo differ en t wa ys a £ t h e sa m e t im e/'34
As t h e da ys dwin dled a n d t h e da t e a ppr oa ch ed for fa m ilies t o lea ve/ bit t er
a r gu m en t s er u pt ed a s older ch ildr en t r ied t o t a lk t h eir pa r en t s in t o let t in g t h em r em a in beh in d. Wh en pa r en t s r efu sed/ desper a t e la st -m in u t e solu t ion s or a lt er n a t ives en su ed. You n g boys r a n a wa y fr om h om e, t een a ge gir ls got
m a r r ied, older ch ildr en opt ed t o st a y wit h fr ien ds or r ela t ives. Teen a ger s wer e det er m in ed t o fa ce t h e con sequ en ces r a t h er t h a n a ccom pa n y t h eir fa m i- ;
lies. F or dist r a u gh t fa t h er s a n d m ot h er s a lr ea dy t a xed t o t h e lim it of t h eir en du r a n ce/ t h is wa s t h e fin a l a ffr on t . P a r en t s felt per son a lly r eject ed a n d bet r a yed. E n t r ea t ies, plea s/ a n d t ea r s pr oved fu t ile. Ada m a n t ch ildr en r e- fu sed t h eir pa r en t s' r equ est s t o join t h em . E ven t h r ea t s o{ divin e r et r ibu t ion \ by a ven gefu l God fa iled t o det er t h em . Th ey wer e Am er ica n s/ of Mexica n
106 RE P ATRIATION
h er it a ge per h a ps/ bu t Am er ica n s n ever t h eless.35 Th e pr ospect of livin g in Mexico cr ea t ed t en sion / a n xiet y^ a n d con st er n a t ion a m on g you n g Mexica n
Am er ica n s. At t h e t r a in st a t ion / a sca r ed a n d a ppr eh en sive "lit t le boy a n d gir l gr a spin g ea ch ot h er 's h a n ds, h eld fir m ly t o t h eir E n glish sch ool book s/'36
H owever , in spit e of bit t er or st or m y r ecr im in a t ion s/ a s a fin a l gest u r e of
filia l piet y a n d r espect / gr own son s a n d da u gh t er s k n elt In t h e swir lin g du st a n d beseech ed a fin a l pa r en t a l blessin g.37 A lovin g m ot h er 's in t er ven t ion a n d
pr a yer s t o t h e Vir gen de Gu a da lu pe wa s som et h in g t o be sou gh t a n d ch er - ish ed in k eepin g on e sa fe fr om a ll evil. Th e per va sive sa dn ess a n d sh eddin g of t ea r s wer e qu it e u n der st a n da ble. Men con cea led t h eir feelin gs by ou t wa r d st oidsm or a sh ow of br a va do. Th e differ en ce/ of cou r se/ wa s t h a t for wom en
r epa t r ia t ion m ea n t m a k in g en dless pr epa r a t ion s for t r a n spor t in g fa m ily a n d
h ea r t h t o a n ot h er cou n t r y. E m ilia Ca st a n eda deVa Ien cia n a cor r ect ly a ssessed t h e dilem m a fa ced by wom en wh en m a k in g a r r a n gem en t s t o lea ve t h e U n it ed St a t es: "A m a n / well, h e ... ju st pa ck s u p h is sleepin g ba g a n d t h r ows it over h is ba ck a n d t h a t 's good en ou gh for h im . N ow a wom a n / sh e'll t h in k a bou t wh et h er sh e wa n t s h er sewin g m a ch in e/ h er bed/ a n d h er dish es/'38
Tr a n spor t a t ion a r r a n gem en t s som et im es for ced fa m ilies t o split u p/ a dd- in g a n ot h er la yer of woe t o t h e t u r m oil. In Ga r y In dia n a / officia ls sen t wom en a n d ch ildr en t o t h e bor der by t r a in / a n d t h e m en wen t by t r u ck in or der t o st r et ch a lim it ed bu dget . Th is m a de a difficu lt jou r n ey even m or e on er ou s. F or m a n y in dividu a ls/ t h is ca llou s sepa r a t ion h or n loved on es wa s t h e la st st r a w. A you n g Mexica n gir l r em a r k ed/ 'Th is is m y cou n t r y bu t a ft er t h e wa y we h a ve been t r ea t ed I h ope n ever t o see it a ga in . ... As lon g a s m y
fa t h er wa s wor k in g a n d spen din g h is m on ey in Ga r y st or es/ pa yin g t a xes
a n d su ppor t in g u s, it wa s a ll r igh t / bu t n ow we h a ve fou n d we ca n 't get J u st ice h er e/'39 Th e you n g la dy wa s expr essin g a ver y com m on la m en t a t h a vin g h er own cou n t r y sla m t h e door in h er fa ce.
As t r a in s pr epa r ed t o lea ve fr om t h eir r espect ive st a t ion s/ st r a in s of //La
Golon dr in a ," Mexico's cou n t er pa r t of //Au ld La n ge Syn e// filled t h e a ir . It wa s pla yed in t h e m idst of la st -m in u t e a br a zos/ k isses/ a n d t ea r s,40 It is dou bt fu l t h a t a n yon e r ea lly h ea r d t h e fa r ewell son g or ca r ed. E ver yon e wa s ca u gh t u p in h is or h er own t h ou gh t s a n d feelin gs. Ma n y sh ook t h eir h ea ds in disbelief
a t wh a t wa s h a ppen in g t o t h em . Mexica n s a r e n ot st r a n ger s t o t h e a da ge 'Life is h a r d/ a n d t h en you die!// Bu t t h e r epa t r ia t es wer e det er m in ed n ot t o
be defea t ed by a dver sit y. Con sequ en t ly/ in t ypica l Mexica n fa sh ion / m yr ia ds of cor r idos (folk son gs) wer e com posed a bou t t h e pligh t / sor r ows/ a n d h a r d-
sh ips t h a t r epa t r ia t es wer e for ced t o en du r e. Oft en com posed on t h e spot a n d dea lin g wit h per son a l t r a gedy/ on ly a h a n dfu l of t h e cor r idos h a ve su r - vived. On e of t h e m ost n ot a ble is E l Cor r ido La P en sU va n a , r ecou n t in g t h e
^ RE GRE SO 107
:ip of r epa t r ia t es r et u r n in g t o Mexico fr om P en n sylva n ia : "N ow I bid r ell wit h m y h a t in m y h a n d, a n d m y loya l com pa n ion s a r e t h r ee h u n -
4r ed Mexica n os/'41 P er h a ps it is bet t er t o sin g t h a n t o cr y. lu a lly a s t r a u m a t ic a s t h e scen a r io bet ween depa r t in g pa r en t s a n d t h eir
ch iH r en wa s ^ e P it i^ u ^ si8^ t 0^ h ospit a l a n d m em a l-a sylu m pa t ien t s wh o ^ er e bein g r epa t r ia t ed.42 In Det r oit / t h e Welfa r e Depa r t m en t r et a in ed a m edi- ca l doct or t o a ccom pa n y r epa t r ia t ion t r a in s/ "owin g t o t h e fa ct t h a t sever a l of t h ese Mexica n s wer e t a k en fr om t h e h ospit a ls or h a d been r em oved fr om t h e h ospit a ls sh or t ly befor e t h e t r ip//43 Also seek in g t o r edu ce expen ses a t t h e Cou n t y Gen er a l H ospit a l a n d ot h er m edica l fa cilit ies/ t h e Los An geles Welfa r e Depa r t m en t in it ia t ed a ca m pa ign t o sh ip a s m a n y N a t ion a ls a s pos- sible ba ck t o Mexico, In clu ded a m on g t h e pa t ien t s wer e cr ipples, leper s, t h ose su ffer in g fr om t u ber cu losis/ a n d elder ly in dividu a ls a fflict ed by t h e r a va ges
o{ old a ge.44 Bedr idden a n d t er m in a lly ill pa t ien t s did n ot esca pe t h e r epa t r ia t ion dr a g-
n et . Typica l of t h e in dign it ies su ffer ed by fa m ilies wit h ill m em ber s wa s t h a t u n der gon e by Migu el Mu r iel's fa m ily wh en t h ey a n d a pa r a lyzed son wer e escor t ed h om e. Tr a velin g fr om Los An geles t o E n sen a da / Ba ja Ca lifor n ia wa s n ot a n ea sy jou r n ey in t h e 1930s. Du e t o r oa d a n d ot Ker con dit ion s/ even sh or t t r ips wer e fr a u gh t wit h pr oblem s. Ma k in g m a t t er s wor se for t h e Mu r iel
fa m ily wa s t h e fa ct t h a t t h e open , st a k e-bed t r u ck wa s sever ely over cr owded. In a ddit ion t o t h e fa m ily/ a dr iver , a n d h ospit a l or der ly, t h e veh icle ca r r ied a ll of t h e fa m ily's per son a l belon gin gs. Th e or der ly wa s sen t a lon g t o h elp ca r e for t h e ill you n gst er u n t il t h e fa m ily r ea ch ed it s dest in a t ion . On ce ba ck h om e, t h e fa m ily wa s a ba n don ed a n d left t o look ou t for it self.45 Acr oss t h e Sou t h -
west / t h e pr oxim it y of t h e bor der m a de Mexico a con ven ien t du m pin g gr ou n d for cou n t ies a n xiou s t o cu t t h eir welfa r e cost s.
Men t a lly ill pa t ien t s wer e a lso su m m a r ily r epa t r ia t ed. P et r a Sa n ch ez
Roch a , for in st a n ce/ wa s in du ced t o a ccept bein g r epa t r ia t ed a ft er su ffer in g a n er vou s br ea k down . Th e st a ff a t t h e Los An geles Cou n t y Men t a l H ea lt h Cen t er con vin ced h er fa m ily t h a t "h er r ecover y cou ld on ly be a ch ieved in Mexico/'46 E ven t h ou gh Los An geles Cou n t y pr ovided h ospit a l or der lies t o
escor t ill pa t ien t s/ it wa s n ot r ega r ded a s a h u m a n e gest u r e. H er son / Libr a do/
t h ou gh t t h e h ospit a l per son n el wer e sen t a lon g a s gu a r ds r a t h er t h a n a s
or der lies.47
On e in ciden t fea t u r ed a n elder ly bedr idden cou ple wh o wer e bein g eject ed a ft er h a vin g lived in t h e U n it ed St a t es for n ea r ly for t y yea r s.48 Beset by t h e
in fir m it ies of old a ge/ t h ey wer e bein g sen t t o Mexico t o die. In som e in - st a n ces/ bu r ia l cost s wer e in clu ded a s a n in cen t ive t o r et u r n h om e. Gr a vely
ill in dividu a ls oft en clu n g t o life u n t il t h ey r ea ch ed t h eir fin a l dest in a t ion .
io8 RE P ATRIATION
Am on g m a n y of t h e elder ly, t h er e wa s a pr eva ilin g belief a n d fea r t h a t if t h ey died in t h e U n it ed St a t es t h ey wou ld be cr em a t ed or bu r ied a s pa u per s in a cou n t y cem et er y. In eit h er ca se/ t h ey believed t h ey wou ld lose t h eir sou ls a n d be den ied en t r y in t o H ea ven . F or t r u e believer s/ on ly in t er n m en t in a Ca t h olic cem et er y wou ld a ssu r e bein g welcom ed a t t h e P ea r ly Ga t es. Th a t is wh y m a n y elder ly/ in fir m Mexica n s a gr eed t o be r epa t r ia t ed.
E n com pa ssin g a n ot h er sign ifica n t gr ou p of r epa t r ia t es wer e wom en wh o wer e t r a velin g wit h ou t t h eir h u sba n ds. Oft en / t h ey wer e widows or a ba n - don ed wives a ccom pa n ied by sever a l you n g ch ildr en . Th ese wom en fa ced a ser ies of seem in gly in su r m ou n t a ble obst a cles. Th e per ver se syst em seem ed
design ed t o t h wa r t t h eir effor t s t o r et u r n t o Mexico a n d join t h eir r ela t ives or h u sba n ds. At t h e on set / t h ey en cou n t er ed difficu lt y in r egist er in g ch il- dr en wit h t h e Mexica n con su la t e. Sin ce a fa t h er wa s n ot pr esen t t o ver ify t h a t t h e ch ildr en wer e a ct u a lly h is legit im a t e offspr in g, det a iled ver ifica t ion a n d pr oof wa s r equ ir ed. Bir t h cer t ifica t es or ba pt ism a l r ecor ds wer e n ot a l- wa ys r ea dily a va ila ble. At t im es su ch r ecor ds wer e n on exist en t . Th is wa s
especia lly t r u e a m on g fa m ilies of m igr a n t or it in er a n t fa r m wor k er s.
An ot h er pr oblem en cou n t er ed by wom en bein g r epa t r ia t ed wa s t h a t t h ey wer e n ot lega lly con sider ed t o be h ea ds of h ou seh olds. Th u s/ t h ey en cou n - t er ed m a n y difficu lt ies in obt a in in g Cer t ifica t es of Residen cy. In m ost in -
st a n ces/ t h e cer t ifica t es did n ot en t it le t h em t o fu ll fr a n qu icia pr ivileges/ dispen sa t ion of cu st om du t ies. Ma le h ea ds of h ou seh olds/ for exa m ple/ wer e per m it t ed t o im por t a gu n or r ifle for ea ch a du lt m em ber in t h e, fa m ily. A wom a n t r a velin g a lon e wa s a llowed t o im por t on ly on e wea pon or fir ea r m .
E ven t h is r igh t wa s gr u dgin gly gr a n t ed. P r im a r ily/ it wa s don e a s a n a c- k n owledgm en t of t h e da n ger s t h a t sh e a n d h er fa m ily fa ced on t h e lon g/ per ilou s jou r n ey h om e. Th er e wer e a lwa ys u n scr u pu lou s in dividu a ls willin g t o t a k e a dva n t a ge of u n escor t ed wom en or t h eir you n g da u gh t er s.
Wom en wh ose h u sba n ds h a d been depor t ed or h a d r et u r n ed t o Mexico a gr eed t o r epa t r ia t ion in or der t o r ejoin t h em . Alt h ou gh t h ey h a d in it ia lly r efu sed t o a ccom pa n y t h eir h u sba n ds/ t h ey fou n d t h ey cou ld n ot pr ovide for t h eir fa m ilies by t h em selves. Th ey wer e left wit h n o ot h er r ecou r se t h a n t o r ejoin t h eir h u sba n ds a lr ea dy in Mexico. Th a t wa s t h e ca se wit h Lou ise Delga do a n d h er five ch ildr en . Sh e a ccept ed t h e ofjfer of t h e Los An geles
Cou n t y ch a r it ies office t o dr ive t h em t o Ma n a der o/ Ba ja Ca lifor n ia / in or der t o r ejoin h er h u sba n d.49
Adela S. Delga do wa s a m on g t h e br a ve wom en wh o m a de t h e h a za r dou s
t r ip t o Mexico a lon e. Delga do dr ove fr om P u eblo/ Color a do, t o Sa n t a E u la lia / Ch ih u a h u a / in a n old Dodge a u t om obile. Sh e wa s a ccom pa n ied by h er t h r ee you n g da u gh t er s, Ma r ga r it a / Ca t a r in a / a n d Vir gin ia / wh o wer e t h ir t een /
RE GRE SO 109
=.lve a n d n in e yea r s old, r espect ively. Th e ca r wa s ja m -pa ck ed wit h per -
belon gin gs. Am on g t h e t r ea su r ed it em s wer e a st ove/ m a t t r esses a n d
?ddin 8/ a ca r pen t er 's t oolbox, a n d boxes of dish es a n d book s.50 It wa s a t r ip
t h a t wou ld h a ve t a xed t h e en du r a n ce of m ost m en / yet Sen or a Delga do t ook t h e lon g/ per ilou s jou r n ey in st r ide. An ot h er wom a n wh o t r a veled t o Mexico
h er self wa s Ma r ia n a Villa sen or . A st r on g-willed wom a n / sh e a gr eed t o be -ia t ed on ly if per m it t ed t o t a k e a ll of h er h ou seh old belon gin gs. A t r u ck
wa s pr ovided beca u se h er dest in a t ion wa s n ot ea sily a ccessible by t r a in or bu s t r a n spor t a t ion . Besides/ h er depa r t u r e m a de "possible a su bst a n t ia l sa v-
in g" in welfa r e pa ym en t s.5
Ca ses lik e t h ose of Sen or a s Delga do a n d Villa sen or wer e n ot a ber r a t ion s or r a r e except ion s. Th e Mexica n con su l in Sa n Diego r epor t ed t h a t of n ea r ly on e h u n dr ed ca ses of r epa t r ia t es r egist er ed a t t h e con su la t e in 1933, t wen t y-
seven of t h em wer e wom en t r a velin g a lon e. E leven of t h e t wen t y-seven
wom en wer e a ccom pa n ied by you n g ch ildr en . F in a l dest in a t ion s in Mexico r a n ged fr om n ea r by bor der t own s lik e Tiju a n a t o dist a n t Mexico Cit y a n d beyon d. It t ook a gr ea t dea l of cou r a ge for wom en , especia lly t h ose wit h lit t le ch ildr en , t o u n der t a k e t h e lon g t r ek h om e. N o wom a n k n ew wh a t fa t e
a wa it ed h er on t h e jou r n ey sou t h . Modes of t r a n spor t a t ion oft en left a gr ea t dea l t o be desir ed. In t er r u pt ion s a n d dela ys wer e com m on pla ce a n d t h e jou r - n ey t o isola t ed r u r a l or m ou n t a in villa ges oft en h a d t o be com plet ed on foot .
Disca r ded belon gin gs oft en lit t er ed r oa ds a n d t r a ils a s wom en st r u ggled t o com plet e t h e jou r n ey. Ma n y a t ea r wa s sh ed in fr u st r a t ion , dou bt / a n d des-
per a t ion .
Repa t r ia t ion of Mexica n wom en wit h ou t spou ses wa s n ot con fin ed t o t h ose in t h e U n it ed St a t es. On e of t h e m ost m em or a ble in st a n ces in volved som e fou r h u n dr ed Mexica n wom en m a r r ied t o Ch in ese. Th e wom en h a d a ccom - pa n ied t h eir h u sba n ds wh en t h ey r et u r n ed t o t h eir h om ela n d. H owever , in Ch in a / t h ey su ffer ed m a n y h a r dsh ips beca u se t h ey did n ot u n der st a n d t h e
la n gu a ge/ cu lt u r a l t r a dit ion s, or socia l cu st om s. Accor din g t o t h e Secr et a r y
of F or eign Rela t ion s/ t h e wom en a n d t h eir ch ildr en wer e st r a n ded a n d h a d n o m on ey or a n y m ea n s of su ppor t . H elp wa s u r gen t ly n eeded t o a ver t a
disa st er . At t h e specific r equ est of P r esiden t La za r o Ca r den a s/ t h e gover n -
m en t a ppr opr ia t ed seven t y-on e t h ou sa n d pesos t o cover t r a n spor t a t ion cost s
fr om H on g Kon g t o t h e por t of Ma n za n illo in t h e st a t e of Colim a . Ra ilr oa d t r a n spor t a t ion t o t h e in t er ior wa s a r r a n ged so t h a t t h e wom en cou ld be r e- u n it ed wit h t h eir fa m ilies.52 Ir on ica lly/ t h e t r a gic exper ien ce en du r ed by t h e
wom en r et u r n in g fr om Ch in a r esu lt ed beca u se t h eir h u sba n ds h a d been ex-
pelled fr om Mexico. Ch ildr en in cou n t y or ph a n a ges did n ot esca pe t h e r epa t r ia t ion n oose. In
110 RE P ATRIATION
t h eir ea ger n ess t o r edu ce expen ses a t a ll levels/ cou n t ies t r ied t o fin d h om es for or ph a n ed ch ildr en . If t h a t pr oved u n su ccessfu l, t h ey t h en a t t em pt ed t o r et u r n t h e ch ildr en t o r ela t ives in Mexico or t o t r a n sfer t h em t o or ph a n a ges
sou t h of t h e bor der . In on e in st a n ce/ Los An geles Cou n t y spen t n ea r ly t wo yea r s t r yin g t o ft n d a su it a ble h om e for a br ot h er a n d sist er . Th eir t en a ciou s effor t s fin a lly pa id off.53 F or su c}i ch ildr en / it cer t a in ly seem ed a s if t h f wer e h om eless wa ifs wit h ou t a cou n t r y. N o a t t en t ion wa s pa id t o t h e fa ct
t h a t m a n y of t h e ch ildr en wer e Am er ica n cit izen s. In pa r t / t h is wa s du e t o t h e doct r in e of du a l cit izen sh ip. Ost en sively ch ildr en bor n in t h e U .S. of N 'lexica n pa r en t s wer e con sider ed t o be Am er ica n a s well a s Mexica n cit i-
zen s. Th a t is, t h ey wer e Am er ica n s by bir t h r igh t a n d Mexica n s du e t o t h eir pa r en t a ge. As su ch , t h ey wer e lega lly deem ed t o h a ve fu ll r igh t s a n d pr ivi- leges in bot h cou n t r ies. In a ct u a lit y/ t h e pa per gu a r a n t ees t u r n ed ou t t o be m ea n in gless.
Am on g t h e r epa t r ia t es wer e in dividu a ls wh o wer e in depen den t bu sin ess-
m en / m er ch a n t s, sh opk eeper s/ fa r m er s/ a n d pr oper t y own er s. Th ey oper a t ed
//m om -a n d-pop'/ gr ocer y st or es/ r et a il fu r n it u r e ou t let s/ m ovie t h ea t er s, ba r -
ber sh ops/ secon dh a n d st or es, a n d ot h er sm a ll bu sin esses. In m ost in st a n ces/
t h ese en t er pr isin g in dividu a ls ca t er ed t o t h e specia l n eeds a n d in t er est s of t h e colon ia s. F a ced wit h t h e wh olesa le depor t a t ion a n d r epa t r ia t ion of t h eir cu st om er s/ bu sin ess fell off dr a m a t ica lly. Ma n y st r u gglin g Mexica n en t r e- pr en eu r s fa ced econ om ic disa st er a n d h a d t o liqu ida t e t h eir pr oper t ies. Am on g t h ose for ced t o sell or lose t h eir h oldin gs wer e J ose M. Ot er o, wh o wa s for ced t o sell h is m ovie t h ea t r e va lu ed a t fou r t een t h ou sa n d dolla r s/ a n d h is n eigh - bor Au gu st m Ma ga n a s/ wh o h a d t o sell h is com m er cia l bu ildin g a ssessed a t t en t h ou sa n d dolla r s.54
Also a dver sely a ffect ed wer e pr osper ou s colon ia s in t h e Midwest . P r ior t o t h e ou t br ea k of t h e depr ession / t h e Ch ica go dist r ict of H u ll H ou se boa st ed a
t h r ivin g colon ia of som e t wen t y-five h u n dr ed per son s. Th e n eigh bor h ood At la s Ba n k cou n t ed som e six h u n dr ed Mexica n s a m on g it s deposit or s^ a n d a n ot h er fou r h u n dr ed Mexica n s wh o r egu la r ly pu r ch a sed m on ey or der s. Am on g t h e colon ia r esiden t s wa s a fa ir ly la r ge m iddle cla ss t h a t own ed a n d oper a t ed a va r iet y of sm a ll-bu sin ess est a blish m en t s/ in clu din g fou r t een r es-
t a u r a n t s/ five pool h a lls/ five gr ocer y st or es, a ba r ber sh op/ a sh oem a k er , fou r ba k er ies/ a m ea t m a r k et / a pr in t sh op, t wo sign -pr in t er sh ops/ a ph ot ogr a ph ga ller y/ a t a ilor sh op/ a n d a m u sic sh op.55 Ma n y of t h ese did n ot su r vive t h e com bin ed on sla u gh t of t h e depr ession a n d r epa t r ia t ion .
Colon ia bu sin esses a n d ser vices su ffer ed beca u se of t h e r a m pa n t u n em - ploym en t in t h e ba r r ios. An t icipa t ed pu r ch a ses wer e dela yed in defin it ely. U n secu r ed cr edit bu yin g, even of foodst u ffs, beca m e a wa y of life. It wa s a
Ill'E t H E GR^ SO
ven t u r e sin ce st or e own er s h a d n o a ssu r a n ce t h ey wou ld ever be pa id.
Ma r t fn ez r eca lled t h e loss of t h e fa m ily gr ocer y st or e, du e la r gely iver ext en din g cr edit t o fellow com pa t r iot s. As a r esu lt / sh e a n d h er fa m -
ilv even t u a lly join ed t h eir for m er cu st om er s in boa r din g t h e cou n t y r epa - t r a in .56 Com pou n din g a n d a ddin g t o sh op own er s' woes wer e t h e a n d sca r e-h ea d t a ct ics la u n ch ed a ga in st Mexica n pla ces of bu sin ess.
gom e in st a n ces/ Mexica n sh opk eeper s wer e h a r a ssed by An glo com pet i-
t or s in a n a t t em pt t o discou r a ge pa t r on a ge.5 Ba r r io gr ocer y st or es wer e t a r -
of a r u m or —wh ich la t er pr oved t o be u n fou n ded—t h a t on ly U .S. cit izen s wou ld be a llowed t o cu t or bu t ch er m ea t .58 Th is wa s a n effor t t o det er Mexi-
ca n s ^ r om pa t r on izin g st or es a n d m ea t m a r k et s t h a t ca t er ed t o t h eir dem a n ds
for pa r t icu la r cu t s or t ypes of m ea t .
U n a ble t o m a k e a decen t livin g or t o get a fa ir r et u r n on t h eir in vest m en t / m a n y Mexica n bu sin essm en a n d cr a ft sm en decided t o join t h e exodu s. Con "
sequ en t ly/ est a blish ed bu sin esses/ ch oice pr oper t y/ dr a ft a n im a ls, fa r m in g ea u ipm en t / a n d t h e t ools of t h eir r espect ive t r a des wen t on t h e a u ct ion block .
P ossession s a n d pr oper t y t h a t h a d t a k en a lifet im e of h a r d wor k t o a cqu ir e n ow h a d t o be disposed of for a few cen t s on t h e dolla r —if on e wer e lu ck y en ou gh t o fa n d a bu yer . E ven a t cu t -r a t e pr ices/ n o on e h a d a n y m on ey t o
in vest a n d sa les oft en wen t beggin g. As a la st r esor t / a t t em pt s wer e m a de t o
exch a n ge com m er cia l r ea l est a t e for pr oper t y of equ a l va lu e in Mexico. A m a jor pr oblem in effect in g a n equ it a ble t r a de wa s t h e sca r cit y of good fa r m -
la n d sou t h of t h e bor der .59 Rega r dless of t h e r epa t r ia t es" per son a l st a t u s or r ea son for lea vin g/ n ot h -
in g cou ld m a k e u p for t h e deva st a t in g a n gu ish t h ey u n der wen t in get t in g r ea dy t o lea ve. F r om on e en d of t h e cou n t r y t o t h e ot h er / t h e t ida l wa ve of
a bject h u m a n it y seek in g a ssist a n ce swa m ped Mexica n con su la t es. Alt h ou gh t h e con su ls la ck ed fu n ds t o pr ovide m on et a r y a id/ t h ey did offer sever a l vit a l ser vices t o m em ber s of t h e colon ia . P a r en t s wer e u r ged t o r egist er t h eir ch il-
dr en befor e lea vin g t h e U n it ed St a t es. Th is ser ved a du a l pu r pose. It est a b- lish ed a n d ver ified t h e fa ct t h a t t h e ch ildr en h a d in deed been bor n in Am er ica .
Th is pr oof wou ld pr ove in va lu a ble wh en you n gst er s gr own t o m a t u r it y or t o lega l a ge decided t o r et u r n t o t h e la n d of t h eir bir t h . Regist r a t ion wa s a lso in st r u m en t a l in a ssu r in g ch ildr en of t h e r igh t s a n d pr ivileges a ccor ded a ll Mexica n cit izen s r ega r dless of t h eir pla ce of bir t h .60 Ir on ica lly/ bu t for differ - en t r ea son s, t h e view pr eva iled in bot h t h e U n it ed St a t es a n d Mexico t h a t "on ce a Mexica n , a lwa ys a Mexica n !"
Con su ls a lso t r ied t o m a k e su r e t h a t in dividu a ls wer e n ot a bu sin g t h e
fr a n qu icia s gr a n t ed by t h e Mexica n gover n m en t . Th is pr ivilege wa s gr a n t ed t o r epa t r ia t es t o fa cilit a t e t h eir r et u r n t o t h e m ot h er cou n t r y. Th ey wer e
112 RE P ATRIATION
a llowed t o br in g in t h eir per son a l belon gin gs wit h ou t h a vin g t o pa y cu st om s fees or im por t du t ies. Ma n y Mexica n bu sin essm en object ed st r en u ou sly fo
t h is pr a ct ice beca u se t h ey viewed it a s givin g r epa t r ia t es a n u n fa ir a dva n - t a ge. Th ey su spect ed t h a t m a n y of t h e goods, especia lly t h ose in n ew or n ea r ly n ew con dit ion / wer e sch edu led for r esa le. In som e in st a n ces, t h eir
fea r s wer e well fou n ded. Bu t / in m ost ca ses, r epa t r ia t es wer e m er ely t a k in g
a dva n t a ge of t h e oppor t u n it y t o br in g in it em s t h ey fea r ed wou ld n ot be r ea dily a va ila ble in Mexico.
In or der t o discou r a ge t h e a bu se of fr a n qu icia s/ con su ls wer e a u t h or ized
t o gr a n t Cer t ifica t es of Residen cy on ly t o N a t ion a ls r esidin g in t h eir r espec- t ive dist r ict s. Th e cer t ifica t es list ed t h e n a m es of t h e pa r en t s/ t h e n a m es, sexes a n d a ges of t h e ch ildr en , r espect ive pla ces of bir t h / a n d t h e fa m ily's fin a l dest in a t ion . A det a iled en u m er a t ion of t h e h ou seh old a n d per son a l be-
lon gin gs of t h e r epa t r ia t es wa s a lso in clu ded. Tools/ equ ipm en t / a n im a ls/ a n d pla n t s/ a s well a s veh icles a n d spa r e pa r t s/ in clu din g t ir es/ wer e du ly n ot ed. On ly t wo n ew spa r e t ir es wer e per m it t ed per ca r or t r u ck . Som e it em s su ch
a s beddin g, st u ffed m a t t r esses/ a n d pillows wer e oft en exclu ded fr om t h e list of a llowa ble im por t s.61 As m igh t be expect ed/ r epa t r ia t es com pla in ed bit t er ly wh en t h ese in dispen sa ble it em s wer e con fisca t ed a t t h e bor der . In m ost in -
st a n ces/ a m or dida , or br ibe/ con vin ced cu st om s officia ls t o r ela x en for ce-
m en t of t h e pu n it ive m ea su r e.
Alon g wit h beddin g/ on e of t h e m ost ch er ish ed it em s a m on g wom en wa s t h eir pr eciou s Sin ger sewin g m a ch in e. Of a ll t h eir belon gin gs, it wa s t h e on e t h in g t h ey wer e det er m in ed n ot t o lea ve beh in d. Ma n y m ot h er s a lso pot t ed t h eir fa vor it e pla n t s, in clu din g t h ose u sed for m edicin a l pu r poses. Yer ba bu en a , r u da , t e de lim on , a n d ot h er pla n t s wit h cu r a t ive power s wer e pa ck ed
in cr a t es for t h e t r ip sou t h . Th er e wa s oft en a pr oblem a t t h e bor der beca u se t h e a du a n a s (cu st om s officia ls) r efu sed t o let pla n t s com e in u n less t h ey wer e cer t ified t o be fr ee fr om disea se or pa r a sit es. Th e sa m e pr oblem oc- cu r r ed wit h a n im a ls r a n gin g fr om h ou seh old pet s t o fa r m or dr a ft a n im a ls. A cer t ifica t e a t t est in g t o t h e a n im a l's clea n bill of h ea lt h h a d t o be obt a in ed fr om a vet er in a r ia n . Th e cost for a h or se/ cow/ or m u le wa s t en dolla r s. F ees
wer e less for sm a ller a n im a ls/ bu t even ch ick en s h a d t o be in spect ed. On e wom a n object ed bit t er ly t o pa yin g $4.70 t o br in g in h er seven la yin g h en s. E qu a lly a s ga llin g wa s t h e fa ct t h a t a fee of $10.00 wa s ch a r ged for t h e Cer - t if-ica t e-of- Residen cy.62 E ven t u a lly, du e t o t h e cr ies of pr ot est by r et u r n in g
N a t ion a ls, t h e Cer t ifica t e of Residen cy fee a n d ot h er ch a r ges wer e a bolish ed or dr a st ica lly r edu ced for a ll in digen t s.
Alt h ou gh m ost of t h e r epa t r ia t es wer e dest it u t e a n d in dir e st r a it s^ r a il- r oa d a n d a du a n a officia ls wer e a m a zed a t t h e t r em en dou s a m ou n t of h ou se- h old goods a n d per son a l belon gin gs t h a t ea ch fa m ily own ed. It wa s, t o sa y
^ ^ E GRE SO 113
ie lea st / im pr essive despit e t h e fa ct t h a t m a n y h ou seh old fu r n ish in gs h a d t o be left beh in d. H owever / du e t o t h eir cost / specia l st a t u s wa s a ccor ded t o
a n d vict r ola s. Th ey wer e exem pt ed fr om a ll r est r ict ion s/ so r epa t r i-
a t es cou ld br in g in t h eir ch er ish ed m u sica l possession s.63 Old ir on or br a ss beds wer e t oo h ea vy a n d cu m ber som e t o t r a n spor t . So t oo wer e st oves/ ice-
boxes/ dr esser s/ a n d ch est s. In m ost colon ia s, disca r ded fu r n ish in gs wer e so
'n t ifu l t h a t it wa s im possible t o give a wa y h ou seh old goods. E ven secon d- h a n d st or es r efu sed t o pick u p it em s u n less t h ey wer e br a n d n ew. Ra t h er t h a n disca r d t h eir h a r d-ea r n ed fu r n ish in gs/ som e fa m ilies st a ck ed t h eir fu r - n it u r e a n d set it a fir e. Th ey sim ply h a d n o ch oice sin ce a du a n a officia ls a l" lowed on ly F ift y k ilos of du t y-fr ee goods per fa m ily.64 E xcess weigh t a n d
ba gga ge h a d t o be pa id for by t h e r epa t r ia t es. Lik e t h e wom en wit h t h eir pr ized sewin g m a ch in es a n d t r ea su r ed m e-
m en t os/ t h e m en t oo h a d t h eir pr iceless belon gin gs. In m ost In st a n ces/ t h ey wer e t h e t ools of t h eir t r a de, Ba r ber s/ sh oe r epa ir m en / plu m ber s, t a ilor s/
lea t h er wor k er s/ m u sicia n s, ca r pen t er s/ m ech a n ics/ a n d ot h er jou r n eym en
in sist ed on t a k in g t h eir equ ipm en t wit h t h em . It r epr esen t ed t h eir on e h ope of bein g a ble t o r eest a blish t h em selves in Mexico a n d a void becom in g a bu r - den t o t h e gover n m en t . Som e t r a desm en a t t em pt ed t o im por t en ou gh su p-
plies t o en a ble t h em t o est a blish a bu sin ess a n d h ir e loca l wor k er s. As pr ospect ive em ployer s/ t h ey sou gh t specia l con cession s fr om t h e Mexica n
gover n m en t . In m ost in st a n ces/ sin ce Mexico sor ely n eeded econ om ic devel-
opm en t / dispen sa t ion wa s gr a n t ed. H owever / in in st a n ces wh en dem a n ds
wer e excessive—a s in t h e ca se of on e J u a n Rodr igu ez/ wh o wa n t ed t o br in g
in en ou gh lu m ber a n d plu m bin g su pplies so h e cou ld bu ild a la r ge h om e— t h e r equ est wa s den ied.65
Th e delu ge of r epa t r ia t es a n d t h eir m ou n t a in ou s a ccu m u la t ion of goods/
t ools/ a n d a n im a ls swa m ped a du a n a fa cilit ies a ll a lon g t h e bor der . E n t r y por t s lik e Tiju a n a , N oga les/ Ciu da d J u a r ez/ N u evo La r edo/ a n d Ma t a m or os felt t h e fu ll im pa ct of t h e on sla u gh t . Th e bor der cit ies r eeled fr om . t h e weigh t of t h e
sh eer n u m ber s st or m in g t h eir ga t es. Cu st om s fa cilit ies/ food su pplies/ h ou s- in g/ m edica l a t t en t ion , a n d r a ilr oa d t r a n spor t a t ion cr ea k ed, gr oa n ed/ a n d in
som e ca ses fin a lly colla psed. N o on e h a d for eseen t h e a dven t or en or m it y of t h e h u m a n t ide flowin g sou t h fr om ever y cor n er in t h e U n it ed St a t es. An
obser va t ion com m on ly m a de wa s wh et h er t h er e wer e a n y Mexica n s left in t h e U n it ed St a t es t o be r epa t r ia t ed. A m a jor ca u se of pr oblem s a t t h e bor der wa s t h a t t h er e wa s vir t u a lly n o coor din a t ion or cooper a t ion bet ween Mexico
a n d t h e U n it ed St a t es. Am er ica n a u t h or it ies sim ply ch ose t o ign or e t h e sit u - a t ion . As a r esu lt t h er e. wa s n o wa y t o con t r ol t h e m a ss m igr a t ion ba ck t o el
t er r en a zo.
Ma k in g m a t t er s wor se, t h e r epa t r ia t es oft en a r r ived a t t h e bor der in t h e
11 RE P ATRIATION
m ost pit ifu l cir cu m st a n ces. Ba bies/ t h e elder ly, pr egn a n t wom en , a n d t h e sick su ffer ed t h e m ost fr om t h e or dea l. Dea t h s occu r r ed da ily a lon g t h e a n d in r epa t r ia t ion cen t er s a t t h e bor der . Too oft en , t h e for ced r epa t r ia t ion of
in dividu a ls n ot fit t o t r a vel beca m e a vir t u a l dea t h sen t en ce. E xcelsior , on e of Mexico Cit y's lea din g n ewspa per s, r epor t ed t h a t on boa r d on e r epa t r ia t ion t r a in / t wen t y-five ch ildr en a n d a du lt s h a d died of illn ess a n d m a ln u t r it ion
du r in g t h e t r ip t o t h e bor der .66 Th e sa m e n ewspa per in a n ot h er edit ion r e~ por t ed t h a t som e r epa t r ia t es h a d a r r ived in su ch a n ill a n d pit ifu l con dit ion t h a t t h ey h a d t o be h ospit a lized befor e bein g per m it t ed t o con t in u e on t h eir jou r n ey.67
A fa ct or con t r ibu t in g t o t h e sa d pligh t of t h e r epa t r ia t es wa s t h a t va st n u m ber s left t h e U n it ed St a t es wit h ou t ever con t a ct in g t h e Mexica n con su l in t h eir r espect ive dist r ict s. Th ey, t h er efor e/ a r r ived a t t h e bor der wit h ou t Cer t ifica t es of Residen cy or a n y docu m en t a t ion n eeded t o fa cilit a t e t h eir pr ocessin g by t h e a du a n a ser vice.68 In t h eir h a st e t o get r id of in digen t Mexi-
ca n s/ cou n t y welfa r e a gen cies oft en sim ply sen t t h em on t h eir wa y wit h ou t n ot ifyin g t h e loca l con su l. Repea t ed viola t or s, lik e welfa r e a dm in ist r a t or Ma r y Gr a ce Wells of Ga r y, In dia n a / ca u sed con st er n a t ion a n d u n n ecessa r y pr ob-
lem s for t h eir ch a r ges. At t em pt s by t h e Mexica n con su l t o ga in Wells'coop- er a t ion or t h a t of t h e cou n t y t r u st ees pr oved fu t ile.69 Dela ys/ h ea r t br ea k , a n d pr olon ged su ffer in g a t t h e bor der wa s t h e en d r esu lt . Officia l in sen sit ivit y a n d in t r a n sigen ce m a de a ba d sit u a t ion even wor se. H owever / a ccor din g t o
Ma r y Gr a ce Wells, t h e Ga r y, In dia n a , r epa t r ia t ion pr ogr a m wa s a splen did su ccess/ for "a ll [r epa t r ia t es] wer e h a ppy en r ou t e a n d wer e deligh t ed t o set foot a ga in on t h eir n a t ive soil/'70
F or ea ch gr ou p of r epa t r ia t es/ t h e t r a in t r ip t o t h e bor der wa s differ en t / yet t h e jou r n ey a ssu m ed a cer t a in sa m en ess. Wh et h er fr om Det r oit / Ch i-
ca go, Ka n sa s Cit y/ Den ver / or Los An geles/ a ft er t h e in it ia l excit em en t of
get t in g u n der wa y/ a du ll m on ot on y set t led over t h e h u m a n ca r go. On ly t h e you n ger ch ildr en wh o did n ot fu lly com pr eh en d wh a t wa s h a ppen in g t o t h em viewed t h e t r ip wit h glee a n d good spir it s. As on t h e r epa t r ia t ion sh ips, a m en it ies a boa r d t h e t r a in s wer e lim it ed. In dividu a ls a n d fa m ilies la id cla im t o t h eir pa r t icu la r spot in t h e cr owded coa ch es a n d t r ied t o m a k e t h e best of it . Som e n a pped, som e pla yed ca r ds/ ot h er s r oa m ed t h r ou gh t h e ca r s look in g for old fr ien ds or r ela t ives. E ver y ca r or coa ch h a d on e or m or e self-st yled m u sicia n s. Repa t r ia t ion coor din a t or Lu ca s Lu cio r em em ber ed t h a t "fr om Los
An geles t o E l P a so som e sa n g wit h gu it a r s t r yin g t o for get t h eir sa dn ess a n d ot h er s cr ied/'71
Th e bor edom a n d m on ot on y of t h e t r ip wa s in t er r u pt ed by br ea k fa st , lu n ch , a n d din n er . In or der t o sa ve m on ey/ food por t ion s wer e u su a lly st r ict ly
gL RE GRE SO 115
a dh er ed t o a n d secon d h elpin gs wer e seldom a va ila ble/ even t h ou gh Los :s r epa t r ia t ion dir ect or Rex Th om son cla im ed t h e t r a in s wer e "fu ll of
food/'72 Th is wa s a sor e poin t wit h m a n y of t h e m en wh o/ du e t o a life of h a r d wor k / wer e h a r dy ea t er s. N igh t pu n ct u a t ed ea ch da y a n d br ou gh t a ^ u ch -n eeded r espit e. Th a n k fu lly/ for t h e bon e-wea r y r epa t r ia t es a n ot h er
m iser a ble da y wa s beh in d t h em . Tr ou bles, ca r es, a n d in cr ea sin g a ppr eh en - given ess cou ld be m om en t a r ily set a side. Ma r ia de la Lu z Sa n ch ez wa s six
)ld a t t h e t im e, bu t sh e ca n st ill r em em ber t h a t //on e wou ld sit , ea t , a n d sleep in t h e sa m e loca t ion .^ 73 Mor n in g bega n t h e dism a l r ou t in e a n d or dea l a ll over a ga in . Th e on ly con sola t ion wa s t h a t t h e t r ip wou ld soon be over .74
Repa t r ia t es a n d t h eir fa m ilies a r r ivin g a t t h e bor der fr om Det r oit / P it t s- bu r gh / Clevela n d/ Ch ica go, a n d elsewh er e com pla in ed bit t er ly a bou t t h e h a r dsh ips en cou n t er ed on t h e ext en ded t r ip. Th eir sen t im en t s wer e ech oed by t h ose a r r ivin g fr om t h e m idwest er n st a t es of Iowa , Ka n sa s, N ebr a sk a / a n d Min n esot a , or fr om t h e n or t h er n st a t es of Wa sh in gt on / Ida h o, Mon -
t a n a / a n d t h e Da k ot a s. Ar r iva l a t t h e design a t ed por t of en t r y wa s gr eet ed wit h m ixed em ot ion s. It sign ified t h e en d of t h e fir st leg of t h e jou r n ey a n d
t h e begin n in g of t h e fin a l la p. Repa t r ia t ion coor din a t or Lu ca s Lu cio r eca lled t h e "t er r ible cr y a m on g t h e r epa t r ia t es u pon r ea ch in g t h e bor der /' Lu cio dedu ced t h a t som e r epa t r ia t es "did n ot wa n t t o cr oss t h e bor der beca u se t h ey h a d da u gh t er s or son s wh o h a d st a yed beh in d/'75 Con dit ion s a t t h e bor der
t own s wer e cer t a in ly n ot r ea ssu r in g. A t r a in loa d of Det r oit r epa t r ia t es r e-
ceived a cold welcom e wh en t h ey a r r ived in La r edo: "Th e en gin e wa s t u r n ed off a n d t h e people [wer e] r equ ir ed t o r em a in on t h e t r a in a ll n igh t wit h ou t ligh t or h ea t /'76 In t h e cit y a ll a m en it ies wer e sor ely la ck in g. F ood/ wa t er /
a n d sh elt er wer e in ext r em ely sh or t su pply a n d pr ices wer e sk y h igh . Sa n i- t a r y fa cilit ies a n d m edica l ca r e wer e pr im it ive by a n y st a n da r ds. Th er e wer e sim ply t oo m a n y people vyin g for t h e sa m e spa ces, goods/ a n d ser vices. P eople wer e r edu ced t o beggin g a n d even st ea lin g in or der .t o su r vive, Con dit ion s
wor sen ed a s m or e r epa t r ia t es a r r ived t o join t h ose a lr ea dy a wa it in g t r a n s-
por t a t ion in t o t h e in t er ior .
On e pr ou d N a t ion a l/ eigh t y-t wo yea r s old/ disda in ed a ll offer s of h elp a n d r et u r n ed t o Mexico on h or seba ck / a ccom pa n ied by h is gr own son s. In on e fin a l gest u r e of br a va do a n d defia n ce/ h e sh ou t ed "Viva Mexico" a s h e r ode a cr oss t h e Rio Gr a n de. Aft er h a vin g lived in t h e U n it ed St a t es for m or e t h a n t wen t y-five yea r s/ h e ch ose t o r et u r n h om e even if on ly t o die on n a -
t ive soil.77 Su ch in ciden t s pr odu ced dr a m a t ic pr ess cover a ge. N ewspa per s u n -
der scor ed t h e fa ct t h a t ext en ded yea r s spen t con t r ibu t in g t o t h e pr osper it y a n d econ om ic developm en t of t h e U n it ed St a t es wa s n ot en ou gh t o ga in Mexica n s eit h er per m a n en t r esiden ce or a ccept a n ce m t h eir a dopt ed cou n -
n 6 RE P ATRIATION
t r y. In st ea d/ t h e Mexica n wor k er a n d h is fa m ily wer e ou st ed wit h ou t con cer n for cit izen sh ip st a t u s/ len gt h of r esiden cy, h ea lt h con dit ion s, or a ge fa ct or s. N eit h er wa s a n y t h ou gh t or a t t en t ion given t o pr oblem s a fa m ily fa ced a t t h e bor der or a t t h eir fin a l dest in a t ion .
On e jou r n a list descr ibed t h e t er r ible con dit ion s t h a t pr eva iled du r in g t h e win t er of 1931 in Ciu da d J u a r ez/ a cr oss t h e In t er n a t ion a l Br idge fr om E l P a so: "U p a t t h e cu st om s h ou se/ t h er e is a la r ge cor r a l/ wh er e ea r ly in J a n u -
a r y m or e t h a n t wo t h ou sa n d r epa t r ia dos ca m ped a n d st a r ved, h u ddled t o- get h er / wa it in g for a k in d gover n m en t t o pr ovide t h em wit h t r a n spor t a t ion so t h a t t h ey cou ld m ove on . ... Wom en swa r m ed a bou t t h e wa r eh ou ses
pick in g u p on e by on e t h e bea n s spilled t h r ou gh t h e h oles in t h e [gu n n y] sa ck s/'78
In ligh t of su ch deplor a ble con dit ion s^ t h er e wer e r ebelliou s in dividu a ls wh o decided t o for ego t h e r em a in der of t h e t r ip. To r edu ce t h is possibilit y som e t r a in s did n ot st op a t t h e r a ilr oa d st a t ion on t h e Am er ica n side/ bu t
pr oceeded dir ect ly t o t h e bor der . F or t h e m a jor it y of r epa t r ia t es/ in spit e of dou bt s a n d m isgivin gs, t h er e wa s n o ot h er opt ion bu t t o con t in u e t h e a r du - ou s jou r n ey. H a vin g com e t h is fa r , t h er e wa s n o t u r n in g ba ck . Th er e wa s
n ot h in g t o go ba ck t o! Th ey wa it ed st oica lly for t r a in s t o ca r r y t h em sou t h . N o on e k n ew wh en t h e n ext sou t h bou n d t r a in wou ld a r r ive. A lu ck y few left wit h in da ys of t h eir a r r iva l/ ot h er s wa it ed en dless week s a n d m on t h s. On e gr ou p of for t y exa sper a t ed r epa t r ia t es r efu sed t o t oler a t e a n y fu r t h er wa it -
in g. Th ey st or m ed a t r a in a n d dem a n ded t h a t t h ey be a llowed t o r ide on t h e r oofs of t h e ca r s, //We a r e r epa t r ia t es a n d t h e gover n m en t h a s offer ed u s
h elp/' t h e n ea r ly st a r vin g a n d desper a t e gr ou p plea ded wit h t h e en gin eer .79 Wh en t r a in s fin a lly ca m e/ m a n y locom ot ives a n d coa ch es look ed lik e r elics left over fr om t h e Revolu t ion , wh ich in deed m a n y wer e. Repa t r ia t es dou bt ed wh et h er t h e a n t iqu a t ed t r a in s cou ld su r vive t h e t or t u ou s m ou n t a in ou s t er -
r a in on t h e jou r n ey sou t h . Th e pr ospect of a n ot h er len gt h y jolt in g t r a in r ide wa s less t h a n a ppea lin g t o t h e bon e-wea r y r epa t r ia t es. Libr a do Sa n ch ez la - m er it ed t h e pr ospect of "t h e lon g t r a in r ide fr om J u a r ez t o Sa n F r a n cisco del Rin con , J a lisco in wooden boxca r s/'80
As t h e r epa t r ia dos pr oceeded sou t h a n d dr ew n ea r er t o t h eir fin a l dest i- n a t ion s, n ew fea r s a n d dou bt s bega n t o t r ou ble t h em . Wh a t la y a h ea d wa s
a n yon e^ s gu ess. H a d t h e decision t o pu ll u p st a k es a n d lea ve t h e U n it ed St a t es been t h e r igh t ch oice? Th a t per plexin g qu est ion wou ld h a ve t o wa it for a fin a l a n swer . H owever / dou bt s a bou t t h e wisdom or folly of r et u r n in g t o Mexico wer e n ot con fin ed solely t o t h e Mexica n s wh o wer e for ced t o depa r t .
E ven a t t h e dept h of t h e depr ession , t h er e wer e gr ou ps a n d in dividu a ls wh o veh em en t ly opposed m a ss r epa t r ia t ion . Bu sin essm en wer e im pa ct ed by t h e
loss of loya l cu st om er s, a n d r a n ch er s a n d in du st r ia list s decr ied t h e loss of
E L RE GRE SO ii7
depen da ble wor k er s. Wa r n in gs wer e h ea r d a bou t t h e n ega t ive con sequ en ces of su ch a r a sh a n d h a st y a ct ion . Th e cu r e cou ld be wor se t h a n t h e su pposed illn ess/ cla im ed t h e doom sa yer s.
E ch oin g loca l bu sin ess sen t im en t / P a blo Ba ca , pr esiden t of t h e Los An ge- les Mexica n Ch a m ber of Com m er ce, en u m er a t ed t welve r ea son s wh y r epa -
t r ia t ion ou gh t t o be st opped. Ba ca 's cr it iqu e wa s su bm it t ed t o Cla r en ce H . Wa t son , of t h e Los An geles Ch a m ber of Com m er ce.81 Ba ca 's r epor t a n d r ec-
om m en da t ion s wer e pr om pt ed by t h e fa ct t h a t fift y t h ou sa n d Mexica n s a l- legedly h a d been sh ipped h om e du r in g t h e pr eviou s five m on t h s. Bot h Ch a m ber s wer e con cer n ed a bou t r epa t r ia t ion / bu t for differ en t r ea son s. Ba ca
wa s sen sit ive a bou t t h e in ju st ice bein g don e t o t h e Mexica n popu la t ion a n d wa n t ed it st opped. An glo em ployer s fea r ed t h a t if t h e m a ss exodu s con t in -
u ed, soon t h er e wou ld be ver y few Mexica n s left t o do t h e dir t y/ ba ck br ea k - in g/ m on ot on ou s wor k a t wh ich t h ey excelled.
In a ddit ion t o loss of wor k er s/ r epa t r ia t ion wa s ba d for t h e m er ch a n t 's
pock et book . Loca l r et a iler s poin t ed ou t t h a t t h e Mexica n s wer e depen da ble a n d loya l cu st om er s. In good t im es or ba d, "com e h ell or h igh wa t er /' t h ey pa id t h eir bills. Th eir r a t e of defa u lt on cr edit pu r ch a ses wa s su r pr isin gly low. Mer ch a n t s in ever y com m u n it y n ot ed a sign ifica n t dr op in sa les wit h t h e su dden depa r t u r e of t h eir loya l clien t ele. Bela t edly/ t h e est a blish m en t bega n t o r ea lize t h a t Mexica n s wer e_n pt on ly pr odu cer s wh osewor k ben -
efit ed t h e en t ir e societ y; t h ey wer e a lso con su m er s of goods a n d ser vices wh o con t r ibu t ed t o t h e econ om ic well-bein g of t h e com m u n it y. Con sequ en t ly/ in Los An geles, bu sin essm en led by t h e Ba n k of Am er ica a n d t h e Ch a m ber
of Com m er ce join ed in a sk in g a u t h or it ies t o desist in t h eir r epa t r ia t ion ef- for t s. Repa t r ia t ion / t h ey in sist ed/ sh ou ld be lim it ed t o t h ose wh o volu n t eer ed or r equ est ed t o be sen t ba ck .
Ba n k er ? wer e con cer n ed beca u se la r ge a m ou n t s of m on ey wer e bein g
wit h dr a wn by Mexica n clien t s in a n t icipa t ion of bein g r epa t r ia t ed. Accor d- in g t o on e fin a n cia l st a t em en t / in Los An geles a lon e ba n k s h a d lost m or e t h a n seven m illion dolla r s in deposit s.82 Th e sa m e wa s t r u e a bou t ba n k s a cr oss t h e n a t ion t h a t ser viced ba r r io r esiden t s. Con t r a r y t o bein g st er eot yped a s spen dt h r ift s wh o lived for t h e m om en t or wh o wer e n ot a ble t o defer in st a n t gr a t ifica t ion du e t o t h eir ch ildlik e wa ys/ Mexica n s for m ed a sign ifica n t pa r t of t h e sa vin gs com m u n it y. At t est in g t o t h e t r u t h of t h a t st a t em en t wer e sm a ll ba n k s a n d sa vin gs a n d loa n com pa n ies t h a t felt t h e fin a n cia l pin ch . To
pr even t loss of a ccou n t s/ t h ey oft en st on ewa lled or dela yed pr ocessin g r e- qu est s for wit h dr a wa l of fu n ds. In on e su ch in st a n ce, it t ook An t on io de Alva six m on t h s t o wit h dr a w h is sa vin gs of $209.73 fr om t h e Ma r in e Bu ildin g Loa n Associa t ion in Sa n P ect r o.83
Ra n ch er s a n d gr ower s/ a s m igh t be expect ed/ wer e a n ot h er gr ou p oppos-
11 RE;P ATRIATIO^
in g r epa t r ia t ion . Th ey h a d a lwa ys opposed a n y im m igr a t ion r est r ict ion s t h eir sou r ce of ch ea p, depen da ble Mexica n la bor .34 N ow t h ey viewed t h e in . cr ea sed r epa t r ia t ion effor t s wit h a la r m a n d fea r ed for t h e loss of t h eir cr ops. As a r esu lt , su r pr isin g a s it m a y seem , r epa t r ia t es oft en a r r ived a t t h eir des-
t in a t ion in Mexico/ on ly t o fin d en ga n ch ist a s bu sy r ecr u it in g wor k er s t o pick cot t on a n d ot h er cr ops in Texa s a n dAr izon a . It m u st h a ve been t h e fin a l ir on y for r epa t r ia t es or per h a ps it wa s poet ic ju st ice. "Br in g ba ck t h e Mexi- ca n s" r esou n ded t h r ou gh ou t t h e Sou t h west / wh er e t h ey for m ed a vit a l lin !( in t h e a gr a r ia n econ om ic ch a in .
An ea r ly a dvoca t e of fa ir t r ea t m en t for Mexica n N a t ion a ls wa s E r n est Besig, h ea d of t h e Goodwill t o Mexico Com m it t ee of t h e Mou n t H ollywood Ch u r ch . Th e com m it t ee dir ect ed it s effor t s a n d a t t en t ion t o a m elior a t in g t h e pligh t of t h ose for ced t o r et u r n t o Mexico. Or igin a lly/ t h e Mou n t H olly- wood Ch u r ch a t t em pt ed t o pa y for fa r es a n d t o pr ovide clot h in g a n d ot h er ba sic n ecessit ies t o n eedy r epa t r ia t es. In t h is en dea vor , Mr . Besig fou n d t h a t
h e wa s ba t t lin g a ga in st t h e t ide. Th er e wer e sim ply t oo m a n y {a m ilies wh o n eeded h elp. In desper a t ion ^ h e a ppea led t o ot h er civic a gen cies a n d r eligiou s gr ou ps {or a ssist a n ce. Besig a lso a t t em pt ed t o per su a de loca l officia ls t o r e- spect t h e r epa t r ia t es/ civil r igh t s a n d n ot m a k e t h em con ven ien t sca pegoa t s.85 H is plea s/ u n for t u n a t ely/ fell on dea f ea r s.
Th e Mexica n s t h em selves did n ot r em a in pa ssive or a cqu iescen t in t h e fa ce of t h e om in ou s t h r ea t fa cin g t h em . Va r iou s or ga n iza t ion s in t h e colon ia s su ch a s t h e Com it e P r o-Repa t r a cion a n d t h e Cr u z Azu l J oin ed in pr ot est in g wh a t t h ey viewed a s dispa r a t e t r ea t m en t of N a t ion a ls, Aft er r epea t ed t r ips t o t h e t r a in st a t ion t o see t h eir r ela t ives a n d n eigh bor s off/ r esen t m en t bega n t o m ou n t in t h e colon ia s. Wh y, m a n y dem a n ded a n gr ily, wer e t h er e n o t r a in loa ds or ca r a va n s of ot h er a lien s lea vin g? Wh y wer en 't ot h er for eign er s be-
in g r ou n ded u p a n d r epa t r ia t ed? Mexica n s wer e n ot t h e on ly people ou t of wor k or on r elief! Wh y wer e r ela t ive n ewcom er s fr om E u r ope bein g t r ea t ed bet t er t h a n Mexica n s wh ose a n cest r a l r oot s wen t ba ck t o t h e explor a t ion a n d
set t lem en t of m u ch oF t h e sou t h er n por t ion of t h e cou n t r y ? To r esiden t s of t h e colon ia s/ it did n ot m a k e sen se or seem fa ir . Cit izen s gr ou ps/ su ch a s t h e Con feder a cion de Socieda des Mexica n a s/ den ou n ced r epa t r ia t ion a n d de- m a n ded t h a t it cea se im m edia t ely.86 Th ey viewed it a s n ot h in g m or e t h a n a con t r ived/ r a cist plot t o get r id of a ll Mexica n s.
J oin in g in exposin g t h is r a cist poin t of view a n d a ddin g t h eir m or a l su p- por t in beh a lf of Mexico de a fu er a wa s t h e Mexica n pr ess a n d r a dio on bot h sides of t h e bor der . Th e en t ir e r epa t r ia t ion episode wa s closely m on it or ed by t h e Spa n ish -spea k in g n ews m edia . In t h e Sou t h west / n ewspa per s su ch a s
t h e pr est igiou s La Opin ion in Los An geles/ La P r en sa in Sa n An t on io/ a n d E l
Ig^ E E GBE SO 119
ildo in Sa n Diego pr in t ed a r t icles a n d pu blish ed edit or ia ls cr it ica l of t h e a n d it s r a cia l over t on es. In Mexico, t h e m edia a dded
sh r ill cr y a s ca lls for ju st ice a n d r est r a in t wer e ign or ed. In a ddit ion t o
a ldn g ou t in beh a lf of t h eir com pa t r iot s, t h e r epa t r ia t ion deba cle wa s t a i- m a de for en ga gin g in bit in g, oft en vit r iolic Ya n k ee ba it in g.87 Th e m edia
;d sever a l a ven u es in m ou n t in g it s a t t a ck . It a r gu ed t h a t N a t ion a ls h a d for k ed t o en r ich t h e Colossu s of t h e N or t h . Th er efor e/ it wa s t h e r espon si- bilit y °^ t ^ le ben eficia r ies of t h eir la bor t o ca r e for t h em in t h eir h ou r of n eed. Wh y sh ou ld Mexico ser ve a s a con ven ien t du m pin g gr ou n d for Am er ica ^ r eject s? Th ese a t t a ck s in cr ea sed wh en t h e in fir m , la m e, m en t a lly der a n ged/ or t er m in a lly ill pa t ien t s bega n t o a r r ive fr om a s fa r a wa y a s P h ila - clelph ia . Ma n y of t h e r et u r n ees/ t h e pr ess cla im ed/ h a d su ffer ed job-r ela t ed in ju r ies or h a d r u in ed t h eir h ea lt h a n d wa st ed t h eir you t h in en h a n cin g t h e econ om ic in t er est s of t h e U n it ed St a t es.
Th e in h u m a n e t r ea t m en t wa s pa r t icu la r ly ga llin g t o t h e r epa m a t es be- ca u se t h ey viewed t h em selves a s h on est , in du st r iou s wor k er s. Th eir r en own
a n d r epu t a t ion a s a r elia ble wor k for ce spok e for it self. Th ey h a d per for m ed t h eir t a sk s a dm ir a bly. Wh y t h en / wer e t h ey bein g h ea r t lessly expelled? Mexico Cit y's pr est igiou s E xcelsior , in a n edit or ia l pu blish ed J u n e 2/ 1932, com m en t ed on t h is a spect . It a t t r ibu t ed r epa t r ia t ion t o bla t a n t r a cism . As pr oof of Am er ica 's over t r a cism / it cit ed a st a t em en t a t t r ibu t ed t o t h e In t er -
n a t ion a l Rela t ion s Com m it t ee of t h e F eder a l Cou n cil of t h e Ch u r ch es o^ Ch r ist in Am er ica : "Ra cia l discr im in a t ion in t h ese t im es n ot on ly m a k es m or e pa in fu l t h e down fa ll of r a cia l gr ou ps pr eviou sly pla ced in a disa dva n - t a geou s posit ion / bu t t h ey in cr ea se t h e r espon sibilit y oi t h e com m u n it ies beca u se of t h e su ffer in g of t h ose gr ou ps."88 Qu it e obviou sly/ t h e U .S. wa s
n ot fu lfillin g it s m or a l r espon sibilit y. Con su ls u su a lly a dvised t h eir belea gu er ed com pa t r iot s t o r em a in wh er e
t h ey wer e/ if a t a ll possible/ a n d r ide ou t t h e econ om ic t em pest . Bet t er t im es wer e bou n d t o com e. P a t ien ce! Don 't give u p h ope wer e con st a n t wor ds of
a dvice a n d en cou r a gem en t . Sin ce t h e con su ls h a d n o fu n ds wit h wh ich t o a id
pot en t ia l r epa t r ia t es/ t h ey wer e wa r y of cr ea t in g fa lse h opes or expect a t ion s a m on g t h eir ch a r ges. Resen t fu l of t h e t r ea t m en t a ccor ded t h em / r epa t r ia t es lodged veh em en t pr ot est wit h SRE a bou t t h e in a bilit y of loca l con su ls t o a ct
effect ively in t h eir beh a lf. Th e pr ot est er s did n ot u n der st a n d/ n or did t h ey ca r e/ a bou t t h e con st r a in t s
u n der wh ich t h e con su ls wer e for ced t o oper a t e. Ca u gh t u p in t h eir own desper a t e pligh t / r epa t r ia t es h a d lit t le t oler a n ce for bu r ea u cr a t ic expla n a - t ion s. Yet , in spit e of h ow t h eir per for m a n ce m a y h a ve a ppea r ed t o t h eir com pa t r iot s/ t h e con su ls wer e in dispen sa ble. In m ost in st a n ces/ t h ey in t er -
320 RE P ATRIATION :
ceded in a ver y a ggr essive m a n n er in beh a lf of t h eir cou n t r ym en . Th ey v^ yp, I in st r u m en t a l in pr essu r in g loca l a u t h or it ies t o pr ovide bet t er ca r e a n d t r es^ I m en t for Mexica n N a t ion a ls a n d t h eir fa m ilies. Ma n y h u m a n e ch a n gt m a de a s a r esu lt of t h eir effor t s.89 Con cession s wer e oft en obt a in ed fr o^
r a ilr oa d com pa n ies for r edu ced r a t es, or em ployer s wer e in du ced t o pa y pa ^ or a ll of t h e t r a in fa r e for t h eir for m er wor k er s. Som e con su ls a ct u a lly a c< com pa n ied t h e r epa t r ia t ion t r a in s t o look a ft er t h eir ch a r ges a n d t o a ssu r e pr om pt ser vice a t t h e bor der . Th e m er e pr esen ce of a con su l officia l h a d a sa lu t a r y effect in dea lin g wit h bu r ea u cr a t s in bot h cou n t r ies.
In spit e of pr ot est s a n d r ecr im in a t ion s, t h e flow sou t h wa r d con t in u ed. H ow m a n y people wer e a ct u a lly r epa t r ia t ed? H u n dr eds/ t h ou sa n ds/ t en s of t h ou sa n ds/ h u n dr eds of t h ou sa n ds, a m illion / t wo m illion ? In a ll h on est y, it
is vir t u a lly im possible t o cit e a specific figu r e a s t o t h e n u m ber of Mexica n s a n d t h eir ch ildr en r epa t r ia t ed du r in g t h e Gr ea t Depr ession . Th er e a r e offi. cia l a n d u n officia l est im a t es a n d //gu esst im a t es// Bot h t h e Am er ica n a n d
Mexica n gover n m en t s pla yed t h e n u m ber s ga m e. Am er ica n officia ls cit ed on e set of figu r es, bu t t h e Mexica n gover n m en t a r r ived a t con flict in g cou n t s. Sever a l pr oblem s con t r ibu t ed t o t h is dilem m a . In m a n y com m u n it ies in t h e U .S./ n o figu r es wer e k ept r ega r din g t h e exodu s. Th a t is u n der st a n da ble sin ce/ in m a n y ca ses/ depa r t u r es wer e du e t o loca l h a r a ssm en t . It is u n k n own h ow
m a n y Mexica n s sim ply got fed u p a n d left / oft en in t h e bla ck of n igh t . Som e r et u r n ed t o Mexico a s t h ey h a d com e: Th ey sim ply wa ded ba ck a cr oss t h e r iver . Th is m a n eu ver h a d sever a l a dva n t a ges; It wa s fr ee/ it wa s con ven ien t ,
a n d it bypa ssed a ll t h e bu r ea u cr a t ic a n d lega l h a ssles. As fa r a s it s a dvoca t es wer e con cer n ed/ it wa s n obody's da m n bu sin ess a n ywa y a s t o wh o ca m e or
wen t . Ot h er in dividu a ls m a de sever a l t r ips a cr oss t h e bor der , a ddin g t o t h e con fu sin g st a t ist ics.
N on et h eless/ bu r ea u cr a t s in a ll cou n t r ies love st a t ist ics. Th ey t h r ive on t h em . Collect in g t h em is vit a l t o t h eir well-bein g. In fa ct it oft en con st it u t es t h e on ly ju st ifica t ion for t h eir exist en ce, Con su ls du t ifu lly a ccou n t ed for t h e n u m ber of Cer t ifica t es of Residen cy issu ed. Welfa r e a gen cies k ept r ecor ds of in digen t s sh ipped h om e, det a iled t h e cost of r epa t r ia t ion / a n d ju st ified it in r ela t ion t o t h e a m ou n t of m on ey sa ved in t h e cou r se of a m on t h or a yea r .
Th e figu r es wer e im pr essive, t o sa y t h e lea st . In Mexico, SRE (Secr et a r ia de Rela cion es E xt er ior es) solicit ed r epea t ed cou n t s a n d st u dies fr om it s con su ls con cer n in g t h e r epa t r ia t ion m ovem en t . It s pu r pose wa s t o en a ble t h e gov-
er n m en t t o cope wit h cu r r en t a n d pr oject ed a r r iva ls.
Am er ica n con su ls in k ey Mexica n cit ies a lso m on it or ed t h e r epa t r ia t ion Row a n d r epor t ed t h e figu r es t o t h e St a t e Depa r t m en t in Wa sh in gt on / D.C. Th e Am er ica n con su l in N u evo La r edo r epor t ed t o h is su per ior s t h a t du r in g
121I^ KE GRE SO
com bin ed m on t h s of Oct ober a n d N ovem ber of 1930, 8,250 r epa t r ia t es pa ssed t h r ou gh h is ju r isdict ion . It sh ou ld be bor n e in m in d t h a t N u evo
>do con st it u t ed on e of t h e lesser en t r y por t s. Th e con su l du ly n ot ed t h a t
of t h e r epa t r ia t es wer e fr om Texa s/ Mich iga n / a n d Illin ois, a n d ch con t r ibu t ed 15 per cen t / wh ile In dia n a a n d Missou r i a ccou n t ed for 10
1 r cen t a piece. Oh io wa s cr edit ed wit h 8 per cen t of t h e t ot a l/ wh ile Min n e- a n d Color a do wer e cr edit ed wit h 5 per cen t ea ch . Ma ssa ch u set t s/ N ew
Yor k / Wiscon sin , a n d P en n sylva n ia , r espect ively, a ccou n t ed for 2 per cen t of t h e 8/250. Th r ee per cen t wer e a t t r ibu t ed t o Ok la h om a . Th e st a t e of Ala ba m a
^ va s cr edit ed wit h on ly 1 per cen t . Th e a st u t e con su l a lso n ot ed t h a t t h e r epa - t r ia t es own ed 813 ca r s.90
In a su bsequ en t dispa t ch / t h e con su l in N u evo La r edo r epor t ed t h a t 21/700
r epa t r ia t es pa ssed t h r ou gh h is st a t ion bet ween J u ly 1 a n d Decem ber 31,1930. H e est im a t ed t h a t 51.1 per cen t wer e fr om t h e old Sou t h / wit h t h e over wh elm - in g m a jor it y fr om Texa s. Th e n or t h cen t r a l st a t es h a d been h om e t o 40.7
of t h e r et u r n ees. Th e m ou n t a in a n d P a cific Coa st r egion s a n d t h e n or t h ea st er n At la n t ic a r ea , r espect ively/ a ccou n t ed for 6.2 per cen t a n d 2 per -
cen t of t h e r epa t r ia t es du r in g t h a t per iod.91 Con t r ibu t in g t o U .S. St a t e De- figu r es wer e dispa t ch es fr om t h e Am er ica n Con su la t e Gen er a l in
Mexico Cit y. A r epor t t r a n sm it t ed on Sept em ber 18, 1936, a lleged t h a t a t ot a l of 356/723 Mexica n s h a d been r epa t r ia t ed/ du r in g t h e per iod of 1930 t o 1935, fr om cou n t r ies a r ou n d t h e wor ld. Th e U n it ed St a t es a ccou n t ed for
345/839 in dividu a ls, or 96.95 per cen t of t h e t ot a l. Accor din g t o t h e r epor t / 1931 wa s t h e pea k yea r for r epa t r ia t ion / wh en 123/247 Mexica n s wer e sh ipped
h om e. As econ om ic con dit ion s in t h e U n it ed St a t es slowly im pr oved, t h e t ide of r epa t r ia t ion r eceded. By 1935, on ly 16,196 n a t ion a ls wer e r epa t r i- a t edffi
Accor din g t o figu r es a t t r ibu t ed t o t h e U S. La bor Depa r t m en t a n d cit ed by E l U n iver sa l, on Au gu st 22, 1932,2,000,000 Mexica n s h a d r et u r n ed h om e du r in g t h e pa st fift een m on t h s. It wa s a sser t ed t h a t 1,600/000 h a d a r r ived du r in g 1931, a n d a n ot h er 400,000 r epa t r ia t es h a d en t er ed Mexico in t h e fir st t h r ee m on t h s of 1932.93 A r iva l n ewspa per E xcelsior , cla im ed t h a t 75,000 Mexica n s h a d been r epa t r ia t ed fr om Los An geles a lon e du r in g t h e pa st t h r ee
yea r s. In it s officia l pu blica t ion / Mem or ia , SRE r epor t ed t h a t 126,154 people h a d been r epa t r ia t ed du r in g 1931-32. Th e Mexica n gover n m en t 's st a t ist ica l depa r t m en t / DAP P , in it s Ma r ch 1939 edit ion / com piled t h e t ot a l n u m ber o{ r epa t r ia t es fr om 1920 t o 1938. Th e t ot a l for t h e deca de of t h e 1920s wa s 791/764, a n d for 1930-38 it wa s 394/335. Th e officia l com bin ed t ot a l for bot h per iods wa s 1/186/099.94
Ta k in g t h e con ser va t ive m iddle gr ou n d/ it is r ea son a ble t o est im a t e t h a t
122 RE P ATRIATIQ^
t h e t ot a l n u m ber of r epa t r ia t es wa s a ppr oxim a t ely on e m illion . St a t ist icia n s h a ve a lso a t t em pt ed t o det er m in e t h e cost of get t in g r id of t h e br own h or de.
Ba sed pr im a r ily on t r a n spor t a t ion cost s, t h e m in im u m a m ou n t is est im a t ed a t 15 m illion dolla r s. H owever , if t h e cost of food/ m edicin e/ escor t s, a n d fin a n cia l in du cem en t s t o lea ve a r e a dded/ t h e pr ice sk yr ock et s t o 25 m illion dolla r s or 30 m illion dolla r s. As wit h t h e n u m ber of est im a t ed r epa t r ia t es. on e ca n on ly specu la t e a s t o t h e exa ct figu r es, P er h a ps even m or e im por t a n t
t h a n sh eer n u m ber s, in eit h er ca se, is t h e qu est ion of h ow a cou n t r y lik e Mexico/ wit h it s lim it ed fin a n cia l r esou r ces/ wa s a ble t o cope wit h t h is en or - m ou s pr oblem . Wh ile t h e U n it ed St a t es, wh ich / in spit e of t h e depr ession , r em a in ed t h e r ich est n a t ion in t h e wor ld/ r efu sed t o sh a r e it s bou n t y wit h t h ose wh o h a d wor k ed so h a r d in h elpin g t o cr ea t e it s va st wea lt h . A r eview of t h e effor t s a n d policies of t h e Mexica n gover n m en t m a y illu st r a t e t h e differ en ces in a t t it u de.
E l Regr eso: Docu m en t s
"E l P r ogr eso Repa t r ia t ion An n ou n cem en t a n d pa ssen ger List /' Sa n Diego Con su l Ar m a n do CAm a dor .
11 Au gu st 1932. Sou r ce: Mexico Cit y/ Ar ch ive de la Secr et a r ia de Rela don es E xt er ior es/
IV-360-38.
[sea l of t h e Mexica n Con su la t e in Sa n Diego/ Ca l.]
RE : RE P ATRIATION OF ME XICAN S ABOARD TRAN SP ORT "F ROGRE SO."
Sa n Diego/ Ca lifor n ia
Au gu st II/1932
Sir Th e Gover n m en t of Mexico/ wit h t h e cooper a t ion a n d a id of t h e
Welfa r e Com m it t ee of t h is Cou n t y/ will effect t h e r epa t r ia t ion of a ll Mexica n s wh o cu r r en t ly r eside in t h is Cou n t y a n d wh o m igh t wish t o r et u r n t o t h eir cou n t r y. Th is r epa t r ia t ion will be effect ed a boa r d t h e Mexica n Tr a n spor t //P r ogr eso// wh ich will lea ve fr om Sa n Diego t h e 23r d of t h is m on t h a t t wo o'clock in t h e a ft er n oon / wit h dest in a t ion t h e por t s of
Ma za t la n a n d Ma n za n illo. Th ose per son s wh o a r e r epa t r ia t ed will be a ble t o ch oose a m on g t h e
St a t es of Son or a , Sin a loa / N a ya r it / J a lisco/ Mich oa ca n , a n d Gu a n a ju a t o a s t h e pla ce of t h eir fin a l dest in a t ion / wit h t h e u n der st a n din g t h a t t h e Gover n m en t of Mexico will pr ovide t h em wit h la n ds for a gr icu lt u r a l cu lt iva t ion in a n y of t h e a for em en t ion ed St a t es a n d will a id t h em in t h e
best m a n n er possible so t h a t t h ey m igh t set t le in t h e cou n t r y. Th ose per son s wh o t a k e pa r t in t h is m ovem en t of r epa t r ia t ion m a y
cou n t on fr ee t r a n spor t a t ion fr om Sa n Diego t o t h e pla ce wh er e t h ey a r e goin g t o set t le, a n d t h ey will be per m it t ed t o br in g wit h t h em t h eir fu r n it u r e, h ou seh old u t en sils/ a gr icu lt u r a l im plem en t s, a n d wh a t ever
ot h er object s for per son a l u se t h ey m igh t possess. Sin ce t h e or ga n iza t ion a n d execu t ion of a m ovem en t of r epa t r ia t ion of
t h is n a t u r e im plies gr ea t expen dit u r es, t h is Con su la t e en cou r a ges you / if you r cir cu m st a n ces so r equ ir e, t o t a k e a dva n t a ge of t h is specia l
oppor t u n it y bein g offer ed t o you for r et u r n in g t o Mexico a t n o cost wh a t ever a n d so t h a t , on ce est a blish ed a n ew in ou r cou n t r y/ you m igh t dedica t e a ll you r en er gies t o you r per son a l im pr ovem en t , t h a t of you r
fa m ily, a n d t h a t of ou r cou n t r y.
123
124 DOCU ME N TS g^ pE GRE SO 125
If you wish t o t a k e a dva n t a ge of t h is oppor t u n it y, plea se r et u r n t h is let t er / du ly sign ed^ wit h t h e in for m a t ion r equ est ed on t h e r ever se; wit h t h e u n der st a n din g t h a t / ba r r in g n ot ice t o t h e con t r a r y fr om t h is
Con su la t e, you sh ou ld pr esen t you r self wit h you r fa m ily a n d you r lu gga ge on t h e m u n icipa l dock of t h is por t on t h e 23r d of t h is m on t h befor e n oon .
In ca se of a n y dou bt or wish for cla r ifica t ion on you r pa r t a s t o t h e pa r t icu la r s, I wou ld be gr a t efu l if you wou ld dir ect you r self im m edia t ely t o t h is Office, wh ich wou ld be m or e t h a n h a ppy t o pr ovide you wit h wh a t ever in for m a t ion m igh t be n ecessa r y.
Wit h a ll du e con sider a t ion .
E F F E CTIVE SU F F RAGE . N O RE E LE CTION .
Con su l.
ARMAN DO C. AMADOR.
Repa t r ia t ion Tr a in Tr ip. Lu ca s Lu cio. Sou r ce: In t er view wit h Lu ca s Lu cio. Cou r t esy of Lu ca s Lu cio.
At t h e st a t ion in Sa n t a An a / h u n dr eds of Mexica n s ca m e a n d t h er e wa s
qu it e a lot of cr yin g. Th e m en wer e pen sive a n d t h e m a jor it y of t h e ch ildr en a n d m ot h er s wer e cr yin g.
Wh en t h ey a r r ived a t Los An geles, t h e r epa t r ia t es wer e ca lm ed a bit beca u se t h ey wer e in Los An geles. . . fr om Los An geles t o E l P a so/ som e
sa n g wit h gu it a r s t r yin g t o for get t h eir sa dn ess a n d ot h er s cr ied. [Con su l] H ill spok e ver y lit t le, wa s ver y sa d. . . t h e cr yin g a n d sin gin g. N o on e h a d a n y desir e t o spea k . Va r ela [Or a n ge Cou n t y Depa r t m en t of Ch a r it ies em ployee] t r ied t o lift spir it s a n d t r ied t o con ver se.
Th e t r a in did n ot a r r ive a t t h e st a t ion in E l P a so bu t r a t h er a t t h e bor der . Th er e wa s a t er r ible cr y. . . m a n y did n ot wa n t t o cr oss t h e bor der
beca u se m a n y h a d da u gh t er s a n d son s wh o h a d st a yed . . . m a r r ied t o ot h er s h er e wh o did n ot wa n t t o r et u r n t o Mexico. A disa st er beca u se t h e
m a jor it y of t h e fa m ilies wer e sepa r a t ed. Th er e wa s n o wa y for a n yon e t o t r y lea ve t h e t r a in or r u n or com plet e t h eir desir e t o r et u r n t o t h e U n it ed St a t es.
Repa t r ia t ion Cer t ifica t e. Den ver , Color a do. Sou r ce: Mexico Cit y/Ar ch ivo de la Sea -et a r ia de Rela don es E xt en or es/ r V"-35^ -^ 0.
lu m ber 17.
CE RTIF ICATE OF RE SIDE N CE
F ile 524.5 F ee GRATIS
{SMAE L M, VAZQU E Z Mexica n Con su l in Den ver / Colo., U .S.A. CE RTIF IE S - Th a t a ccor din g t o pr oofs pr esen t ed a t t h is Con su la t e/ Mr s. Adela S. de Delga do of Mexica n n a t ion a lit y, wh o is bein g r epa t r ia t ed fr om P u eblo, Colo., h a s r esided in t h e U n it ed St a t es for m or e t h a n sbc m on t h s/ r equ ir ed for en joyin g t h e exem pt ion s est a blish ed by Cir cu la r s A-54-167 a n d 14-103-132 of t h e Gen er a l Cu st om s Office. Th e for egoin g is r egist er ed by pet it ion of t h e
a pplica n t for t h e con sequ en t object ives/ wit h t h e u n der st a n din g t h a t sa id a pplica n t is bein g r epa t r ia t ed wit h t h e dest in a t ion of Sa n t a E u la lia , Ch ih . ME XICO, br in gin g t h e followin g it em s of per son a l pr oper t y. Tr u ck of m a k e —/ —-- E n gin e N o. —
Au t om obile of m a k e DODGE BROS., E n gin e N o. H -9126
A t r a iler .
U sed h ou seh old it em s a n d, in a ddit ion /
1 ca r pet a n d som e r u gs.
1 oil st ove.
1 t r u n k s of u sed clot h in g. 3 m a t t r esses/ bla n k et s, a n d pillows. 2 u sed spa r e t ir es.
1 box of u t en sils.
va lises of u sed clot h in g. 1 box of cr ock er y. - 1 bed.
1 bu n dle of u sed clot h in g. 1 box wit h ca r pen t er 's t ools,
m u sica l in st r u m en t s.
1 box of book s.
E F F E CTIVE SU F F RAGE . N O RE F LE CTION
Den ver / Colo./ F eb. 13 1932.
Con su l/
[Adela S. de Delga do.] Sign a t u r e ofApplica n t
N OTE : Applica n t s m u st pr ovide t h em selves wit h a ll su ch pr oofs a s vou ch for t h e own er sh ip of t h e object s wh ich t h ey a r e a t t em pt in g t o br in g wit h t h em in t o t h e
cou n t r y, so t h a t t h ey m a y be pr esen t ed a t t h e Mexica n Cu st om s of t h e por t of en t r y.
N OTE : Sh e is a ccom pa n ied by H er da u gh t er s Ma r ga r it a /
Ca t a r in a / a n d Vir gin ia a ges
13, 12, a n d 9/ r espect ively.
Mexica n os^ la P a t r ia n os lla m a a lu ch a r con den u edo y va lor
por la ca u sa del P u eblo qu e a cla m a Liber t a d/ Dem ocr a cia y H on or
"Ca n t o a l Obr er o," Cor r ido
Mexica n s, t Ke cou n t r y ca lls you t o figh t wish boldn ess a n d va lor
for t h e ca u se of t h e people t h a t pr ocla im s Liber t y/
Dem ocr a cy a n d H on or
"Son g t o t h e Wor k er ," Ba lla d
Th e open in g of t h e Mexica n In depen den ce Da y celebr a t ion in St . P a u l, Min n esot a , in
Sept em ber 1937. [Libr a r y of Con gr ess, F SA P r oject , ph ot ogr a ph by Ru ssell Lee.)
12,
I92 DOCU ME N TS
28.—In dica t e in det a il pla ces a n d per iods of r esiden ce du r in g t h e la st 25
yea r s/ a n d t h e r ea son s wh ich for ced or in du ced you t o ch a n ge r esiden ce in ea ch ca se_
P la ce a n d da t e of com plet ion
Sign a t u r e
N OTE :—Th e in for m a t ion su bm it t ed h er ein by t h e a pplica n t will ser ve a s a m ea n s for t h e N a t ion a l Ir r iga t ion Com m ission t o ju dge t h e level of edu ca t ion / a gr icu lt u r a l st a t u s, socia l st a t u s, a n d fin a n cia l ca pa bilit y, so a s t o det er m in e wh et h er t h e a pplica n t is ca pa ble of cu lt iva t in g t h e a r ea a pplied for / or / if n ot / t o dim in ish t h e a r ea of t h e plot t h a t m igh t be a wa r ded.
"Don de es m i t ier r a ,
don de m e va ya bien .
Dich o Mexica n o
"Wh er e is m y cou n t r y,
wh er e t h in gs go well for m e/
M.exica n P r over b
Repa m a se J u a n Rodr igu ez a n d h is fa m ily in Lon g Bea ch , Ca lifor n ia , c. 1936. [Cou r t esy Ra ym on d Rodr igu ez.)
193
194 ADJ U STME N T
An exper ien ce com m on t o a ll im m igr a n t s is t h e ch a llen ge of a dju st in g t o t h e dem a n ds im posed u pon t h em by t h eir n ew en vir on m en t . It ca n oft en be deva st a t in g exper ien ce. Th is is pa r t icu la r ly t r u e wh en people a r e for ced t o em igr a t e by cir cu m st a n ces beyon d t h eir con t r ol. F or t h e m illion or m or e
Mexica n s wh o wer e r epa t r ia t ed or depa r t ed du r in g t h e Gr ea t Depr ession . r ea dju st m en t beca m e a u n iqu e dou ble-edged exper ien ce. P a r en t s a n d ch il- dr en h a d fa ced t h e difficu lt t a sk of a da pt in g t o life in t h e U n it ed St a t es. Th en . a s a r esu lt of bein g su m m a r ily expelled/ t h ey fa ced t h is pr oblem a n ew wh en t h ey r et u r n ed "h om e" t o Mexico. Th eir sit u a t ion wa s a ggr a va t ed by t h e fa ct t h a t t h er e wer e sever a l diver se gr ou ps in volved in a dju st in g t o life in Mexl- ca n societ y. Th er e wer e t h e a du lt s wh o h a d been bor n in Mexico, bu t h a d left t h e cou n t r y a s you n g m en or wom en a n d lived a m a jor por t ion of t h eir a du lt lives in t h e U n it ed St a t es. Len gt h s of st a y r a n gin g fr om five t o t h ir t y yea r s wer e n ot u n com m on . Ma n y h a d left Mexico t o esca pe t h e h or r or s of t h e Revolu t ion or in t h e qu est for jobs du r in g t h e Wor ld Wa r I er a . Occa sion a l br ief visit s h om e/ oft en a s t h e r esu lt of a pa r en t a l dea t h , wer e t h e on ly r ea l con t a ct s wit h t h e m ot h er cou n t r y. St ea dy jobs/ m a r r ia ge, a fa m ily/ a n d m a t e-
r ia l con ven ien ces a ll h a d a sedu ct ive effect .
Im per cept ibly, Mexica n im m igr a n t s h a d ch a n ged du r in g t h eir sojou r n in t h e U n it ed St a t es/ a n d a for m of est r a n gem en t h a d qu iet ly occu r r ed. Al- t h ou gh t h ey en t h u sia st ica lly celebr a t ed La s F iest a s P a t r ia s, a n d m a r ia ch i m u sic a n d Mexica n food wer e t h or ou gh ly en joyed/ a n ew dim en sion h a d been a dded: t h ey h a d becom e a gr in ga dos (Am er ica n ized) in m a n y wa ys. Th eir m ode of life/ in clu din g st yle of dr ess, speech , a n d m a n n er s/ a ssu m ed a n Am er ica n fla vor . Tex-Mex a n d Ca lo, a m ixt u r e of Spa n ish a n d E n glish / wer e fu sed in t o n ew speech pa t t er n s. N o a spect of life esca ped t h e dom in a n t Am er ica n in flu - en ce. Su n da y com ics/ H ollywood m ovies/ popu la r r a dio pr ogr a m s/ a n d da ily soa p oper a s left t h eir in delible m a r k . Is it a n y won der t h a t even a du lt r epa -
t r ia t es oft en felt a s if t h ey wer e r et u r n in g t o a for eign cou n t r y? Mexica n wom en u n der wen t t h eir own pa r t icu la r t r a n sfor m a t ion a n d did
n ot esca pe t h e effect s of t h eir Am er ica n exper ien ce. Movies/ fa sh ion m a ga - zin es/ a n d t h eir Am er ica n sist er s ser ved a s r ole m odels t o be en vied a n d im it a t ed. Gr ea t er per son a l fr eedom beca m e a k ey a spect of t h eir en fr a n ch ise- m er it . Wit h ou t t h e con sen t of fa t h er s a n d h u sba n ds, som e wom en wor k ed ou t side t h e h om e. "My wife does n ot wa n t t o st a y h om e a n d t a k e ca r e of t h e ba by/' a con fu sed h u sba n d com pla in ed. "Sh e lea r n ed h ow t o m a k e m on ey in
a bea u t y pa r lou r a n d n ow sh e wa n t s t o st a r t a bea u t y pa r lou r a n d m a k e m on ey/'1 H u sba n ds/ a lon g wit h pa r en t s, br ot h er s/ a n d m ot h er s-in -la w/ look ed
a sk a n ce a t t h e ch a n ges t a k in g pla ce. Th ey wer e su r e t h a t wom en in Am er ica h a d en t ir ely t oo m u ch fr eedom . Ma n y con ser va t ive Mexica n wom en wer e
AGRIN GADOS 195
cer t a in t h a t a wom a n 's pla ce wa s in t h e h om e. Bu t even in t h e h om e, t h e
a ccu lt u r a t ion pr ocess wa s a cceler a t ed by h ot a n d cold r u n n in g wa t er / in door plu m bin g, ga s st oves, elect r icit y/ a n d t h e popu la r sewin g m a ch in e. Th e a d- ven t of sh eer st ock in gs/ bobbed h a ir / lipst ick , n a il polish / a n d cosm et ics r ein - for ced t h e t r a n sfor m a t ion pr ocess. Ret u r n in g. t o Mexico a n d a m or e
con ser va t ive h fest yle posed m a n y pr oblem s for wom en wh o h a d becom e
a ccu st om ed t o Am er ica n wa ys,
Also fa ced wit h t h e difficu lt t a sk of a dju st in g t o life in Mexico wer e t h e
ch ildr en of t h e r epa t r ia t es. Ch ildr en wh o h a d been bor n in t h e U n it ed St a t es/ or h a d a r r ived a t a ver y you n g a ge, wer e oft en t h e im pet u s or ca t a lyst in h a st en in g t h e a dopt ion ofAm er ica n wa ys/' On e Mexica n m ot h er deplor ed Am er ica n in flu en ce a n d it s im pa ct on h er da u gh t er : "Sh e is get t in g Am er i"
ca n wa ys; sh e will n ot wea r t h e ea r r in gs t h a t h a n g on h er ea r s. Th ey a r e n ot t h e sa m e k in d t h a t t h e Am er ica n gir ls wea r in t h eir ea r s. Oh ! Ou r ch ildr en get so differ en t h er e."3 P r im a r y a m on g t h ese ch a n ges wa s t h e pr efer en ce for spea k in g E n glish . Lik e m a n y ot h er you n g r epa t r ia t es. Ca r m en Ma r t in ez "spok e ver y lit t le Spa n ish in t h e U n it ed St a t es a n d lea r n ed t o r ea d a n d wr it e Spa n ish in Mexico/'4 Spa n ish -spea k in g pa r en t s oft en viewed t h e u se of E n - glish a s a n a ffr on t t o t h em a n d a s a m ea n s of sh owin g disda in for (h e m ot h er t on gu e. P a r en t s wit h a ver y lim it ed com m a n d of E n glish fea r ed t h a t t h eir
offspr in g m igh t a ct u a lly be t a lk in g a bou t t h em . As on e you n gst er sa gely r em a r k ed wh en qu est ion ed a bou t h er a n cest r a l
ba ck gr ou n d: "I'm a n Am er ica n wit h a da sh of Mexica n h er it a ge!" Th a t in - sigh t fu l com m en t su ccin ct ly su m m a r izes h ow m ost ch ildr en of Mexica n
im m igr a n t s felt a bou t t h em selves, t h eir lifest yle, a n d t h e U n it ed St a t es. Th ey viewed t h em selves a s fir st -gen er a t ion Am er ica n s. To t h em / t h eir a n cest r y
lik e t h e color of t h eir eyes or h a ir , wa s sim ply du e t o t h e a cciden t of bir t h . Th eir h er oes a n d idols wer e Am er ica n spor t s h er oes a n d H ollywood st a r s/ wh o ca u gh t t h eir im a gin a t ion a n d fir ed t h eir dr ea m s.5
Th e a ver a ge Mexica n fa m ily r et u r n in g t o Mexico con sist ed of five per - son s. In m ost in st a n ces, t h r ee of t h em wer e ch ildr en . Repa t r ia t ion t h u s cr e-
a t ed a n ew a n d dist in ct gr ou p of "em igr a n t s/" F or t h e ch ildr en bor n in t h e U n it ed St a t es/ t h e Mexico t h ey wer e "r et u r n in g t o" wa s a for eign cou n t r y.6
Wh ile it wa s t h e la n d of t h eir pa r en t s a n d a n cest or s/ it wa s n ot t h eir h om e.
F r om t h eir per spect ive/ t h ey m igh t a s well h a ve been ba n ish ed t o Ma r s. U pon r ea ch in g t h e bor der , t r a u m a t ic scen es oft en occu r r ed a s ch ildr en / especia lly
t een a ger s/ m a de a fin a l desper a t e effor t t o a void t h e in evit a ble. Th er e wa s t h e su dden / ch illin g r ea liza t ion t h a t on ce t h e Im ea (in t er n a t ion a l bou n da r y) wa s cr ossed/ it wa s a ll over / a n d t h er e wa s n o t u r n in g ba ck . Ma n y older ch il- dr en ba lk ed a n d r efu sed t o go a n y fa r t h er . Am on g t h ose wh o a gr eed t o a c-
^ 96 ADJ U STME N T
com pa n y t h eir pa r en t s/ for ebodin g a n d disa ffect ion in cr ea sed a s t h e t r ip so\ con t in u ed. Tr a vel con dit ion s, t r a n spor t a t ion , a ccom m oda t ion s/ a n d food left a lot t o be desir ed.
Th e sit u a t ion did n ot im pr ove wh en r epa t r ia t es r ea ch ed t h eir dest in a t ion Squ a lid a n d cr owded livin g con dit ion s/ pr olon ged u n em ploym en t / a n d cu l- t u r a l a dju st m en t wer e a few of t h e pr oblem s en cou n t er ed by t h ose wh o r e- t u r n ed. F or m a n y, t h e disen ch a n t m en t beca m e m or e a ggr a va t ed a n d pr ot est s
gr ew m or e vit r iolic a ft er set t lin g in t h eir n ew en vir on m en t . Adju st in g t o a differ en t lifest yle en t a iled ch a n ges t h a t wer e n ever im a gin ed du r in g fa m il discu ssion s or a r gu m en t s a bou t life in Mexico, Th in gs cer t a in ly wer e n ot
wh a t t h e r epa t r ia t es h a d expect ed. Som e pa r en t s bega n t o qu iet ly sh a r e t h eir ch ildr en 's dou bt s a n d m isgivin gs. Disillu sion m en t pr om pt ed a lien a t ed in di- vidu a ls t o seek wa ys of r et u r n in g t o t h e U n it ed St a t es. F or t h e you n g/ a s well a s for m a n y of t h eir elder s/ Mexico sim ply wa s n ot , n or wou ld it ever be/ h om e. On e you n g r epa t r ia t e spok e for m a n y of h is con t em por a r ies wh en h e obser ved t h a t //n o m a t t er h ow lon g I st a y h er e/ I ca n n ever be a Mexica n .
I ju st ca n 't get u sed t o ca llin g t h is pla ce h om e, H on est /1 ju st ca n 't t ell you h ow m u ch I wa n t t o go ba ck t o t h e U n it ed St a t es/'7
E ven in dividu a ls bor n in Mexico fou n d t h eir villa ges a n d pu eblit os ver y differ en t fr om h ow t h ey r em em ber ed t h em wh en t h ey h a d m igr a t ed n or t h m a n y yea r s befor e. Most st a r t lin g wa s h ow differ en t livin g con dit ion s wer e fr om wh a t t h ey h a d becom e a ccu st om ed t o in t h e U n it ed St a t es. Beca u se t h ey h a d becom e pr im a r ily cit y dweller s, t h e h a r sh cou n t r yside life n o lon ger a ppea led t o t h em . Ru r a l a r ea s la ck ed m a n y of t h e m a t er ia l a n d socia l a m en i- t ies t h a t t h ey h a d lon g t a k en for gr a n t ed. F or t h ose wh o h a d been a wa y a lon g t im e, r ela t ives a n d old fr ien ds wer e lik e st r a n ger s. Differ en ces bet ween loca l r esiden t s a n d t h e r ecien llega dos (n ewcom er s) led t o discor d. Repa t r i- a t es ever ywh er e exper ien ced sim ila r disa ppoin t m en t s a n d fr u st r a t ion s.8 To
t h eir dism a y, pr om ises t u r n ed ou t t o be em pt y bu r ea u cr a t ic gest u r es. In spit e of t h e gover n m en t 's officia l posit ion of welcom in g t h e r epa t r ia t es
ba ck t o la m a dr e pa t r ia , r esen t m en t a ga in st t h em m a n ifest ed it self in su bt le a n d over t wa ys. Repa t r ia t es r esen t ed bein g t r ea t ed a s socia l leper s a n d con -
sider ed t h e n a t ion a n d it s people t o be sh eer in gr a t es. In yea r s pa st / wh ile ga in fu lly em ployed in t h e U n it ed St a t es, t h ey h a d gen er ou sly r em it t ed m il- lion s of dolla r s t o fa m ilies a n d r ela t ives in Mexico. Th eir h a r d-ea r n ed dolla r s h a d h elped t o fu el t h e econ om y, m a k in g it possible for m a n y pot en t ia l im - m igr a n t s t o r em a in beh in d. N ow t h e r epa t r ia t es' plea s for h elp wer e bein g ign or ed. Aggr ieved by t h eir pligh t / t h e E xcelsior n ewspa per in Mexico Cit y r ecom m en ded t h a t t h e r epa t r ia t es or ga n ize t h em selves a n d pr esen t t h eir ca se a n d com pla in t s t o t h e Secr et a n a de Gober n a cion .9
AGRIN GADOS ^ 97
N ot a ll r et u r n ees r equ ir ed gover n m en t a l a ssist a n ce; a su r pr isin g n u m ber
br ou gh t su bst a n t ia l sa vin gs wit h t h em . Th e wor k -a n d-sa ve et h ic wa s well em bedded in t h e n a t ion a l ch a r a ct er . On e pr om in en t Los An geles ba n k er / Mr . K. H in gson / r evea led t h a t Mexica n s wh o h a d depa r t ed fr om t h e west er n U n it ed St a t es du r in g 1931 h a d wit h dr a wn m or e t h a n seven m illion dolla r s fr om loca l ba n k s. H e a lso decla r ed t h a t "t h e Mexica n wor k er is in t elligen t ,
r ea dily a ccept s t h e Am er ica n st a n da r d of livin g a n d believes in sa vin g h is m on ey eit h er t o a cqu ir e pr oper t y in t h is cou n t r y or t o en a ble h im t o r et u r n t o Mexico in t h is t im e of cr isis/" A copy of t h e a r t icle con t a in in g H in gson 's
r em a r k s wa s sen t t o E l U n iver sa l in Mexico Cit y by U n it ed P r ess. Accor din g t o t h e a r t icle, t h e r epa t r ia t es h a d t a k en wit h t h em a t ot a l of t wen t y m illion dolla r s in a ct u a l ca sh or per son a l pr oper t y.10 Th e su m t ot a l of t h e wea lt h
a ccu m u la t ed by t h e r epa t r ia t es pr oba bly a m ou n t ed t o t wice a s m u ch a s t h e t wen t y-m illion -dolla r est im a t e. Ma n y Mexica n s h a d a ver y low opin ion of ba n k s/ wer e su spiciou s of t h eir m ot ives/ a n d did n ot t r u st t h em . Given t h e ba n k fa ilu r es of t h e per iod/ t h eir fea r s a ppea r t o h a ve been well fou n ded. Th e fa ct t h a t m a n y Mexica n s wer e m igr a n t fa r m la bor er s or m obile r a ilr oa d wor k er s/ a n d wit h ou t a st a ble h om e ba se, m ea n t t h a t cu st om a r y ba n k in g pr a ct ices wer e ou t of t h e qu est ion .
N ot on ly did som e r epa t r ia t es h a ve m on ey in t h eir pock et s, wh ich bu oyed t h eir self-est eem ; a ll of t h em h a d som et h in g even m or e im por t a n t : t h eir self-r espect . Alt h ou gh for ced t o r et u r n by cir cu m st a n ces beyon d t h eir con - t r ol/ t h ese pr ou d people wer e n ot r et u r n in g h om e con el som br er o en la
m on o (wit h h a t in h a n d). Th ey wer e r ea dy t o len d t h eir m u scle/ sk ill/ a n d
k n owledge t o en r ich la m a dr e pa t r ia . As pot en t ia l ben efa ct or s/ t h ey expect ed t o be t r ea t ed wit h r espect . On ce ba ck a m on g fr ien ds a n d r ela t ives/ t h ey h oped
t o st a r t life a n ew. Th e discr im in a t ion / pa in / a n d a n gu ish t h ey h a d en du r ed a br oa d wou ld be left beh in d a n d for got t en . H owever / t h e u n en din g in flu x of n ewcom er s pla ced a bu r den on loca l r esou r ces, a n d t h e wa r m welcom e t h a t
gr eet ed t h e in it ia l a r r iva ls soon t u r n ed t o gr u m blin g a n d scor n . F eelin gs of
disa ffect ion bega n t o su r fa ce. Repa t r ia t es/ a s well a s loca l r esiden t s, bega n t o feel a ggr ieved a n d pu t -u pon a s t h e n ovelt y of r et u r n in g h om e wor e off. Th e n ot icea ble differ en ces bega n t o gr in d u pon a n d a n n oy ever yon e. It wa s a cla sh of t wo dissim ila r cu lt u r es.11
Th er e wa s cer t a in ly a m ple r ea son for t h e per va sive feelin gs of bet r a ya l a n d dissa t isfa ct ion r a m pa n t a m on g r ecen t a r r iva ls. On e of t h e m ost discom -
fir in g a spect s wa s livin g spa ce/ wh ich wa s a t a pr em iu m . F or t h ose for ced t o live wit h r ela t ives t em por a r ily/ t h e sm a ll h om es wer e n ot ca pa ble of a ccom - m oda t in g t wo fa m ilies. Ten or m or e people wer e oft en for ced t o sh a r e on e or t wo r oom s. Bedr olls a n d m a t s r epla ced beds. To m a k e m a t t er s wor se/ m a n y
X98 ADJ U STME N T
r epa t r ia t es a r r ived wit h ou t pillows a n d m a t t r esses sin ce t h ese it em s oft en con fisca t ed a t t h e bor der . A wom a n wh o h a d been r epa t r ia t ed,
a ge gir l r eca lled yea r s la t er / //We ju st h a d a bedr oom for a ll of u s [t h e en t ii fa m ily]. Bu t it wa s pr a ct ica lly su m m er so t h a t didn 't bot h er u s t oo m u ch 'Ca u se we cou ld sleep ou t door s, you k n ow. 'Ca u se we cou ldn 't fit a ll of u s in
t h a t bedr oom ."12 An ot h er r epa t r ia t e/ wh o wa s t h en a you n g gir l/ r eca lled
t h a t t h ey lived wit h r ela t ives a n d get t in g a lon g wa s ver y difficu lt . Sh e wist - fu lly r em a r k ed t h a t in Ca lifor n ia / even if you wer e poor / you h a d a pla ce t o sleep a n d m or e t o ea t . H er fa m ily la ser m oved t o a n isola t ed r a n ch t h a t h a d on ly six in h a bit a n t s a n d n o st or es. In h er m in d, even a s a gr own wom a n ^ sh e
equ a t ed h er r epa t r ia t ion exper ien ce wit h a gr ea t dea l of su ffer in g." In t h is r espect / t h e exper ien ce of bot h gir ls m ir r or ed t h ose of t h eir con -
t em por a r ies. Repa t r ia t ion a n d su ffer in g seem ed t o go h a n d in h a n d. Tr y a s t h ey m igh t , m a n y of t h e n ewcom er s, sim ply did n ot fit in . It wa s t h e cla ssic ca se of t h e squ a r e peg in a r ou n d h ole. In a dver t en t ly, r em a r k s a n d obser va - t ion s wou ld be m a de com pa r in g livin g con dit ion s in t h e U n it ed St a t es a n d Mexico. In t h e U n it ed St a t es/ t h e pr esen ce of m a t er ia l a m en it ies h a d m a de pover t y som ewh a t ea sier t o bea r . In t h e r u r a l a r ea s a n d sm a ll t own s or vil-
la ges wh er e m a n y of t h e r epa t r ia t es set t led/ u t ilit ies su ch a s r u n n in g wa t er / elect r icit y/ n a t u r a l ga s, a n d in door plu m bin g wer e u su a lly n on exist en t . H a r m "
less com m en t s a bou t t h e la ck of fa cilit ies wer e oft en m isu n der st ood or m is- con st r u ed/ even wh en t h er e wa s n o desir e or in t en t t o offen d. N a t ive Mexica n s
wh o h a d n ever been t o E l N or t e wer e qu ick t o t a k e offen se or u m br a ge a t a n y r ea l or im a gin ed sligh t . Rela t ion sh ips oft en beca m e st r a in ed. Der oga - t or y ba r bs a n d n ega t ive a sper sion wer e t r a ded a n d som et im es r esu lt ed in violen t con fr on t a t ion s.14
Wives for ced t o live u n der t h e wa t ch fu l eye of cr it ica l a n d dist r u st fu l m ot h er s-in -la w fou n d t h eir lives t r a n sfor m ed in t o a siege of qu iet desper a - t ion . Th eir fa t e wa s t o su ffer in silen ce/ wh ich con st it u t ed t h e wor st k in d of pen a n ce. Da u gh t er s-in -la w wit h "Am er ica n wa ys" wer e con sider ed a s bein g
t oo in depen den t a n d st r on g willed. In r u r a l a r ea s/ t h ey wer e viewed a s fr ee t h in k er s by wom en a ccu st om ed t o m or e t r a dit ion a l a n d cloist er ed wa ys. Th eir beh a vior wa s con sider ed br a zen a n d u n becom in g t o decen t wom en . It wa s difficu lt t o a ccept wom en open ly ch a t t in g a n d jok in g wit h m en a s if t h ey wer e equ a ls. A sh a k in g of h ea ds a n d du ck in g of t on gu es gr eet ed su ch u n or - t h odox con du ct . Som e of t h e cr it icism a n d fa u lt fin din g wa s u n dou bt edly
du e t o en vy t in ged wit h jea lou sy. Am er ica n h a ir st yles, m ode of dr ess/ u se of m a k eu p/ a n d per son a l depor t m en t wer e a spect s t h a t con t r ibu t ed t o r esen t -
m en t a n d ill feelin gs, P r epa r a t ion of m ea ls wa s a lso a ca u se of fr ict ion or open con flict bet ween m ot h er s a n d da u gh t er s-in -la w.
^ GRIN GADOS 199
Alt h ou gh a dju st in g t o t h eir n ew en vir on m en t wa s difficu lt for a du lt s/ it v^ a s t h e older ch ildr en wh o bor e t h e br u n t o{ t h e Mexica n iza t ion pr ocess. Ch ildr en ca n be ver y cr u el/ a n d poch os (Am er ica n -bor n ch ildr en ) wer e of- t en t ea sed a n d r idicu led u n m er cifu lly a bou t t h eir st a t u s. Th ey wer e n ot a l- lowed t o for get t h a t t h ey h a d been r eject ed—k ick ed ou t —by t h e la n d of t h eir bir t h / a n d wer e a ct u a lly k ids wit h ou t a cou n t r y. Ch ildr en h a m per ed by a la ck of flu en cy in Spa n ish wer e jeer ed beca u se of t h eir Tex-Mex or Ca lo ja r gon / a m ixt u r e of Spa n ish a n d E n glish . Act u a lly/ m a n y t een a ger s la psed in t o E n glish beca u se t h ey did n ot k n ow t h e pr oper Spa n ish wor d or ph r a se a n d did n ot wa n t t o be em ba r r a ssed by m a k in g ch ildish or foolish m ist a k es.
N a t ive-bor n ch ildr en a ccu sed t h e poch os of pu t t in g on a ir s a n d a ct in g a s if t h ey wer e bet t er t h a n loca l Mexica n s. Ir on ica lly, in t h e U n it ed St a t es, Mexi- ca n Am er ica n ch ildr en wer e a lwa ys r efer r ed t o a s "Mexica n s/" bu t in Mexico t h ey wer e com m on ly ca lled gr in gos, ya n qu is, or wor se. Th e "Am er ica n k ids/' of cou r se/ r et a lia t ed a n d t ook a devilish deligh t in vexin g t h eir t or m en t or s. On e of t h eir fa vor it e t ech n iqu es wa s t o con ver se a m on g t h em selves in flu -
en t E n glish . An ot h er effect ive ploy wa s boa st in g a bou t t h eir lifest yle in t h e U n it ed St a t es, oft en u n h in der ed by t h e t r u t h . P och os a lso n eedled t h eir a n - t a gon ist s by der idin g Mexico's ba ck wa r dn ess a n d it s ext r em ely low level of
m a t er ia l developm en t . Tr a din g in su lt s oft en led t o t r a din g blows. E a ch side got in it s lick s a n d ga ve a s good a s it got .15
F or m a n y ch ildr en / sch oolin g posed a pa r t icu la r ly em ba r r a ssin g pr oblem / a n d oft en pr oved t o be t h eir m ost dish ea r t en in g exper ien ce. Most you n g- st er s/ wit h t h e except ion of som e it in er a n t m igr a n t ch ildr en / h a d a t t en ded sch ool wh ile in t h e U n it ed St a t es. To t h eir dism a y a t t en din g sch ool in Mexico wa s n ot a r igh t or pr ivilege t o be t a k en for gr a n t ed. Ma n y isola t ed r a n ch es a n d sm a ll villa ges did n ot h a ve sch ools. At t en din g sch ool in n eigh bor in g t own s oft en n ecessit a t ed wa lk in g sever a l m iles a lon g du st y u n pa ved r oa ds. Dest it u t e pa r en t s fou n d t h ey cou ld n ot a ffor d t h e n ecessa r y fees, n or cou ld t h ey pa y for book s a n d ot h er m a t er ia ls.16 Ch ildr en for t u n a t e en ou gh t o be en r olled in sch ool en cou n t er ed a ser ies of gr u elin g or dea ls. On e wa s t h e m a t t er of gr a de pla cem en t , a pr im a r y con cer n of you n gst er s ever ywh er e. It
wa s r a t h er em ba r r a ssin g for older st u den t s t o be pla ced in a lower gr a de sim ply beca u se t h ey wer e deficien t in Spa n ish . Wh ile m ost of t h em spok e Spa n ish in va r yin g degr ees of pr oficien cy, few of t h em cou ld r ea d or wr it e a s flu en t ly a s t h eir n a t ive cou n t er pa r t s. A few pa r en t s wer e a ble t o h ir e t u t or s t o h elp t h eir ch ildr en becom e H u en t in a ll. ph a ses of Spa n ish .17 Sch ool disci-
plin e pr oved t o be a n ot h er sor e poin t in m or e wa ys t h a n on e. Disciplin e wa s m or e a k in t o t h a t of t h e fa m ed H oosier sch oolm a st er t h a n t h e r ela xed a t m o- sph er e t o wh ich m ost ch ildr en wer e a ccu st om ed m Am er ica n sch ools. Wit h -
200 ADTU STME ^ T
ou t m ea n in g t o/ t h ey oft en r a n a fou l of st r ict r egu la t ion s. Viola t ion s wer g swift ly a n d h ea vy-h a n dedly pu n ish ed. Spa r in g t h e r od a n d spoilin g t h e ch ild wa s n ot a ch a r ge t h a t cou ld be levied a ga in st Mexica n sch ools.
Th e ea sy m a n n er a n d ca su a l lifest yle t o wh ich t h e Am er k a n -br ed ch il. dr en wer e a ccu st om ed a lso got t h em in t r ou ble ou t side sch ool. N a t ive peer s a n d elder s oft en con sider ed t h em t o be r u de a n d ill m a n n er ed. Th ey h a d n o
t r a in in g or u pbr in gin g; n o est a ba n bien edu ca dos wa s t h e gen er a l con clu - sion . Teen a ge boys a n d gir ls r a ised in t h e U n it ed St a t es wer e a ccu st om ed t o gr ea t er per son a l fr eedom . In m a n y r u r a l t own s a n d isola t ed villa ges wh er e
t h e old cu st om s a n d socia l m or es st ill pr eva iled/ t h eir con du ct wa s con sid- er ed sh ock in g. N on et h eless, t een a ger s clu n g t o t h eir Am er ica n wa ys a s lon g a s t h ey cou ld. Bu t gr a du a lly t h ey bega n t o a dopt loca l st yles a n d cu st om s; a n d t h eir u se of E n glish gr ew less a n d less fr equ en t ,18 F or t u n a t ely, ch ildr en seem t o be en dowed wit h a r esilien cy n ot possessed by a du lt s. Th ey h a ve a n in n er bu oya n cy t h a t a llows t h em t o a da pt t o wh a t ever sit u a t ion t h ey fin d t h em selves in . Bein g n a t u r a l su r vivor s, in du e cou r se of t im e/ a t r u ce or
m odu s viven di wa s wor k ed ou t wit h t h eir peer s. You n g people h a d a n a t u r a l in t er est a n d cu r iosit y a bou t ea ch ot h er . In for m a l fa m ily ga t h er in gs a n d so-
cia l occa sion s pr ovided a n oppor t u n it y t o becom e bet t er a cqu a in t ed. Loca l fiest a s a n d da n ces pr ovided oppor t u n it ies for posit ive in t er a ct ion . Th er e wa s a gr u dgin g t in ge of pr ide in h a vin g cou sin s or r ela t ives del ot r o la do. At
pa r t ies a n d da n ces/ a cer t a in fleet in g n ot or iet y cou ld be a t t a in ed by ch a t t in g or da n cin g wit h //los a m er ica n os" or "la s n or t en a s."19
Wh ile m ost ch ildr en wou ld h a ve pr efer r ed t o r em a in in t h e U n it ed St a t es, som e/ lik e E n r iqu e Vega / viewed t h e en t ir e episode a s //a n ew a dven t u r e/' U n lik e h is sist er s/ wh o h a d lived in Mexico a n d did n ot wa n t t o go ba ck /
E n r iqu e wa s a n xiou s t o "r et u r n ." Wh en t h e even t fu l da y a r r ived/ t en fa m ily m em ber s piled in t o t h e fa m ily ca r a n d bega n t h e t en -da y jou r n ey t o Za ca t eca s. Th e fa m ily a lso own ed a t r u ck , wh ich ca r r ied a ll t h eir per son a l belon gin gs. P or t ion s of t h e h igh wa y/ E n r iqu e r eca lled, wer e m er e t r a ils. Th e a r ea wa s ba r r en wa st ela n d, a n d t h er e wer e n o pr ovision s or wa t er a va ila ble. Som e-
h ow t h ey m a n a ged t o k eep goin g/ a lt h ou gh t h e t r ip wa s "r ea lly r ou gh a n d h a r d/" In Za ca t eca s/ E n r iqu e's fa t h er bou gh t a r a n ch wit h m on ey t h a t h e h a d sa ved/ a n d t h e fa m ily set t led down t o a life of fa r m in g a n d ca t t le r a n ch in g. E n r iqu e Vega en joyed r idin g h or seba ck a n d r opin g/ a n d did n ot r eca ll su ffer - in g a n y gr ea t h a r dsh ips. "In m y ca se t h e ch a n ge wa s n ot dr a st ic. I n ever
r egr et t ed goin g ba ck /" h e a sser t ed. H a vin g t h eir own r a n ch m a de life ea sier for t h e Vega fa m ily. In it ia lly/ a t lea st / E n r iqu e Vega felt t h a t //we wer e h om e a m on g ou r own people/''20
In m a n y ca ses/ su ch eu ph or ic sen t im en t s wer e dispelled by r ea lit y a n d t h e pa ssa ge of t im e. Slowly bu t st ea dily, a gr owin g n u m ber of r epa t r ia t es
AGRIN GADOS 201
bega n t o r ea lize t h a t Mexico, beloved in son g a n d m em or y/ wa s n ot wh a t
t h ey h a d en vision ed, h oped, or expect ed. Sever a l fa ct or s con t r ibu t ed t o t h e dem ise of t h e h opes a n d expect a t ion s t h a t h a d bu oyed t h eir spir it s a n d m a de t h e r epa t r ia t ion or dea l bea r a ble. Ma n y a r r ived in ill h ea lt h a n d wer e ea sy pr ey for disea ses. Ma ln u t r it ion / a poor m on ot on ou s diet / a n d u n sa n it a r y/
cr owded livin g con dit ion s con t r ibu t ed t o pr olon ged illn esses. U n a ccu st om ed t o t h e food a n d wa t er / m a n y fell vict im s t o dia r r h ea , dysen t er y/ fever / a n d bla ck vom it . Th ose wh o wen t t o t h e su bt r opica l a r ea s en cou n t er ed m a la r ia a n d yellow fever , Th e qu in in e n eeded t o com ba t t h e m a la dy wa s oft en n ot a va ila ble/ in wh ich ca se ch ea p r u m wa s u sed a s a su bst it u t e. H om em a de r em -
edies oft en pr oved fu t ile a n d/ in som e ca ses/ a ct u a lly a ggr a va t ed t h e pa t ien t 's con dit ion . Dea t h s a m on g ba bies a n d t h e a ged wh o cou ld n ot develop a st r on g im m u n it y t o loca l pla gu es wer e a com m on occu r r en ce.21
Th e r isin g dea t h t oll led t o sever e cr it icism of t h e U n it ed St a t es in t h e Mexica n pr ess. "All wa s n ot gold t h a t glit t er ed/' h a r ped a n a r t icle in t h e E xcelsior . Th e n ewspa per bem oa n ed t h e fa ct t h a t Mexica n s wer e r et u r n in g fr om t h e "pr om ised la n d" wit h t h eir pock et s em pt y a n d t h eir st om a ch s st ick "
in g t o t h eir r ibs. Th e sca t h in g a r t icle a ccu sed t h e U .S. of la ck in g a n y m or a l ch a r a ct er / wh ich / it st a t ed/ ca n n ot be pu r ch a sed wit h dolla r s bu t con st it u t es t h e r ea l wea lt h of a cou n t r y.22 E ven m or e voca l in it s den ou n cem en t wa s t h e
Idea l Liber a l of Ca n a n ea / Son or a / a n ewspa per wit h a defin it e socia list or i- en t a t ion . It st r iden t ly con dem n ed t h e h ea r t less a ct ion of t h e U n it ed St a t es
a ga in st Mexica n n a t ion a ls. An edit or ia l ch a r ged t h a t t h e cr u el t r ea t m en t wa s t a n t a m ou n t t o a ven det t a wh ich ca llou sly ign or ed ba sic h u m a n r igh t s.23
Su ch ou t cr ies a n d con dem n a t ion s wer e t o be expect ed a n d even ju st ified
if t h e dir e sit u a t ion in wh ich m a n y of t h e r epa t r ia t es fou n d t h em selves wer e t a k en in t o con sider a t ion . Mexica n a u t h or it ies est im a t ed t h a t a t lea st 25 per - cen t of t h e r et u r n ees a r r ived h om e pen n iless.24 In cit ies lik e Mon t er r ey a n d
ot h er cen t er s, r epa t r ia t es oft en a r r ived on t h e ver ge of st a r va t ion . Th e sor -
r owfu l sigh t pr om pt ed t h e la dies' a u xilia r ies t o pool t h eir r esou r ces in or der t o pr ovide fr ee food t o t h e pen n iless m en dica n t s. F or a t im e/ t h e la dies in Mon t er r ey even pr ovided r a ilr oa d fa r es t o t h e fin a l dest in a t ion . H owever / t h eir fin a n cia l r esou r ces wer e lim it ed a n d wer e soon deplet ed a s t h ou sa n ds
of n eedy r epa t r ia t es in u n da t ed t h e cit y. In desper a t ion / t h e la dies' a u xilia r y wa s for ced t o ca ll u pon t h e gover n or of t h e st a t e/ F r a n cisco A. Ca r den a s/ for
h elp in fu r n ish in g t r a n spor t a t ion t o t h e dest it u t e h or de. Sen sin g t h e u r gen cy of t h e sit u a t ion / Gover n or Ca r den a s con t a ct ed t h e Secr et a n a de Gober n a cion /
a n d wit h in fift een m in u t es a u t h or iza t ion wa s given t o pr ovide r a il pa ssa ge for a ll wh o n eeded it .2s Ot h er cit ies followed N lon t er r ey^ s lea d a n d t ook sim ila r
a ct ion .
In som e in st a n ces/ com m u n it ies a t t em pt ed t o pr even t t h e h u m a n jet sa m
202 ADJ U STME N T
fr om in va din g t h eir cit y. Su ch a ct ion wa s t a k en in a n a t t em pt t o pr even t t h e r epa t r ia t es fr om becom in g a loca l bu r den . Mexico Cit y a n d ot h er t own s es- t a blish ed sou p k it ch en s/ a n d m ea ls wer e pr ovided t o h u n gr y r epa t r ia t es fof t en cen t a vos (t h r ee cen t s). In a n a t t em pt t o m it iga t e t h e sit u a t ion / t h e fed- er a l gover n m en t t r ied t o discou r a ge t h e n ew a r r iva ls fr om set t lin g in t h e cit ies. It en cou r a ged t h em t o r et u r n t o t h eir villa ges a n d r a n ch it os by pa yi] t h eir fa r e t o t h eir dest in a t ion . H owever m a n y r epa t r ia t es felt t h a t t h eir sk ills cou ld best be u t ilized in com m er cia l or in du st r ia l cen t er s/ r a t h er t h a n in sm a ll villa ges or r u r a l a r ea s.
Th is wa s especia lly t r u e of t r a desm en a n d cr a ft sm en wh o n eeded t o ply t h eir t r a de in well-popu la t ed a r ea s, Sh oem a k er s/ t a ilor s/ plu m ber s, ba r ber s,
a n d st or e own er s n a t u r a lly gr a vit a t ed t owa r d t h e la r ger cit ies wh er e t h eir ser vices, h opefu lly/ wou ld be in gr ea t er dem a n d. Ma n y en t r epr en eu r s a lso pr efer r ed t o set t le in la r ger t own s or cit ies beca u se t h ey offer ed som e im m u - n it y a ga in st t h e r esen t m en t felt by loca l m er ch a n t s a n d t r a desm en . Loca l bu sin essm en fea r ed t h a t bet t er equ ipm en t a n d a dva n ced t ech n iqu es wou ld a dver sely a ffect t h eir su r viva l. Repa t r ia t es wit h m on ey, t ools, equ ipm en t , a n d a ca r or t r u ck u su a lly esch ewed gr u bbin g ou t a livin g in som e sm a ll
villa ge wh er e pa ym en t m igh t be m a de t h r ou gh u sin g t h e ba r t er syst em . Th ey h a d becom e a ccu st om ed t o a m on et a r y econ om y. To t h em , a dolla r wa s a dolla r / even if it t ook t h r ee a n d a h a lf pesos t o equ a l on e dolla r .
In t h e cou n t r yside/ t h er e wa s opposit ion t o t h e gover n m en t 's en cou r a ge-
m en t of r epa t r ia t es t o set t le in r u r a l a r ea s, E jido lea der s com pla in ed a bou t t h e la ck of la n d a n d felt t h r ea t en ed by t h e pr esen ce of t h e n ewcom er s. Most sm a ll t own s sim ply did n ot feel t h a t t h ey cou ld su ppor t a n expa n ded popu - la t ion . A r epa t r ia t e fr om Ida h o wh o h a d r et u r n ed t o P en ja m o/ Gu a n a ju a t o r em a r k ed/ //I ca n 't u n der st a n d h ow m a n y of t h ese people live h er e. Th er e's
n o in du st r y, n ot h in g bu t a gr icu lt u r e. An d t h a t 's n o good—n o ir r iga t ion / ju st r a isin g cor n on ce a yea r /'26 Ru r a l polit icia n s wer e a lso con cer n ed a bou t la r ge con cen t r a t ion s of r epa t r ia t es. Th ey fea r ed it cou ld bode ill for t h e polit ica l fu t u r e of t h e a r ea / a n d t h e r u lin g cliqu e in pa r t icu la r . Accu st om ed t oAm er i-
ca n wa ys/ it wa s fea r ed t h a t t h e r et u r n ees m igh t fin d it difficu lt t o wor k qu iet ly in t h e t r a ces. Th eir n u m ber s a n d specia l in t er est s cou ld ca u se sever e pr oblem s. Th er efor e/ m a n y polit ica l lea der s felt it wa s best t o disper se t h e r epa t r ia t es t o vir gin fr on t ier set t lem en t s. Th is cou ld be don e u n der t h e pa - t r iot ic gu ise t h a t t h eir sk ills a n d exper t ise wer e n eeded t o develop r em ot e pa r t ? of t h e cou n t r y.
Mexica n gover n m en t officia ls r ea dily em br a ced t h e pla n of r eloca t in g r epa t r ia t es in r em ot e a r ea s. Th e gover n m en t wor r ied a bou t t h e gr owin g dis- con t en t a n d disen ch a n t m en t . It felt t h r ea t en ed by t h e idea s a n d beliefs t h a t
AGRWGADOS 203
t h e r epa t r ia t es wer e br in gin g wit h t h em . Awa r e of t h e cr it icism levied a ga in st it for it s fa ilu r e t o dea l effect ively wit h t h e pligh t of t h e r epa t r ia t es/ t h e gover n m en t look ed for wa ys t o defu se or cou n t er a ct t h eir in flu en ce. In a pr im a r y r ea der , Vida Ru r a l, ch ildr en in r u r a l sch ools wer e a dvised on h ow t o r ea ct t o t h e r epa t r ia t es in t h eir m idst .27 At on e poin t / t h e Office of E du ca t ion ser iou sly con sider ed in st it u t in g a cu r r icu lu m t h a t n ew r esiden t s wou ld be r equ ir ed t o com plet e. It wou ld em ph a size Mexica n cu lt u r e/ h ist or y, la n gu a ge/ a n d geogr a ph y. Th e in t en t wa s t o m a k e //good Mexica n os" of t h e n ewcom -
er s by in doct r in a t in g t h em wit h t h e socia list goa ls a n d object ives of t h e 1910 Revolu t ion . Th e n ewly r et u r n ed h ijos del pa is wou ld r eceive t h eir in doct r i- n a t ion in t o t h e socia l a n d polit ica l life of t h e n ew/ em er gin g Mexico. Th is wa s deem ed a bsolu t ely essen t ia l for su ccessfu l a ssim ila t ion . Officia ls wer e fea r fu l t h a t t h e r u m blin gs of discon t en t m igh t spr ea d a m on g t h e n a t ive popu - la t ion .
Am on g m a le r epa t r ia t es/ t h e la ck of J obs wa s t h e m a jor ca u se of disgr u n t le- m en t a n d r esen t m en t . U n a ble t o fin d ga in fu l em ploym en t , r epa t r ia t es wer e for ced t o live on t h eir sa vin gs u n t il t h e fu n ds r a n ou t . Or ga n ized la bor / t h r ou gh t h e J u n t a F eder a l de Con cila cion y Ar bit r a je/ voiced it s opposit ion t o em ployin g t h e r epa t r ia dos. Ma n y loca l wor k er s h a d m a n a ged t o r et a in t h eir jobs on ly by a gr eein g t o a r edu ct ion of eigh t t o sixt een h ou r s per week . Th eir wa ges, cor r espon din gly h a d been r edu ced by five t o t wen t y pesos a week .28 U n der su ch cir cu m st a n ces/ t h ey wer e in n o m ood t o be gen er ou s or
h ospit a ble t o pot en t ia l r iva ls. H ost ilit y wa s a lso br ed by t h e widely h eld view t h a t t h ose wh o h a d gon e n or t h t o ea r n big m on ey wer e n ow r et u r n in g h om e t o t a k e t h e br ea d ou t of t h e m ou t h s of t h ose wh o h a d st a yed beh in d. If it h a d n ot been for la cr isis, t h e in gr a t es wou ld n ever h a ve com e h om e.
As t h e sit u a t ion gr ew wor se, m a n y n ewspa per s join ed t h e ch or u s of cr it i- dsm . E dit or ia ls la m en t ed t h e in t r u sion of t h e r epa t r ia t es in t o t h e la bor m a r -
k et . Wit h a t eem in g pool o( u n em ployed r esiden t s/ t h er e wa s n o n eed t o a dd a n ot h er la yer of idle wor k er s. On e edit or ia l sa gely obser ved t h a t t h e in flu x of su ch gr ea t n u m ber s of people wou ld h a ve been difficu lt even du r in g n or - m a l t im es. It wa s even m or e so n ow, du e t o t h e econ om ic cr isis gr ippin g
Mexico. Alt h ou gh t h e edit or ia l pr a ised t h e gover n m en t 's va lia n t effor t s in offer in g a ssist a n ce in a sin cer e a n d en er get ic m a n n er , t h e n ewspa per la m en t ed t h e gr ea t cost t h a t h a d t o be bor n e by t h e n a t ion a l t r ea su r y. N on et h eless/ t h e n ewspa per su ppor t ed gu a r a n t eein g t h e r epa t r ia t es jobs in or der t o r edu ce t h e possibilit y t h a t t h ey m igh t becom e a disr u pt ive in flu en ce. It poin t ed ou t t h a t t h ose wh o h a d em igr a t ed't o t h e U n it ed St a t es a n d wer e n ow r et u r n in g con st it u t ed t h e m ost en er get ic a n d en t er pr isin g m em ber s of t h e com m u n it y. Th er efor e, t h e edit or ia l con clu ded, t h e in it ia l cost sh ou ld be viewed a s a n
204 ADJ U STME N T
in vest m en t in a ssu r in g t h e fu t u r e a gr icu lt u r a l a n d in du st r ia l gr owt h of t h e n a t ion .29 All Mexica n s did n ot sh a r e t h e n ewspa per 's viewpoin t . Seem in g
bot h t h e n a t ion a n d t h e r epa t r ia t es wer e h a vin g difficu lt y in copin g wit h t h e pr oblem s of r ea dju st m en t .
An ot h er n ewspa per cit ed t h e st a t em en t m a de by t h e Secr et a n a de Gober n a don / Ma n u el C. Tellez. H e a ssu r ed t h e m edia t h a t t h er e wou ld be wor k a va ila ble for t h e r epa t r ia t es. Th e Secr et a r y h a d m et wit h t h e st a t e gov-
er n or s a n d elicit ed t h eir h elp a n d su ppor t for t h e gover n m en t 's pr ogr a m t o a ssist dest it u t e r et u r n ees. Th e Secr et a r y su ggest ed for m in g a n a dvisor y boa r d com pr ised of r epa t r ia t es wh o h a d r et u r n ed a n d a dju st ed su ccessfu lly. Th eir r ole wou ld be t o a dvise on t h e best a n d m ost effect ive m a n n er of dea lin g wit h t h eir fellow com pa t r iot s. Con sider a t ion wou ld be given t o t h e t r a des or sk ills t h a t t h ey h a d a cqu ir ed wh ile livin g a br oa d.30 Th e t h em e of t a k in g a d- va n t a ge of t h e exper t ise a cqu ir ed by N a t ion a ls in t h e U n it ed St a t es r ecu r r ed r epea t edly in gover n m en t r elea ses a n d n ewspa per a r t icles. H owever / a few
object ive wr it er s poin t ed ou t t h a t m ost of t h e wor k per for m ed by t h e r e- t u r n in g com pa t r iot s h a d been of a ver y m en t a l n a t u r e. Most wer e da y la bor -
er s r a t h er t h a n sk illed a r t isa n s. Th eir "exper t ise" wa s decidedly lim it ed, a s t h e cr it ics n ot ed.
Som e wr it er s su spect ed t h a t t h e gover n m en t wa s sim ply u sin g t h e pa t r i- ot ic r h et or ic t o m a k e t h e r et u r n / t r a n sit ion / a n d a ssim ila t ion a s ea sy a s pos-
sible for t h e dish ea r t en ed r epa t r ia t es. Tossed fr om pilla r t o post in t h e U n it ed
St a t es, m a n y r epa t r ia t es h a d expect ed t h a t on ce in Mexico/ jobs, la n d/ a n d a bet t er life a wa it ed t h em . P r om ises—r ea l/ im a gin ed^ or im plied—wer e wisps
of h ope gr a sped a t by t h e r epa t r ia t es. Ca st a dr ift by a cr u el a n d fick le fa t e/ t h ey desper a t ely n eeded som et h in g t o believe in . As t h ey h a d don e so oft en wh ile in t h e U n it ed St a t es/ va r iou s gr ou ps a n d in dividu a ls sen t let t er s a n d pet it ion s t o t h e Secr et a n a s, t h e feder a l depa r t m en t s/ beggin g for h elp. U lt i-
m a t ely/ som e a ppea led t o t h e pr esiden t of t h e r epu blic im plor in g h is ben ign in t er cession . By a n d la r ge/ officia l r eplies t en ded t o be sym pa t h et ic/ bu t a c-
t u a l r esu lt s left a gr ea t dea l t o be desir ed. Th a t wa s cer t a in ly t h e ca se r ega r ct -
in g ga in fu l em ploym en t . Th e gover n m en t h a d en vision ed est a blish in g a va st pu blic-wor k s pr o-
gr a m . Developin g a n d im pr ovin g t h e in fr a st r u ct u r e by bu ildin g r oa ds/ r a il- r oa ds/ da m s/ a n d ir r iga t ion ca n a ls wa s seen a s t h e cor n er st on e of t h e
;/m a k e-wor k // pr oject s. Lik e h er pr odiga l son s a n d da u gh t er s/ Mexico des-
per a t ely n eeded t o fin d it s pla ce in t h e econ om ic su n . By wor k in g t oget h er bot h t h e n a t ion a n d t h e r et u r n ees h a d t h e pot en t ia l t o a ch ieve t h eir r espec-
t ive goa ls. Th e cost s in cu r r ed by t h e pr oject ed developm en t s wou ld be a m - ply r epa id in fu t u r e yea r s by t h e su bst a n t ia l econ om ic gr owt h t h a t wou ld
AGRIN GADOS 205
su bsequ en t ly r esu lt .31 H owever / in spit e of t h e in h er en t pot en t ia l/ t h e dr ea m {a iled t o m a t er ia lize. Th is wa s n ot du e t o la ck of m or a l com m it m en t or r e-
solve. Th e pa in fu l t r u t h wa s t h a t t h e feder a l gover n m en t / n o m a t t er h ow well in t en t ion ed or n oble it s en dea vor s/ sim ply did n ot h a ve t h e m on ey r e- qu ir ed t o pr ovide t h e fu n din g for t h e pr oposed pr oject s.
A few wor k pr oject s wer e begu n / bu t h ir in g pr efer en ce wa s u su a lly given t o loca l r esiden t s wh o wer e ou t of wor k . Am on g t h e r epa t r ia t es, on ly expe-
r ien ced cr a ft sm en or t h ose possessin g a sk ill n ot r ea dily a va ila ble wer e h ir ed. Ir on ica lly/ beca u se t h ey wer e r epea t edly su bject ed t o discr im in a t ion in h ir - in g in t h e U n it ed St a t es t h e r epa t r ia t es h a d n ot expect ed t o r eceive t h e sa m e k in d of t r ea t m en t a t h om e. In a n a t t em pt t o cou n t er a ct t h e wor st a spect s of
t h e sit u a t ion con fr on t in g t h em , t h e r epa t r ia t es for m ed t h e "U n ion of Mexi- ca n Repa t r ia t es/' Led by Secr et a r y Gen er a l Ma n u el Olm os/ t h e u n ion wa s h ea dqu a r t er ed in Mexico Cit y. It s fir st or der of bu sin ess wa s t o ca ll u pon a ll la bor or ga n iza t ion s t o dem a n d t h e im m edia t e cessa t ion of r epa t r ia t ion . Th e ba sis a n d ju st ifica t ion for t h e dem a n d wa s t h a t t h e econ om ic pr oblem s posed by t h ose a lr ea dy r epa t r ia t ed h a d n ot yet been r esolved.32 It did n ot m a k e a n y sen se t o con t in u e t o a u gm en t or a ggr a va t e t h e sit u a t ion . U n ion lea der s a sk ed/
Wh y a llow t h e U n it ed St a t es t o in discr im in a t ely a n d su m m a r ily con t in u e t o
r epa t r ia t e people sim ply t o r elieve it s own u n em ploym en t pr oblem ? Th e U n ion of Mexica n Repa t r ia t es sever ely cr it icized t h e effor t s of t h e
t h en -a ct ive N a t ion a l Repa t r ia t ion Com m it t ee. It ch a r ged t h a t t h e com m it -
t ee wa s t a k in g t oo lon g t o r a ise it s a vowed goa l of 500,000 pesos a n d wa s n ot r espon din g t o t h e n eeds of t h e r epa t r ia t es.33 Th e fa ilu r e of t h e Repa t r ia t ion
Com m it t ee t o a ct in a t im ely a n d effect ive m a n n er wa s a m a jor r ea son wh y t h e r epa t r ia t es" u n ion h a d been for m ed. In a ct u a lit y/ ill feelin gs gen er a t ed by
t h e gr owin g n u m ber of r epa t r ia t es wa s a pr im e fa ct or pr even t in g t h e com - m it t ee fr om r a isin g t h e 500/000 pesos n ecessa r y t o h elp n eedy com pa t r iot s. In a n a t t em pt t o r a ise t h e ba dly n eeded fu n ds, it wa s- su ggest ed t h a t a su r - ch a r ge or excise t a x of five cen t a vos be levied on t h e pr ice of ea ch t ick et sold
by t h ea t er s/ bu llfigh t s/ a n d ot h er en t er t a in m en t even t s. Th e m on ey wou ld be ea r m a r k ed specifica lly for t h e ben efit of t h e r epa t r ia t es.34 F ier ce voca l op- posit ion for ced t h e idea t o die a bor n in g. Th e gen er a l pu blic r esen t ed t a xin g t h em selves t o h elp in gr a t es wh o h a d ch osen t o en r ich los ya n qu is r a t h er t h a n t h eir own cou n t r y. Ma n y loca l r esiden t s exper ien ced a cover t feelin g of sa t isfa ct ion in seein g ven de pa t r ia s (sellou t s) get t h eir com eu ppa n ce or ju st desser t s.
Du e t o t h e widespr ea d opposit ion / t h e effor t s of t h e r epa t r ia t es' or ga n iza -
t ion ca m e t o n a u gh t . Th e u n ion fou n d it im possible t o coor din a t e t h e diver se n eeds a n d in t er est s of t h e differ en t gr ou ps. Im m edia t e su r viva l beca m e t h e
206 ADJ U STME ^
pa r a m ou n t issu e/ a n d few r epa t r ia t es h a d t im e t o join or pa r t icipa t e in or ga n iza t ion t h a t did n ot deliver con cr et e solu t ion s. Th e con t in u ed a r r iva l , n ew r epa t r ia t es com pou n ded exist in g pr oblem s. Th e en or m ou s h or de of r efy.
gees in u n da t ed com m u n it ies in t h e n or t h er n st a t es a n d in t h e cen t r a l pla . t ea u . As m or e people r et u r n ed t o t h eir pla ce of or igin / r eset t lem en t gr ew
m or e difficu lt . U n a ble t o cope, a r ea s t h a t h a d for m er ly welcom ed t h e r epa t r ia dos n ow sh u n n ed t h em .35 By t h e en d of 1932, t h e pr im e ir r iga t ed
la n d a va ila ble t o t h e gover n m en t for colon iza t ion pu r poses h a d been vir t u - a lly exh a u st ed. All t h a t r em a in ed t o be pa r celed ou t wa s m a r gin a l or t em po- r a l la n d fit on ly for gr a zin g a n im a ls or pr eca r iou s dr y fa r m in g.36 Th e con t en t iou s sit u a t ion fed t h e fest er in g u n der cu r r en t of r esen t m en t a n d ill will.
It wa s n ot difficu lt t o fin d r ea son s for r ea l or im a gin ed gr ieva n ces a ga in st t h e r epa t r ia t es. In t h e slower -pa ced Mexica n societ y/ r epa t r ia t es wer e oft en
viewed a s bein g t oo a m bit iou s/ t oo a sser t ive/ a n d t oo dem a n din g.37 Th er e
wer e a lso ch a r ges of bein g m u y a gr in ga dos in t h eir speech pa t t er n s a n d in t h eir h a bit s. Mexica n s r esen t ed Spa n ish wor ds bein gAn glidzed by t h e r epa - t r ia t es. N a t ive spea k er s a ccu sed r epa t r ia t es of h a bla n do a lo m och o, of
sh or t cu t t in g or ba st a r dizin g t h e la n gu a ge. Am on g you n g r epa t r ia t es, r ea r ed in t h e Am er ica n cu lt u r e/ it wa s a ver y n a t u r a l wa y of expr essin g t h em selves.
F or a du lt s/ t h e u se of su ch wor ds den ot ed t h eir a t t em pt t o lea r n ba sic E n - glish wor ds. Wit h ou t for m a l sch oolin g/ m a n y a du lt s h a d sim ply lea r n ed E n glish ph on et ica lly. Th ey pr on ou n ced E n glish wor ds t h e wa y t h ey h ea r d t h em , Th u s/ it wa s su r pr isin g t h a t t h eir lim it ed com m a n d of E n glish sh ou ld h a ve ca u sed a du lt r epa t r ia t es a n y pr oblem s wh en t h ey r et u r n ed t o Mexico. Repa t r ia t e E m ilia Ca st a n eda deVa len cia n a r em em ber ed t h a t "t h e poor people u sed t o pick on u s bu t t h e m iddle cla ss people spok e E n glish a n d wa n t ed t o lea r n m or e/"38
Repa t r ia t ed wom en discover ed t h a t in a m a le-dom in a t ed societ y t h e fr ee- dom s of m ovem en t a n d expr ession / wh ich pr eva iled a s a m a t t er of cou r se in
t h e U n it ed St a t es/ wer e sever ely cu r t a iled. In sm a ll t own s or r u r a l villa ges/ t h eir excu r sion s ou t side t h e h om e wer e lim it ed t o goin g t o t h e m er ca do a n d t o ch u r ch . H u sba n ds wh ose st a t u s a s t h e h ea d of t h e h ou seh old h a d been er oded by pr olon ged u n em ploym en t or t h e a ccept a n ce of welfa r e n ow bega n t o r ea sser t t h em selves. Th e oft -cit ed st a t em en t en m i ca sa yo m a n do (in m y
h ou se I a m t h e boss) a ssu m ed n ew vigor . In t h eir cloist er ed exist en ce, wom en
h a d n o n eed for t h eir Am er ica n -st yled clot h es. On e Mexica n a fou n d t h a t 'm a n y of m y fr ien ds wen t ba ck t o Mexico on ly t o be la u gh ed a t for wea r in g sh or t dr esses u n t il t h ey h a d t o u se t h em for u n der clot h es. N ow t h ey a r e in r a gs a n d h a ve n o sh oes/'39 In m a n y in st a n ces, t h e t r ea su r ed dr esses a n d sh oes
^ GRTN GADOS 20,
wer e set a side a n d sa ved t o be wor n on ly on specia l occa sion s. Givin g u p t h eir fin er y wa s on e t h in g, bu t you n ger wom en a da m a n t ly r efu sed t o st op u sin g cosm et ics wh ile t h ey la st ed or t h ey cou ld a ffor d t h em , Th is elicit ed a gr ea t dea l of cr it icism fr om t h e older / t r a dit ion a l/ r u r a l Mexica n wom en . Th ey viewed t h e u se of lipst ick / r ou ge/ or fin ger n a il polish wit h disda in . On ly loose wom en ca lled a t t en t ion t o t h em selves by pa r a din g a r ou n d in su ch a fa sh ion . Modest y a n d self-effa cem en t wer e t h e m a r k s of a decen t wife a n d m ot h er . Th er e wa s a lso t h e u n der lyin g fea r t h a t you n g loca l gir ls m igh t em u la t e t h eir m or e wor ldly sist er s.
Repa t r ia t es soon lea r n ed t o a void pr oblem s by n ot ca llin g a t t en t ion t o t h em selves. Th ey m a y h a ve a r r ived a t t h eir dest in a t ion wea r in g Am er ica n -
st yle clot h es a n d wit h a few dolla r s in t h eir pock et / bu t wit h in a few m on t h s/
a n d ou t wa r dly a t lea st , t h ey bega n t o a ssu m e t h e st yles a n d m odes com m on t o fr ien ds a n d r ela t ives. Am on g a du lt s/ it wa s deem ed ill m a n n er ed t o st a n d ou t fr om t h e cr owd. Ada pt a t ion a lso pr ot ect ed t h em {r om bein g look ed a t a sk a n ce beca u se t h ey h a d lived in E l N or t e a n d h a d been for ced t o lea ve t h e
U n it ed St a t es. Men pa ck ed a wa y t h eir su it s a n d wor e t h e blu e bibbed over - a lls or t h e wh it e loose-fit t in g ou t fit s wor n by t h e poor er cla ss. By blen din g
in , r epa t r ia t es fou n d it ea sier t o get a lon g a n d ek e ou t a livin g. Alt h ou gh wa ges a n d ea r n in gs wer e low by Am er ica n st a n da r ds/ a fa m ily
cou ld live r a t h er com for t a bly on ver y lit t le. Ren t s/ for exa m ple, wer e r ela -
lively ch ea p. In r u r a l com m u n it ies or sm a ll t own s^ a m odest h om e cou ld be
r en t ed for a cou ple of pesos a m on t h . Sin ce t h e h ou ses did n ot h a ve r u n n in g wa t er , in door plu m bin g/ elect r icit y/ or ga s/ t h er e wer e n o u t ilit y bills t o pa y a t t h e en d of t h e m on t h . Clot h in g—t h e t r a dit ion a l wh it e cot t on ca m isa a n d pa n t a lon es wor n by t h e ca m pesin os, or t h e bla ck r ebozo/ sk ir t , a n d blou se
wor n by loca l wom en —cou ld be pu r ch a sed ver y ch ea ply. F ood st a ples wer e a lso r ela t ively ch ea p. A k ilo of bea n s cou ld be pu r ch a sed for six cen t a vos/ a n d m a sa de m a iz for m a k in g t or t illa s cost five cen t a vos. a k ilo. A lit er of m ilk wa s eigh t een cen t a vos/ a n d a dozen fr esh eggs wer e t h ir t y cen t a vos. F r u it in
sea son , depen din g on size a n d qu a lit y, wa s five cen t a vos for sever a l pieces.
Th r ee ba n a n a s cou ld be h a d for five cen t a vos. Mea t wa s t h e m ost expen sive it em . Ch ick en t en ded t o be t h e ch ea pest / followed by por k a n d t h en beef, wh ich r a n ged fr om fift y cen t a vos t o a peso per k ilo.40 It is eviden t t h a t by
a dr oit ba r ga in in g a n d sh r ewd sh oppin g/ fift y cen t a vos cou ld be st r et ch ed a lon g wa y. Sin ce com m er cia l a m u sem en t s/ in clu din g m ovie h ou ses, wer e a
r a r it y/ ver y lit t le wa s spen t on en t er t a in m en t . Livin g in Mexico cou ld be r a t h er in expen sive, com pa r ed t o t h e U n it ed St a t es.
Th er efor e, r epa t r ia t es wh o h a d sa ved som e m on ey a n d wer e a ble t o pu r -
ch a se a sm a ll ca n t in a / ct r y-goods st or e/ pool h a ll/ or sim ila r bu sin esses/ pr o-
208 . ADJ U STME N T
vidin g t h em wit h a m odest bu t st ea dy in com e/ en joyed a com for t a ble livii So t oo did t h ose wh o cou ld t u r n sk ills a cqu ir ed in t h e U n it ed St a t es ii a sset a n d open sm a ll r epa ir sh ops. Men wit h m ech a n ica l sk ills wer e welcom e
in sm a ll com m u n it ies t h a t for m er ly h a d been wit h ou t su ch ser vices. Th ese in dividu a ls pr eviou sly m a y h a ve been m er e la bor er s or a ssem bly-Iin e wor k . er s/ bu t t h eir n ew-fou n d st a t u s a n d a fflu en ce ea r n ed t h em t h e r espect ed t it le of "Don Ra m 6n // or "Don J u a n ." Th ey beca m e pilla r s of t h eir com m u n it ies.
a n d t h eir a dvice a n d wise cou n sel wer e sou gh t on a va r iet y of su bject s. Th ese in dividu a ls a n d t h eir cou n t er pa r t s in la r ger t own s a n d cit ies u su a lly fou n d it ea sier t o m a k e t h e t r a n sit ion a n d a dju st t o life in Mexico t h a n m ost of t h e in digen t r epa t r ia t es. Lea st well a dju st ed wer e t h eir wives/ wh o com pla in ed beca u se t h er e wa s n ot h in g t o do. Wa lk in g a r ou n d t h e pla za in t h e even in g wa s n ot t h eir idea of r ecr ea t ion . Bu t t h ey wer e loa t h e t o voice t h eir displea - su r e pu blicly, lest it h u r t t h eir h u sba n ds' bu sin ess. F or m ost of t h e r epa t r i- a t es/ h owever / a fflu en ce of a n y k in d elu ded t h em ,
Th e t r ia ls a n d t r ibu la t ion s su ffer ed by t h e r efu gees a n d t h eir ch ildr en wer e en or m ou s a n d u n en din g. Ma n y of t h em bega n t o won der if t h ey h a d m a de a m ist a k e in r et u r n in g h om e. N ost a lgia bega n t o pla y t r ick s u pon t h eir m em or y a n d select ive r eca ll. In dividu a ls lik e F r a n cisco Ca st a n eda / wh o wa s a bou t t en yea r s old wh en h e r et u r n ed t o Mexico wit h h is fa m ily/ obser ved: "\ wou ld h a ve pr efer r ed t o h a ve st a yed h er e [in t h e U .S.], life is bet t er h er e/'41 E ch oin g Ca st a n eda 's feelin gs wa s Ter esa Ma r t m ez Sou t h a r d. Wh en in t er - viewed/ sh e vividly r eca lled/ "I u sed t o m iss t h e St a t es a lot . I u sed t o cr y ever y n igh t "ca u se I wa s r ea l lon ely. Bu t st ill/ wh a t cou ld I do?//42 Th e sa d- n ess a n d yea r n in g sh e h a d exper ien ced a s a you n g gir l wer e st ill eviden t in h er soft voice for t y yea r s la t er . Sh e a lso r eca lled t h a t sh e did n ot lik e cor n t or t illa s/ a n d h er fa t h er / a t gr ea t sa cr ifice/ wou ld bu y a sa ck of flou r so sh e cou ld m a k e h er own t or t illa s. Ter esa Ma r t in ez Sou t h a r d's a n d F r a n -
cisco Ca st a n eda 's exper ien ces wer e r epea t ed a t h ou sa n dfold. Tea r s a n d dis-
en ch a n t m en t pr oved t o be t h e lot of m a n y r epa t r ia t es of a ll a ges a n d gen der . N o on e"cla im ed t h a t life in Am er ica wa s a bed of r oses/ bu t t h er e wa s n o den yin g t h a t even wit h it s a lleged sh or t com in gs, t h e U n it ed St a t es wa s t r u ly t h e h om e or a dopt ed h om ela n d of m a n y r epa t r ia t es. Th is m ood a n d t h e de- plor a ble con dit ion s in wh ich t h ey fou n d t h em selves led t o a lon gin g t o r e- t u r n "h om e" t o t h e U n it ed St a t es.
Th e r ea son s for desir in g t o r et u r n h om e t o E l N or t e wer e a s va r ied a s t h e people wh o espou sed t h em . E n r iqu e Vega decided t o r et u r n in or der t o//r a ise m y boys a s I gr ew u p." H e specifica lly cit ed t h e differ en ce in t h e t ype a n d qu a lit y of edu ca t ion a va ila ble. "If I h a d t o do it over a ga in /' h e r em in isced, //I wou ld h a ve st a yed [in t h e U .S.]./'43 H e expla in ed t h a t h is wh ole fa m ily h a d
AGRIN GADOS 209
r et u r n ed t o t h e U n it ed St a t es/ bu t in or der t o em igr a t e t h ey h a d t o obt a in a spon sor a n d t h e pr om ise of a job. It wa s possible, h e st a t ed, t o be a ble t o r et u r n in a s few a s six week s. H owever / t h is wa s t h e except ion r a t h er t h a n
t h e r u le. Th e qu est t o r et u r n oft en t ook yea r s. F or som e, t h er e wa s n o r et u r n
possible. In digen t s wh o h a d been on welfa r e/ or h a d becom e pu blic ch a r ges for a n y r ea son , wer e n ot per m it t ed t o r et u r n despit e pr om ises or a ssu r a n ces
t o t h e con t r a r y Th e ba ck of t h eir depa r t u r e ca r d iden t ified t h em a s a id r e-
cipien t s/ wh ich pr eclu ded t h em fr om ever lega lly r een t er in g t h e U n it ed St a t es. Mu ch t o t h eir dism a y/ welfa r e r ecipien t s wh o h a d a gr eed t o lea ve "volu n t a r - ily// discover ed t h a t t h ey h a d been bla ck list ed, Welfa r e officia ls h a d con ve-
n ien t ly n eglect ed t o in for m t h em of t h is cr it ica l poin t . Most r epa t r ia t es wer e u n der t h e im pr ession t h a t t h ey wou ld be eligible t o r et u r n t o t h e U n it ed St a t es a s soon a s econ om ic con dit ion s im pr oved.
Am on g t h ose sh a r in g t h e expect a t ion of bein g a ble t o r et u r n wa s P a blo Gu er r er o/ wh o, wit h h is wife a n d five Am er ica n -bor n ch ildr en , h a d been r epa t r ia t ed in Decem ber of 1932. Th e fa m ily h a d set t led in Mexica li/ Ba ja Ca lifor n ia . Alt h ou gh m a n y Mexica n cu st om s h a d been m odified du e t o t h e a r ea 's pr oxim it y t o t h e bor der / t h e ch ildr en fou n d it im possible t o a da pt t o a
n ew a n d differ en t iifest yle. Ra n gin g fr om six t o fou r t een yea r s of a ge, t h e you n gst er s im plor ed t h eir pa r en t s t o r et u r n t o t h e la n d of t h eir bir t h . Con - sequ en t ly/ Sen or Gu er r er o sen t a let t er t o Los An geles Cou n t y welfa r e a u -
t h or it ies. H e expla in ed h is sit u a t ion a n d a sk ed t h em t o con t a ct t h e Depa r t m en t of La bor ^ wh ich h a d ju r isdict ion over t h e Im m igr a t ion Ser vice. Sen or Gu er r er o wa n t ed Am er ica n officia ls t o a u t h or ize t h e con su l in Mexica li t o issu e h is fa m ily im m igr a t ion pa per s a n d pa y t h e eigh t een -dolla r fee r equ ir ed for ea ch pa sspor t .44 H is con t en t ion wa s t h a t h e wa n t ed ever yt h in g a r r a n ged a n d don e lega lly so h e wou ld n ot viola t e a n y im m igr a t ion la ws.
In h is la bor iou s, h a n dwr it t en let t er / P a blo Gu er r er o st a t ed t h a t h e h a d
wor k ed in t h e U n it ed St a t es sin ce t h e a ge of n in et een . H e h a d even r egis- t er ed for t h e dr a ft in J oh n son / Ar izon a / du r in g Wor ld Wa r I. Lik e ot h er u n - h a ppy r epa t r ia t es/ h e cit ed t h e dispa r it y bet ween t h e edu ca t ion a l syst em s in t h e t wo cou n t r ies a n d st a t ed t h a t h e wa n t ed h is ch ildr en t o be edu ca t ed in Am er ica n sch ools. H e com pla in ed bit t er ly a bou t t h e fa ct t h a t t h e Mexica n gover n m en t h a d n ot given h im or h is fa m ily a n y a ssist a n ce. Gu er r er o a lso decr ied t h e gover n m en t 's la ck of pr ot ect ion of ch ildr en wh o/ lik e h is own /
h a d been bor n in t h e U n it ed St a t es. F or t h a t r ea son / h e st ipu la t ed in Spa n ish / //I a sk t h a t m y ch ildr en a n d m yself be a llowed t o r et u r n t o t h e cou n t r y in wh ich t h ey a r e en t it led t o live/'45 Th e let t er , a lon g wit h cou n t less ot h er s, wa s r eceived a n d filed by t h e Boa r d of Su per visor s. Appa r en t ly, t h e Boa r d ig- n or ed Sen or Gu er r er o/s eloqu en t plea / for n o a ct ion or r espon se wa s r ecor ded.
210 ADJ U STME N T
By t h e m id-1930s t h er e wa s a gr owin g n u m ber of disillu sion ed r epa t r i. a t es seek in g t o r et u r n t o t h e U n it ed St a t es. Am on g t h em wer e Ra m on Sa n ch ez a n d h is fa m ily. H is ch ildr en h a d fou n d it im possible t o a dju st t o life in Sa n
J u lia n / J a lisco/ t h e fa m ily's a n cest r a l h om e. U pon r et u r n in g t o Ciu da d J u a r ez. t h e Sa n ch ez fa m ily wa s r efu sed visa s t o en t er t h e U n it ed St a t es/ even t h ou g^ t en of t h e t h ir t een ch ildr en wer e Am er ica n bor n . Wh ile wa it in g for a u t h or i-
t ies t o r esolve t h eir ca se/ Sefior Sa n ch ez peddled ca n dies a n d ciga r et t es. H is older son s, Libr a do a n d J ose/ //wou ld sell n ewspa per s^ sh in e sh oes/ sell r in es m a de of bu llh or n s/ a n d ca r r y pa r cels for Am er ica n wom en sh oppin g in J u a r ez.// Yet / t h er e wa s n ever en ou gh m on ey for food. Ra m on Sa n ch ez gr ew
desper a t e. Alt h ou gh h e wa n t ed t o r een t er t h e U n it ed St a t es lega lly, h e r ea l- ized t h is wa s im possible. E ver r esou r cefu l/ h e "sh a ved h is m ou st a ch e/ bor - r owed m on ey for a secon d-h a n d su it , a n d wit h h is gr een eyes a n d fa ir sk in , sim ply wa lk ed a cr oss t h e bor der ,^ 46 La t er , Sa n ch ez a r r a n ged wit h a coyot e t o sm u ggle t h e r est oF h is fa m ily in t o t h e cou n t r y. Tr a gica lly^ befor e h e cou ld
r et r ieve h is fa m ily/ t h e you n gest da u gh t er , Ca t a lm a / died of m a ln u t r it ion . F or m a n y fa m ilies, t h e a t t em pt t o r et u r n t o t h e U n it ed St a t es wa s a s t r a gic
a n d a s fr u st r a t in g a s t h e expu lsion h a d been . Som e fa m ilies lost loved on es on bot h segm en t s of t h e jou r n ey, a ccor din g t o t h e N a t ion a l Ca t h olic Welfa r e Con fer en ce/ wh ich ch r on icled t h e exper ien ces of va r iou s fa m ilies. In on e pa r t icu la r in st a n ce/ a fa m ily h a d r et u r n ed t o t h eir h om et own in cen t r a l 3S4exico. Aft er a n a bsen ce of over t h ir t y yea r s, t h ey did n ot fin d a n y r ela t ives or fr ien ds. Disillu sion ed/ t h e fa m ily bega n t h e fift een -h u n dr ed-m ile t r ek ba ck t o t h e bor der on foot . It wa s t o pr ove a sor r owfu l a n d t r a gic jou r n ey. Th e fa t h er died in t h e cit y ofTor r eon / bu t t h e fa m ily pr essed on . In Ch ih u a -
h u a / t h e you n gest ch ild, a fou r -yea r -old da u gh t er / per ish ed fr om t h e st r a in of t h e h a r r owin g jou r n ey. Th e followin g da y/ t h e m ot h er ga ve bir t h t o a ba by boy. Th r ee week s la t er / t h e m ot h er a n d h er H ve exh a u st ed ch ildr en a r r ived in E l P a so. H a vin g k ept h er pr om ise a n d deliver ed h er ch ildr en ba ck t o t h e la n d of t h eir bir t h / t h e m ot h er t h en a lso died. Th e a r du ou s t r ip h a d
com plet ely sa pped h er st r en gt h . Th e fou r Am er ica n -bor n ch ildr en wer e pla ced
in a n or ph a n a ge in E l P a so/ a n d t h e ba by wa s given t o a Mexica n fa m ily in Ciu da d J u a r ez.47
Th er e wer e m a n y you n g r epa t r ia t es wh o wer e u n a ble or u n willin g t o su bm it t o a va st ly differ en t lifest yle a n d opt ed t o r et u r n t o t h e U n it ed St a t es "u pon r ea ch in g lega l a ge."48 Lik e E n r iqu e Vega / by a per ver se t wist of ir on y a n d fa t e t h ey r et u r n ed h om e in 1941.49 Th ey a r r ived ju st in t im e t o r egist er for t h e dr a ft a n d ser ve in t h e a r m ed for ces of t h e ver y n a t ion t h a t h a d r e- ject ed t h em in t h eir ch ildh ood. Th eir devot ion t o t h e cou n t r y t h a t h a d t r ea t ed t h em so sh a bbily wou ld n ow be pu t t o t h e u lt im a t e t est . U n der st a n da bly/ a
AGRIN GADOS 211
few of t h em r efu sed t o ser ve a n d r et u r n ed t o Mexico. Th er e wer e a lso a few
you n g m en of Mexica n a n cest r y wh o decided t h a t t h e 1940s wer e a good t im e t o r epa t r ia t e t h em selves. Th e t r ea t m en t a ccor ded t h em a n d t h eir fa m i- lies du r in g t h e pr eviou s deca de h a d a r ou sed bit t er feelin gs a n d r esen t m en t . Wh y figh t for a cou n t r y t h a t h a d t u r n ed it s ba ck on you a n d you r s wh en you n eeded h er m ost ? To t h eir cr edit / t h e va st m a jor it y of Mexica n s a n d Mexica n Am er ica n s ch ose t o do t h eir du t y. Th ey ser ved wit h dist in ct ion in ever y t h ea t er of oper a t ion s a n d ea r n ed m or e Con gr ession a l Meda ls of H on or
t h a n a n y ot h er et h n ic gr ou p. On e of t h e m ost a m a zin g fea t s of t h e wa r wa s per for m ed by P r iva t e F ir st Cla ss Gu y Lou is Ga ba ldon , wh o sin gleh a n dedly ca pt u r ed m or e t h a n on e t h ou sa n d J a pa n ese on t h e isla n d of Sa ipa n .50 Ma n y of t h eir com r a des m a de t h e u lt im a t e sa cr ifice on dist a n t / u n k n own sh or es.
F or som e, ser vin g t h eir cou n t r y m ea n t clea r in g t h e sla t e of t h e st igm a of on ce h a vin g been on welfa r e. Th e book s cou ld n ow be closed a n d m a r k ed "pa id in fu ll/"
Th e a dven t of Wor ld Wa r II en ded t h e r epa t r ia t ion /depor t a t ion t er r or . Th e "bet t er da y" for wh ich t h e Mexica n s h a d h oped a n d pr a yed h a d a r r ived, On ce a ga in , t h er e wa s a dem a n d for Mexica n la bor . As u su a l, it wa s t h e you n g a n d a dven t u r esom e wh o ch ose t o m a k e t h e t r ek n or t h . Repa t r ia t e
Ca r m en Ma r t in ez, divor ced a n d wit h t wo ch ildr en , r et u r n ed t o Los An geles a n d wor k ed in a n a ir cr a ft pla n t . Ca r m en 's five sist er s join ed h er a n d wer e em ployed in t h e boom in g sou t h er n Ca lifor n ia defen se in du st r y.51 In m a n y
wa ys/ it wa s a r epet it ion of t h e scen a r io t h a t h a d dr a wn t h eir gr a n dpa r en t s a t t h e t u r n of t h e cen t u r y a n d t h eir fa t h er s a n d m ot h er s du r in g a n d a ft er Wor Id
Wa r I. Th e pr ospect of good jobs a n d good wa ges lu r ed a n ew cr op of wor k er s n or t h , Wa s a n ew cycle com m en cin g? Wou ld h ist or y r epea t it self? N o on e k n ew or ca r ed. Th e good t im es h a d r et u r n ed wit h a su dden n ess a n d for ce t h a t n o on e cou ld h a ve for eseen . Th e h u m a n t ide h ea ded n or t h on ce a ga in . In a wa y it wa s t h e folly of r epa t r ia t ion in r ever se. Th e .elder s wh o r em a in ed beh in d sh ook t h eir h ea ds a n d won der ed wh a t la y a h ea d. Wh a t did fa t e h a ve in st or e for t h e n ew br eed of em igr a n t s ? St oica lly, t h ey look ed a t ea ch ot h er /
sh r u gged t h eir sh ou lder s/ a n d sm iled br a vely for t h ey a ll k n ew, wit h ou t sa yin g it : "Dios sa br a / Qu e ser a / ser a !"
AGRIN GADOS
Agr in ga dos: Docu m en t s
Rem a in in g Am er ica n a n d Ret u r n in g t o t h e U n it ed St a t es. E m ilia Ca st a n eda de Va len cia n a .
Sou r ce: Ch r ist in e Va len da n a In t er view wit h E m ilia Ca st a n eda de Va len cia n a . Cou r t esy of E m ilia Ca st a n eda de Va len cia n a .
Yes, we wer e a n ovelt y, beca u se, I gu ess, we spok e m ost ly E n glish , We
u sed t o go t o t h e st or e a n d we u sed t o r efer t o t h e m on ey a s pen n ies, n ot
cen t a vos. So you k n ow, t h e people u sed t o la u gh a t u s. Th ey didn 't r e< la u gh a t u s/ bu t t h ey u sed t o get a k ick ou t of it . So I t h in k we spok e m or e E n glish t h a n Spa n ish .
I u sed t o spea k E n glish t o m y br ot h er / especia lly a lot of t im es wh en I didn 't wa n t a n yon e t o u n der st a n d wh a t I wa s t a lk in g a bou t . Bu t h e u sed t o get em ba r r a ssed. H e's been t h e t ype wh o's n ot a sh ow-off.
Well/ I'm n ot a sh ow-off eit h er / bu t I felt I didn 't n eed t o h ide t h e fa ct t h a t I cou ld spea k E n glish . I m ea n / wh y sh ou ld I den y t h e fa ct t h a t I wa s a n Am er ica n cit izen ? My da d wa s pr et t y pr ou d t h a t we wer e Am er ica n cit izen s.. . H e a lwa ys u sed t o t el! people t h a t we wer e Am er ica n cit izen s
a n d t h a t we didn 't belon g t h er e in t h a t cou n t r y.
So m y da d sa id/ "Well/ wh y don 't you pla n t o a r r ive in t h e U n it ed St a t es/ in you r n a t ive Los An geles/ for you r bir t h da y?" I sa id, //Gee, t h a t /d be n ice." So I did. Wh en I ca m e/ it wa sn 't ea sy for m e t o com e by m yself. I
wa s a you n g gir l, a n d you k n ow h ow it is wh en you 'r e br ou gh t u p t o wa t ch ou t for t h is gu y a n d wa t ch ou t for t h a t gu y. I wa s a lit t le bit fr igh t en ed t o com e, on m y own / t o t h e U n it ed St a t es. . . So wh en I wa s
close t o t h e bor der / t h e Mexica n Im m igr a t ion boa r ds t h e t r a in a n d t h ey
a sk you if you h a ve a t ou r ist ca r d. Wh a t t ou r ist ca r d wa s I goin g t o h a ve ? (la u gh t er ) So I h a d t o pa y t h e m on ey for a t ou r ist ca r d beca u se/ a ccor din g t o t h em /1 wa s a t ou r ist ,
Well/ t h ey k n ew wh a t I h a d been doin g a ft er t h ey a sk ed m e. So I didn 't
see a n y r ea son t o pa y for t ou r ist ca r d, bu t I en ded u p pa yin g for a t ou r ist ca r d/ t o Mexica n Im m igr a t ion . Ca n you im a gin e m e a t ou r ist , a ll t h ose
yea r s over t h er e? I wou ldn 't ca ll t h a t t h e life of a t ou r ist , (la u gh t er ) •
An ywa y, I wa s on a ver y cr owded t r a in com in g ba ck t o t h e U n it ed St a t es. Th is wa s du r in g t h e wa r / a n d t h e t r a in s wer e cr owded. Th er e wa s n o pla ce
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212
t o sit sin ce ser vicem en ca m e fir st . Th e sea t s wer e for t h em . Bu t t h er e wer e
som e k in d ser vicem en wh o let m e u se t h eir sea t s. Th ey wou ld st a n d u p in t h e a isles a n d visit wit h ea ch ot h er a n d t a lk t o m e. I t a lk ed t o t h em ^ a n d I
gu ess t h a t I wa s a n ovelt y t o t h em / beca u se t h ey wer e t r yin g t o get a ll t h is in for m a t ion ou t of m e. H er e wa s t h is gir l com in g ba ck t o t h e U n it ed St a t es wh o h a d lived t h er e. Th ey wer e su r pr ised t h a t I cou ld spea k a lit t le
bit of E n glish .
Tr yin g t o Su r vive in Mexico. Ter esa Ma r t in ez Sou t h a r d.
Sou r ce: Ch r ist in e Va len cia n a In t er view wit h Ter esa Ma r t m ez Sou t h a r d. Cou r t esy of Ter esa Ma r t m ez Sou t h a r d
So we st a yed wit h m y a u n t . Ca n you im a gin e we ju st h a d on e bedr oom for a ll of u s. Sin ce it wa s st ill su m m er t im e wh en we a r r ived t h a t of h a vin g on ly on e bedr oom didn 't bot h er u s t oo m u ch . So wit h t h e wa r m wea t h er a n d we cou ldn 't fit in t h a t on e bedr oom / we slept ou t door s.
Wh ile we wer e livin g wit h m y a u n t sh e wou ld m a k e t h ose cor n t or t illa s. Th ey look ed good/ bu t I didn 't lik e t h em . I h a d t o ea t m y flou r t or t illa s. P oor Da d h e wou ld sa cr ifice h im self a n d bu y a specia l sa ck of H ou r so I cou ld m a k e m y own t or t illa s. Ot h er wise/1 wou ldn 't ea t .
E ver yt h in g wa s so differ en t . I wa sn 't u sed t o t h is life. It wa s so t ou gh on
m e.
I u sed t o pla y ba seba ll wit h m y h igh h eels on . I wor e t h em wh en I ca r r ied wa t er wh en I did ever yt h in g, I loved h eels. Th e people didn 't lik e t h e wa y I dr essed. Th ey didn 't lik e for u s t o wea r lipst ick / r ou ge/ or a n yt h in g.
I wou ld a lwa ys sa y, oh wh a t if I cou ld go ba ck t o m y cou n t r y/ a ga in . . . I a lwa ys h a d in t en t ion s of goin g ba ck h om e,
N o llor o/ per o m e a cu er do.
Dich o M.exica n o
I don 't cr y, bu t I r em em ber .
Mexica n P r over b
Mexica n wor k er s r ecr u it ed a n d br ou gh t t o t h e Ar k a n sa s Va lley, Color a do, N ebr a sk a ,
a n d Min n esot a by t h e F a r m . Secu r it y Adm in ist r a t ion , t o h a r vest a n d pr ocess su ga r beet s
in Ma y 1943, (Libr a r y of Con gr ess, Office of Wa r In for m a t ion .)
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