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Learning Outcome: Compare and contrast three systems for digitally accessing information.

Why is this important?

Mastering this outcome will help strengthen your researching skills and ability to locate information on the Internet. Consider Liz, for example. Lately, Liz has been unable to access some of her favorite websites and has been frustrated by the general slowness of the Internet on her computer. She figured her computer was just getting old, so she started shopping for a new one. She then learned some Internet tips in her GEN 103 course and tried updating her Internet browser among other things. That solved the issues! She is now thankful she didn’t go out and buy a new computer.

How does this relate to your success in this course?

This section’s learning outcome is associated with the following course learning outcome: Determine the best search strategy for a given information need. Mastering this learning outcome will enable you to save time in your busy life so that you can balance the needs of school, work, family, and other commitments.

To review the course learning outcomes and their relevance to you, see the Your Roadmap to Success feature at the beginning of this book. Best of luck on your journey to success!

Quick Tip!

Troubleshooting With Technology

Using technology can often be infuriating, especially when it stops working or doesn’t work the way it’s supposed to. The remainder of this module includes quick tip boxes to help solve some common issues students experience when accessing the databases in the AU Library. Often, students assume the database is having issues, when in reality the problem lies with their computer, Wi-Fi signal, browser, or something else.

Practice It!

Searching in Databases

Use ProQuest Newsstand to find a newspaper article written shortly after a well-known news event such as Hurricane Katrina or the 2008 presidential election.

Locate a more recent article (newspaper or scholarly) on the same topic. Was any information missing from the original newspaper account? Did the updated article provide a different view or perspective from the account given in early reports?

Quick Tip!

Keeping Your Browser Healthy

Follow these steps to ensure your browser is functioning at its best:

• Clear out your cache and cookies.
• Update your browser to its latest version. You can do this by visiting the website for each browser or clicking on the name of each browser listed previously.
• Update your Adobe Flash Player ( http://get.adobe.com/flashplayer ). Flash allows you to see animation and video.
• Adobe Reader ( www.adobereader.com ) allows you to view PDFs on the Internet. If you are unable to read documents of this type, try downloading the most recent version of Adobe Reader.
• Java ( www.java.com/en ) enables you to view certain website applications and should be updated regularly.
• Adblock Plus ( https://adblockplus.org/en ) blocks unwanted ads, pop-ups, and banners. Consider installing it if you have these issues.

Your Roadmap to Success: Section 3.1

Learning Outcome: Describe what the CRAAP test is and how it is used to evaluate information.

Why is this important?

Understanding the CRAAP test will help you sort through vast amounts of information so that you can find the information that’s important to you. Consider Crystal, for example. Crystal was looking for a new job. She found many job ads online and spent a lot of time applying to them. However, she didn’t get many responses and was feeling frustrated. The few responses she did receive turned out to be not what they seemed. After learning the CRAAP test, she realized that many of the job ads were likely scams or outdated. She now uses the CRAAP test to evaluate job ads and has had much better results conducting a targeted job search.

How does this relate to your success in this course?

This section’s learning outcome is associated with the following course learning outcome: Determine the best search strategy for a given information need. Mastering this learning outcome will enable you to save time in your busy life so that you can balance the needs of school, work, family, and other commitments.

To review the course learning outcomes and their relevance to you, see the Your Roadmap to Success feature at the beginning of this book. Best of luck on your journey to success!

Ashford Student Profile: Natasha

Natasha has just submitted her final paper for her Health & Wellness Promotion class, and she’s feeling confident. She was able to find several scholarly articles and e-books in the AU Library as well as plenty of resources she found on the Internet to back up her claims about the best approaches to teaching healthy nutrition habits to college freshmen. When her graded paper came back, she was surprised to see she had earned only a C, when she had felt so strongly that she was surely getting an A. After further inspecting her paper, she saw that the instructor had deducted points for the resources she found on the Internet and the arguments she had based off those sources.

Natasha was confused; the instructor clearly stated that resources found on the Internet were permitted for this assignment in addition to scholarly material. Why was she docked points? When she read through her instructor’s comments, she found comments such as “this teaching method is not used by health promotion professionals because recent research has shown it encourages disordered eating behavior in college freshmen” and more comments such as “according to who?” or “please back up with facts, not opinions.” When Natasha scrolled to the end of her paper, she saw that the instructor had written a final comment saying that if she was going to use resources from the Internet, she should make sure she was using the most updated information from credible, authoritative entities. For example, sources might include the American College Health Association, the Centers for Disease Control, scholarly articles from PubMed, or other open source scholarly resources. Instead, Natasha had used information from websites such as nutrition blogs by unknown, self-proclaimed “health experts,” promoting and selling diet foods, and an article written by a registered dietitian in 1991. As a result, the claims she made based on those sources were biased, outdated, and probably inaccurate. Because Natasha had found so much information on her topic on the Internet, it was difficult to know what to choose, so she had gone with what came up on her first page of results, as so many of us do.

Figure 3.1 The CRAAP test

Quick Tip!

Locating Stable Information

Information you locate on the Internet may not be stable. That is, it can move or disappear without warning, making any links you use to cite your information invalid. Information you find on websites owned by the United States government, large business or nonprofit organizations, or educational institutions is usually more stable and therefore less likely to disappear. Additionally, these sites often archive their information, so even if their information has been updated or moved, it may still be accessible.

Your Roadmap to Success: Section 3.2

Learning Outcome: Identify the criteria used to evaluate the currency of information.

Why is this important?

Being able to determine the currency of information will prevent you from making decisions that are based on outdated information. Consider Ron, for example. Ron wants to eat healthier and has been using a health book he found in his closet to help him plan meals. However, after he learned the importance of having current information, he checked the copyright and realized the book had been published over 20 years ago and thus might have outdated information that might deter him in his quest to eat healthier.

How does this relate to your success in this course?

This section’s learning outcome is associated with the following course learning outcome: Evaluate information sources for authority, bias, accuracy, and currency. Mastering this learning outcome will help you identify threats and misleading or outdated information that could jeopardize your schoolwork, as well as your personal life.

To review the course learning outcomes and their relevance to you, see the Your Roadmap to Success feature at the beginning of this book. Best of luck on your journey to success!

Currency of information is usually important when researching

• current events and news.
• stock market activity.
• laws and regulations.
• research in the field of information and communication technologies (ICTs).
• medical/health information.
• sciences.
• weather and traffic conditions.
• statistics (unless you are looking for historical statistics).
• reviews on products, restaurants, and so on.
• information about companies/organizations/institutions—news, data, operations, personnel, practices, and so on.

Currency of information is usually not important when researching

• historical information.*
• topics within the humanities.*
• cooking, cleaning, gardening, and home repair.
• many hobbies such as painting, knitting, and working on old cars.

* Primary sources, such as census records and legal documents, can be valuable artifacts containing important data relevant to your study even though they were created many years ago. However, researching historical information and humanities topics can be tricky because new evidence is often discovered that changes the way historians view events in the past. If you are researching historical events or topics within the humanities, make sure the information comes from an authoritative source, something we discuss later in this module.

Your Roadmap to Success: Section 3.3

Learning Outcome: Identify the criteria used to evaluate the relevance of information.

Why is this important?

Being able to evaluate the relevance of information will help you stay focused on your goals by eliminating unnecessary information. Consider Cecilia, for example. Cecilia always assumed that, when it comes to sources for your research paper, the more you have, the better your paper will be. But after learning about the importance of relevant information, she realized that quality is more important than quantity when it comes to sources.

How does this relate to your success in this course?

This section’s learning outcome is associated with the following course learning outcome: Evaluate information sources for authority, bias, accuracy, and currency. Mastering this learning outcome will help you identify threats and misleading or outdated information that could jeopardize your schoolwork, as well as your personal life.

To review the course learning outcomes and their relevance to you, see the Your Roadmap to Success feature at the beginning of this book. Best of luck on your journey to success!

Your Roadmap to Success: Section 3.4

Learning Outcome: Identify the criteria used to evaluate the authority of information.

Why is this important?

Being able to evaluate the authority of information will help you find credible people and resources, and avoid those that might discredit your work. Consider Christian, for example. Christian is preparing his children to move to a new town. One of his friends heard about the move and sent him a link to a website that discussed how terrible the school system in the new town is. At first, Christian was alarmed because he wants a quality education for his kids. He then realized that the website doesn’t list the author, which he thought was suspicious. Knowing the importance of evaluating authority, he did some more research and found a government website that lists test results from the new school system (which were above average) and a Facebook page with posts from parents whose children attend the school system. He decided the authority of these pages was much more credible and felt better about his decision to move.

How does this relate to your success in this course?

This section’s learning outcome is associated with the following course learning outcome: Evaluate information sources for authority, bias, accuracy, and currency. Mastering this learning outcome will help you identify threats and misleading or outdated information that could jeopardize your schoolwork, as well as your personal life.

To review the course learning outcomes and their relevance to you, see the Your Roadmap to Success feature at the beginning of this book. Best of luck on your journey to success!

Ashford Student Profile: Gina

Gina was in trouble. She’d been researching the topic of her history paper for over a week and was coming up empty handed. When she initially selected the topic in her Book History class, she was excited! Her professor listed the Dutch East Indies Trading Company (VOC) as a possible topic and included three books published during that time that she was to write about. The majority of her paper was to be written on the history involved with the VOC, with supporting information on how each of the three books fit into the history of that organization. She knew this topic had the potential to be tough to research but felt she was up for the challenge.

Gina easily located the information she needed on the VOC within the AU Library. She initially began researching for information on the three books by searching in digital libraries in Europe. Gina quickly realized that these libraries shared similar information on each book and so was able to glean only a few key pieces of information for her paper. She then began searching the Internet using Google and was shocked to see the websites that contained information on her three books were all written in Dutch. She tried using Google Translate, but the information on the pages was still difficult to understand. In spite of this, she was able to pull a few more key pieces of information for her paper, but it wasn’t enough.

As the deadline for Gina’s paper drew near, she began writing it with the research she did have. While the information on the VOC was complete and accurate, she still needed more information on the three books. Gina was feeling desperate. She remembered that during her background research she came across information on two of her three books on Wikipedia. Gina knew she wasn’t supposed to use information from Wikipedia on an academic paper, but she was curious if the site contained information that she did not come across during her actual research.

As Gina typed the name of her books into Wikipedia, she was surprised and relieved to see information on two of her three book titles, information on all three authors, and the publishers of each book listed there. As she scanned and skimmed the information within the articles, she noticed citations throughout each article, with links to the information at the bottom. Gina gathered as much information as she could from the sites referenced in the Wikipedia articles. Many of the links were from .edu sites in other countries and historical preservation sites. Gina scoured those websites and was able to discover the information she needed to complete her paper. At the end of it all, she was confused why these resources did not show up in her Google results.

The strategy Gina used to gather information from the citations listed in the Wikipedia articles is called mining. Mining information from the citations listed in Wikipedia articles can be very valuable, especially if you are in a tight research bind. However, remember that you should evaluate each site listed on a Wikipedia article using the CRAAP test before using any of the information.

The reason Gina didn’t see these results in her Google searches is that (1) the sites were from other countries and (2) the Internet filter bubble could be excluding these sites from her results.

Examining an Organization’s Authority

Pay attention to organizations with similar-sounding names; sometimes a group will call itself something that sounds like an established, reputable organization, but it may have a different purpose.

For example, the American College of Pediatricians and the American Academy of Pediatrics sound like very similar organizations.

The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP; www.aap.org ) is a professional organization for pediatricians that was founded in 1930; has over 60,000 members; and is a leading source of clinical guidance, policy recommendations, and education about children’s health.

The American College of Pediatricians (ACP; www.acpeds.org ) is a socially conservative group that consists of about 200 members. Some public health experts believe that the ACP advances its members’ personal and religious agendas by distorting the research of others (Collins, 2010).

As you can see, although their names are very similar, the authority of these organizations varies greatly. As this example shows, it’s essential to investigate the authority of the organizations publishing information you plan to use. Not what the group stands for.

Your Roadmap to Success: Section 3.5

Learning Outcome: Identify the criteria used to evaluate the accuracy of information.

Why is this important?

Learning how to evaluate the accuracy of information will help you uncover hidden biases and agendas in the media you encounter in your professional, personal, and academic lives. Consider Akeem, for example. Akeem is interested in local politics, so he used to read a blog focused on his town’s politics. However, the blog often seemed to be overly critical of a certain city council member, so he became suspicious about the blog’s accuracy and authority. After some research, Akeem discovered that the blog’s author went through a bitter divorce with the council member and may be seeking revenge through the blog! The blog was clearly biased and therefore not accurate. Akeem now stays current by reading the local newspaper and attending council meetings himself.

How does this relate to your success in this course?

This section’s learning outcome is associated with the following course learning outcome: Evaluate information sources for authority, bias, accuracy, and currency. Mastering this learning outcome will help you identify threats and misleading or outdated information that could jeopardize your schoolwork, as well as your personal life.

To review the course learning outcomes and their relevance to you, see the Your Roadmap to Success feature at the beginning of this book. Best of luck on your journey to success!

Your Roadmap to Success: Section 4.1

Learning Outcome: Describe several desktop and digital tools for organizing research.

Why is this important?

Using several desktop and digital tools for organizing research will help you keep track of information in an efficient manner and across multiple devices. Consider Lee, for example. Lee has a computer at work and another one at home. He also has a smart phone and often uses the tablet at his sister’s house. He uses all four of these devices to research things for school, work, and just fun things to do on the weekend. But he could never remember where he had stored information—that is, until he learned about cloud storage and other tools for organizing in his GEN 103 course.

How does this relate to your success in this course?

This section’s learning outcome is associated with the following course learning outcome: Analyze the concept and value of information literacy for successful lifelong learning. Mastering this learning outcome is essential to your success as a student—it will increase your chances of getting good grades and will increase your capacity to learn to your full potential in your academic, personal, and professional lives.

To review the course learning outcomes and their relevance to you, see the Your Roadmap to Success feature at the beginning of this book. Best of luck on your journey to success!

Module 1 introduced the threshold concept information creation as a process, which acknowledges that the purpose, message, and delivery of information are deliberate acts of creation. In that module we focused on how information is presented in different formats due to the purpose or reason it was created. We also discussed how considering the creation process of various information formats will help you select appropriate sources to answer your research question. Now that your research is complete and you’ve gathered the appropriate sources to address your research question, it’s time for you to engage in the process of information creation.

Students who are developing their abilities in the information creation as a process threshold concept

• develop, in their own creation processes, an understanding that their presentation choice impacts the purposes for which the information product will be used and the message that it conveys.
• transfer their knowledge of the capabilities and limitations of information formats into new types of information formats.
• understand that different methods for disseminating information with different purposes are available for their use.

The remainder of this module helps you through the process of using your research to create your own information by organizing it for presentation.

As you progress through steps 1 through 3 of the research process, you will collect various pieces of information that you will need to organize. Generally, it is recommended that you organize this information as you find it, as opposed to trying to pull it together into some sort of system at the end. Again, keeping yourself organized from the beginning of the research process will save you valuable time. It will also help you identify gaps in your research that you might otherwise miss.

Here are some common mistakes both students and professionals make while conducting research:

• Not taking notes or not writing down a source at the time you find it because you think you will remember the information and the location.
• Losing track of research articles you’ve read.
• Not writing down ideas or thoughts you’ve had while reading.

Tools to avoid these pitfalls include desktop files and bookmarks, tools within the Ashford University (AU) Library, and cloud storage. These options offer you a variety of ways to organize your information.

When we last saw Irwin, he was finishing up his research and preparing to write his paper on the benefits of social networking in the workplace (Table 4.1). Let’s take a closer look at the organizational tools that are available to him.

Table 4.1: Irwin’s completed KWHL chart

Desktop Folders and Bookmarks

When you were in school, you may have been taught to use notecards to help keep yourself organized while researching. This system is cumbersome for digital information such as research articles you’ve downloaded and websites you’ve found helpful. This section provides some suggestions for organizing your digital information.

When beginning a new research project, create a new folder on the desktop of your computer. Name the folder and begin placing the articles you save here. Try using Microsoft Word or Pages to create a document recording your thoughts and ideas. You can also use Word or Pages to create a running list of citations and record your thoughts about each source. This list, called an annotated bibliography (see Module 5), will help you keep track of the information you are collecting. You can also list websites you’ve visited, along with notes about the information you found and how you plan to use them. Save each of these documents with a name that is meaningful to your project into the desktop folder you created. Now, all of your information is in one place. Here is an example of Irwin’s desktop folder.

Bookmarking websites can also be helpful especially if you find yourself returning to the same site repeatedly. Instead of bookmarking sites in your web browser, try using social media bookmarking sites like Delicious ( https://delicious.com ), Kippt ( https://kippt.com/ ), and Diggo ( https://www.diigo.com/ ). Since these sites allow you to save your links on their website, you’ll be able to access them from any computer. Here is an example of how Irwin used Delicious to bookmark the websites he used to answer his research question. Notice that he was able to tag each of the sites he saved. These tags help Irwin to remember what each site discussed and why he decided to save it.

Tools in the AU Library Databases

As you learned in Module 2, the Ashford University Library is made up of databases containing information in a digital format. Databases often contain tools to help keep your research organized. While each database is a bit different, you usually can save your articles in folders, email yourself the article, or download the article to your computer. It’s important to note that these features are usually available only for articles and not for e-books or videos.

Database Folders

Databases such as EBSCOhost and ProQuest allow you to save articles, search results, search histories, and more to a folder that you can use anytime you are in the database. To make use of this tool, you must first set up a personal account in each database. For instance, if you plan on conducting research in both ProQuest and FindIt@AU (EBSCOhost), you would need to set up an account with both databases. Once your account is established, you can begin saving articles to your folder in that database. Keep in mind you must sign in each time you use the database to gain access to the information you have saved. Once you begin collecting and adding materials to your folder, you will have the option of organizing your saved materials by title or by the date you added them.

One of the benefits of using the folder tool is that it enables you to access the saved information from any computer. This offers increased flexibility if you use many different computers. A possible negative to saving your research in a database folder is your dependence on being able to access that specific database to get to it. If the database goes down, or you forget your user name and password, you will not be able to access your information.

Emailing

From AU Library databases, you also have the option to email articles to yourself. This feature does not require you to set up a personal account within a database; instead, you email articles to yourself by simply clicking an icon. Most databases also allow you to email the citation along with the article in whatever format you choose, such as APA or MLA. In the AU Library, you can email only articles, not e-books or videos.

Once the articles have been emailed to you, it’s up to you to keep them organized. Try setting up a folder in your email account where you can save all of your database research. Keeping your articles saved in your email will allow you to access them from any computer. If you’re not concerned with accessing these resources from multiple computers, you could simply download them to add to your desktop folder.

Downloading

You can also download database articles directly to your computer’s Downloads file. They will download as Portable Document Format (PDF) files, and you will need to have Adobe Reader ( http://get.adobe.com/reader/ ) installed on your computer to be able to open and read them. This free software application takes up very little memory on your computer’s hard drive. Updated versions of the Adobe Reader software are released quite often, so be sure to download newer versions as they become available.

Once you have downloaded an article, you will need to find a safe place to store it. If you plan on downloading multiple articles for the same project, consider saving them in a desktop folder, as advised earlier. All of your research will be in one folder that you can quickly locate and access. Let’s look at Irwin’s desktop folder, which now includes PDFs of the articles he has downloaded from the AU Library. Notice that he has included tags to remind himself what each article discusses.

Database folders, email, and downloading each use different technologies. Initially, you may feel more comfortable emailing an article to yourself as opposed to using the folder option within a database. Make sure that you try exploring each tool to see which one works best for you.

Cloud Storage

When you hear the term cloud storage, you may imagine storage boxes or file folders floating in the sky. Despite its fanciful name, cloud storage is simply the storing of digital content on a remote server. If you’ve always saved files on your own computer’s hard drive, you might be wondering why you would want to save them remotely. Actually, there are many reasons:

• Space: Saving files to your desktop takes up space in your computer’s memory. The less available space you have, the slower your computer will run.
• Access: If you’ve saved a paper you’re writing on your home computer, you can’t then access it from your smart phone while you’re riding the subway.
• Backup: If you want to make backup copies of key files on your hard drive, saving them to the cloud is a great choice. Storing your data in both the cloud and the hard drive of your computer is an extra precaution worth taking to keep your data safe.
• Sharing: Say you’re working on a project with two other students. Using cloud storage allows you to create a shared account where you store files. This way, you and your colleagues are able to quickly access the revisions you’ve made to your shared files.
• Organizing: Cloud storage is also a valuable tool for organizing your information, because it offers many options for arranging and classifying information. You can organize your files alphabetically, categorically, and hierarchically (see section 4.2).

For all these reasons, instead of saving files to a hard drive, more and more people are saving to websites that store files on their server. Three popular cloud storage services are Google Drive ( www.google.com/drive ), Microsoft OneDrive ( https://onedrive.live.com/ ), and Dropbox ( www.dropbox.com ). Each of these free services offers differing amounts of storage space. If you need more than your allotted free space, you may have to pay for it. Obviously, you can’t access cloud storage services without an Internet connection. Broadband service is highly recommended: dial-up Internet service may have too narrow a bandwidth to enable you to upload or download files.

Irwin has decided to use Google Drive to back up his research. Here’s a look at how he has organized his information using Google Drive. Notice that the same information that was located in his desktop file can be found in his Google Drive folder. This will help guarantee that his information is safe.

One concern with using cloud storage services is the debate over data ownership. Questions to consider are: Does the information I store in a cloud system still belong to me, since I originally uploaded it? What happens to my data if the company suddenly goes out of business? Can the cloud storage service I use delete my data? Look for the answers to these questions in the terms of service agreement used by the cloud storage service you’re considering. Whereas this concern about data ownership is important, it shouldn’t deter you from using cloud storage services. After all, with one hard-drive crash, you could lose everything stored on your personal computer. It’s unfortunate, but imperfect technology—and imperfect users—means that digital information is vulnerable. Bear in mind, however, that even print information can easily be misplaced, stolen, or lost in a fire or flood. Cloud storage is a helpful tool, even if you use it only as a backup to the information you store on your personal computer.

Your Roadmap to Success: Section 4.2

Learning Outcome #1: Discuss the many digital note-taking tools available.

Why is this important?

Note-taking tools will help you organize the vast amounts of information you encounter in your academic, professional, and personal lives. Consider Kirsten, for example. At first, Kirsten thought taking notes while she researched her assignment would be a waste of time, so she didn’t do it. But when she started writing her assignment, she realized she was spending a lot of time just trying to remember where all her sources were located. So she took notes for her next assignment and discovered that note taking is actually a timesaver in the long run. Kirsten was able to complete her second assignment much faster because she was able to quickly find her sources when she needed them. Additionally, the note-taking tools are helping her keep track of her ideas for the business she wants to start.

How does this relate to your success in this course?

This section’s outcome is associated with the following course outcome: Utilize electronic tools to search for, locate, organize, and communicate information. Mastering this learning outcome will help you express yourself. It will also give you the tools to find the “answers” you need—whether you are researching a school assignment, looking for a new job, seeking advice for your family, or otherwise.

Learning Outcome #2: Explain the differences between quoting, summarizing, and paraphrasing.

Why is this important?

Knowing the difference between quoting, summarizing, and paraphrasing will help ensure that you are able to give credit where credit is due, while maintaining your academic integrity. Consider Rachel, for example. Rachel was glad to learn the differences between quoting, summarizing, and paraphrasing because she felt she had some really good ideas, and she wanted to be able to clearly distinguish between her ideas and other people’s ideas in her research papers.

How does this relate to your success in this course?

This section’s outcome is associated with the following course outcome: Develop strategies to access and use information ethically and legally. Mastering this learning outcome will help you maintain your integrity and reputation, and protect you from legal action and other negative consequences both within and outside of school.

Learning Outcome #3: Explain how to organize information conceptually, chronologically, and hierarchically, including by using an outlining tool.

Why is this important?

Effectively organizing information will ensure you can express yourself in ways that other people will be able to follow and understand where you’re coming from. Consider Alan, for example. Alan, an active volunteer at his daughter’s school, was asked to create a series of flyers promoting events at the school. He would need to create almost 40 flyers for a variety of events over the course of a year. He was overwhelmed at first! But by using the organizing skills he learned in his GEN 103 course, he was able to plan for, design, and write effective flyers that communicated important information in a clear, easy-to-read manner.

How does this relate to your success in this course?

This section’s outcome is associated with the following course outcome: Utilize electronic tools to search for, locate, organize, and communicate information. Mastering this learning outcome will help you express yourself. It will also give you the tools to find the “answers” you need—whether you are researching a school assignment, looking for a new job, seeking advice for your family, or otherwise.

To review the course learning outcomes and their relevance to you, see the Your Roadmap to Success feature at the beginning of this book. Best of luck on your journey to success!

You now have some practical strategies and tools for collecting information for your research papers and other sources. But—in addition to reading the materials—what do you do with them? How do you move from a collection of sources to a coherent academic paper, oral report, or video? Effectively presenting your information takes some preplanning and organization. The steps to get you there are note taking and framing. These steps are explained here.

Note Taking

When you’re researching, it’s important that you keep track of your resources. Nothing is more frustrating than having a great quotation or the perfect statistic and not remembering where it came from. This is just one reason to develop a good, consistent system for taking notes and keeping them organized.

We introduced a few digital note-taking tools in Module 2 (see section 2.5) within the context of gathering information. These tools can also be used to take notes as you prepare to organize and present information. Here are a few others to consider.

• Quicklyst ( https://quicklyst.appspot.com/ ) is a free web-based note-taking tool that includes a search engine and dictionary for enhanced note taking. Notes are taken in an outline format and include a search tool that allows you to easily locate information within the notes you’ve recorded.
• Workflowy (https://workflowy.com/ ) is a free web-based note-taking/outlining tool that is simple to use. It allows you to create your own system for tagging your entries, so they are easily searchable using their search platform. It also includes a checklist feature that could be a useful tool for keeping you on track for meeting deadlines.
• Zotero ( www.zotero.org/ ) is a free tool that collects, manages, and cites research sources. It also has a note-taking feature that allows you to create standalone notes and notes attached to resources.
• Scriblink ( www.scriblink.com/ ) is free online note-taking tool that functions like a digital whiteboard. It allows you to share your notes, drawings, or diagrams with others. It also allows you to save, send, or print your notes.

Some of these tools, like Zotero, also function as citation management tools and will be discussed further in Module 5. Let’s see how Irwin uses Zotero for note taking.

Depending on the situation, you may discover that you need to use multiple methods of note taking. For example, you may find typing out your notes works best for your academic needs, but that paper and pencil notes work well in your personal life. Finding a system that works for you is the ultimate goal, so spend time exploring different note-taking methods and tools until you find one that most effectively meets your needs.

Now that you are aware of some digital tools for note taking, let’s explore the type of information you should include in your notes. At times, note taking can be quite agonizing and time consuming. While completing the process may always take a bit of time, note taking can be less painful if you have a solid strategy in place for extracting the necessary information. According to Badke (2014) and Presnell (2013), part of that strategy is being able to include specific types of information from the research you’ve gathered to include in your notes. These types of information are common knowledge, quoting, summarizing, and paraphrasing. Let’s take a closer look at each one.

Common Knowledge

Common knowledge is considered something that seems to be commonly known. Common knowledge will vary country to country and from discipline to discipline. For instance, the citizens of China will have a very different set of common knowledge among its population than those in the United States. Another example could be the fields of chemistry and history. Both of these disciplines will have a different set of common knowledge that will not be commonly known to others outside their field.

Determining what is common knowledge within the discipline or field you are researching could be difficult if you are new to the topic. However, seeing or reading the same facts and assumptions over and over could establish the information as common knowledge. Common knowledge can be valuable for adding context and background to support the topic of your paper. This type of information may not need to be cited in your paper. Here are some basic examples of common knowledge:

• Washington D.C. is the capital of the United States.
• Thomas Edison was a well-known American inventor.
• Washing your hands prevents the spread of germs.

As you gather information and begin adding it to your notes, be careful not to confuse common knowledge with detailed information that includes common knowledge, which would need to be cited. Compare the preceding common knowledge examples with the following detailed information that includes common knowledge:

• Washington D.C., also known as the District of Columbia, was originally created through the donation of land from Maryland and Virginia. In the 1840s, a downturn in the Virginian economy led to the state petitioning Congress to return the land they ceded. Congress granted their request in 1846 and returned all the territory Virginia originally donated.
• Thomas Edison, a well-known American inventor, amassed a record 1,093 patents before his death in 1931.
• Cold and flu germs can live on any surface for 2 hours or more. Washing your hands for at least 20 seconds can reduce the spread of cold germs by 21 percent.

Quoting

Quoting is using an author’s exact words. You may find that an author expresses something so perfectly that you want to include the original wording. Maybe you oppose an author’s point of view and need to use his or her exact wording to form your counter argument. Either way, you need to include the full citation in your notes. Keep track of the direct quotations you use in your notes by placing quotation marks around the information. Here is a quote Irwin used in his notes. Notice that he included the citation with the quote, so he remembers to include it in his paper.

“Professional uses for social networking software have been identified in the workplace. However, the reluctance for employees to combine work and professional connections are occurring within management at all organizational levels.”

Lewis, C. (2014). Social networking in the workplace: constraints among management. The Journal of Social Networking, 121.

Summarizing

Summarizing involves reading a block of information and then putting it into your own words. The point of summarizing should be to take pages of information and condense them into a paragraph of notes or a paragraph into a sentence. Summarizing information allows you to process the information by forcing you to think about the information to make it your own. Summarizing large pieces of material can be challenging if the topic is complex or hard to understand. Therefore, summarizing is not ideal for every note-taking situation.

Paraphrasing

Paraphrasing is taking an author’s ideas and putting them into your own words. This differs from summarizing, which is the condensing of information and not the rewriting of sentences in your own words. Paraphrasing usually involves replacing words in an author’s sentence with synonyms. While this approach may be okay as a method of note taking, it is generally not recommended because most students do not change enough of the author’s original wording for it to be included in their research paper. Incorrectly paraphrasing could be considered a form of plagiarism. Here are examples of both summarizing and paraphrasing.

Original text

“The exact reasons for Vikings venturing out from their homeland are uncertain; some have suggested it was due to overpopulation of their homeland, but the earliest Vikings were looking for riches, not land. In the eighth ­century A.D., Europe was growing richer, fueling the growth of trading centers such as Dorestad and Quentovic on the Continent and Hamwic (now Southampton), London, Ipswich and York in England. Scandinavian furs were highly prized in the new trading markets; from their trade with the Europeans, Scandinavians learned about new sailing technology as well as about the growing wealth and accompanying inner conflicts between European kingdoms.” (History.com, 2009)

Summarizing

According to History.com (2009) Viking exploration in the 8th century resulted in many monetary and informational gains that directly enhanced the success of their raids. Through their profitable trading relationships with England, the Vikings learned about new sailing innovations, European wealth, and territory conflicts that proved to be fruitful.

This is an example of correct summarizing. Incorrect summarizing would either be just as long as the original passage or so short that the essential pieces of information were missing.

Incorrect paraphrasing

While the exact reasons Vikings branched out from their homes is uncertain, it has been suggested that overpopulation of their homeland may be the cause. It is known that the earliest Vikings were seeking wealth, and not land. With Europe prospering in the eighth century, their trading centers began expanding, especially in England. Furs from Scandinavia were greatly coveted in the new trading markets with the Europeans. These interactions taught the Scandinavians about new sailing expertise, and the prosperity and conflicts between the various European kingdoms.

This example sounds too much like the original text. The sentence structure is very similar, and the original wording has been replaced with synonyms. You should avoid this type of paraphrasing at all costs.

Correct paraphrasing

As discussed on the website History.com, Viking exploration in the eighth century led to many discoveries that directly enhanced their level of prosperity. Not only did their exploration lead to prosperous trade with English territories, it also led to an increased understanding of European innovations and complex disagreements between monarchies. Both of which directly enhanced the Vikings’ success and dominance over the region (History.com, 2009).

Taking notes is an essential part of the research process. Therefore, following the preceding note-taking guidance will provide you with an opportunity to think, reflect, and understand the information. Another benefit of note taking is that it may ultimately help your recall of the information (Bui, Myerson, & Hale, 2013). Additionally, if you organize your notes as you go, you’ll avoid losing track of your research and will be able to identify where more information is needed. Consider organizing your notes by the subtopics you would like to discuss in your paper. These could be the topics you listed on your concept map or KWHL chart.

During the note-taking process, it’s easy to make mistakes if you are not diligent. Here are a few common errors to avoid:

• Avoid copying information word for word directly from a resource, unless it will be used as a quotation. Copying information not only keeps you from fully processing the information but can also lead to plagiarism if the notes end up in your paper.
• Avoid adding too much detail to your notes. This will slow you down. Keep your notes concise by including only the most significant information.
• Remember to include the page numbers of the resource you are using in your notes. Overlooking this step will result in spending valuable time searching for this information and could leave you open to making mistakes.

Framing

As you begin thinking about how best to present your notes, you may begin feeling a bit overwhelmed. If so, it often helps to take a step back and analyze them. Have you found out everything you wanted to learn about your topic? If not, you’ll need to conduct another search to fill in any gaps in the notes you’ve gathered.

Next, weed out any irrelevant information—that is, information that’s off topic or doesn’t address your research question. Instead of entirely deleting these notes and files, place them in a separate folder until you’ve finished your presentation and are certain that you won’t need them.

Once you’ve completed these two steps, you’re ready to begin putting your information into a logical framework—in a sense, a blueprint for your paper or other presentation. Creating a framework that will enable you to unfold your thoughts, ideas, and researched information in an organized and effective way takes time and care. Here are a few things to consider in this planning stage to help you create this framework. Let’s see how Irwin addresses these questions in the creation of his framework.

• Purpose: What is the purpose of my presentation? Am I educating, analyzing, summarizing, persuading, inspiring, or entertaining? Make sure that the information you include helps you reach this goal. Include information from the resources you’ve gathered that is essential to fulfilling your purpose, but avoid trying to include every minor detail. Finally, as noted earlier, leave out anything that you decide is irrelevant.

  As Irwin evaluates the notes he’s taken and the research he’s gathered, he notices that he has quite a bit of information on societal uses of social networking and social media. Since this is not the specific focus or purpose of his paper, he decides to keep only the information that will provide a background and context for his research question, which is focused on the workplace.

• Audience: Who is receiving this information? What information can I assume they already know about my topic? Is there any technical information or language in my presentation that my audience might not understand? Make sure your audience has the prior knowledge to understand the information you’re presenting.

  Since Irwin’s audience is his professor, he’s fairly certain she has prior knowledge on the topic of his paper. Nonetheless, Irwin decides to include enough background information in his paper to ensure she understands his topic and can follow his train of thought.

• Structure: How can the structure of my presentation best showcase the information I’m sharing? What are the essential pieces of information that must be included? College-level writing requires that you use sophisticated and complex methods for structuring your information. The required method is usually tied to the assignment instructions or the required citation format (such as APA, MLA, or Chicago). Make sure you include what you found or uncovered during your research and why this is important (University of Melbourne, 2013).

  Irwin takes another look at his assignment instructions to make sure he is on track. He also wants to make sure he structures his paper according to the requirements of the assignment. He already has the required resources synthesized and ready to use. His next step will be organizing his information into a cohesive framework to write his paper from.

Once you’ve answered these questions, you’re ready to choose a process for effectively framing your information. The following sections provide you with options for how to do this.

Conceptual Frameworks

Module 1 briefly introduced the idea of organizing your ideas through concept mapping. A concept map is a graphic organizer that allows you to organize your thoughts, ideas, or in this case research notes to see relationships between concepts. When framing a particular topic by concept, you would begin by introducing your main concept and then cluster your supporting ideas for backup. The information is structured so that the supporting ideas are broken down to show how they contribute to the main concept.

Irwin used a KWHL chart instead of a concept map in Module 1 to organize his ideas. Using the ideas he had for his research assignment, let’s see what his concept map would have looked like (Figure 4.1).

Figure 4.1 Irwin’s possible concept map

Chronological Frameworks

Information organized chronologically is presented as a sequence—for example, the steps in a process of repairing a flat tire or baking a quiche. Often, the information is organized by time (chronos refers to time), with the purpose of showing a pattern of events that led to a specific outcome. Organizing your information chronologically is usually effective when covering historical or scientific topics. This method also works well when you want your audience to observe changes over time or make comparisons. For example, say Irwin wanted to discuss the evolution of social networking in the workplace in his paper. He could begin by organizing his information in the form of a timeline like this:

I. 2003

1. LinkedIn launches

II. 2005–2008

1. Blogs and wikis gain in popularity for networking and connecting workers to jobs.

2. Twitter launches

3. Facebook gains popularity with working adults and companies.

III. 2009–2010

1. SharePoint is launched to connect and enhance collaboration among employees.

2. Google+ launches as a possible tool for workplace collaboration and networking.

Hierarchical Frameworks

A hierarchy is an arrangement of topics by level of inclusiveness or importance. For example, in biology, a hierarchy of the plant kingdom, which includes all plants, would be more inclusive than one showing particular types of plants, such as flowering plants (see Figure 4.2). A common example of a hierarchy of importance is an organizational chart at a place of employment. Usually, an org chart places the head of the company or department at the top and lists the employees reporting to this person directly below in order of authority.

Figure 4.2 Basic hierarchical chart example

In an academic presentation, organizing information by hierarchy is useful when you would like to show the order of inclusion, importance, or value. For example, you might open a video on a program of community development by introducing the city, then the neighborhood, then the community center where the program meets, then the volunteers and the people they serve. Or you might structure a paper on chemical elements by presenting elements from lightest to heaviest, or a review of proposed innovations in public education by presenting them from most to least expensive.

You likely already use each of these three methods, albeit subconsciously, in many ways. When gathering and organizing information to file your taxes, you first organize your receipts and other documents by time (chronologically) to ensure they fall within the correct calendar year. Next, you look at what category the information belongs to: receipts for office supplies might go into one pile and charity donation receipts in another. You use the same principles—whether or not you’re aware of them—when you organize your closets, kitchen, DVD collection, and even your laundry.

When it comes to organizing information, however, you need to apply these principles consciously. Spend time considering which method for organizing your information works best and helps to create the structure and cohesiveness you need for successful presentation.

Outlines

At the beginning stages of your research, you should decide on your points of interest and the direction of your argument. You can achieve this by creating an outline. An outline is an ordered list of the main topics and subtopics you plan on covering in your paper. Writers use these tools to help them organize their thoughts before writing a first draft. Outlines are important at this stage of the research process, as they serve as a foundation or blueprint for the structure of your paper. The way you assemble the information in your paper is crucial for how readers will receive it. If the topics you discuss in your paper get out of order or are unclear to readers, your paper will be considered ineffective. Using an outline will not only prevent this from occurring, but can also help identify gaps in your thinking and help you address areas in your paper that need more research.

Let’s look at a detailed example of an outline from the Ashford Writing Center (AWC; https://cdmsmedia.bridgepointeducation.com/MediaService/MediaService.svc/constellation /book/AUWC.12.4/%7Bhandouts%7Da.1_sample_outline.pdf ). Creating an outline like the example from the AWC takes some practice and quite a bit of thought. Keep in mind that every outline you create will not need to be that detailed. Following a set of steps can help you in the creation of your own outline:

1. Identify the topic of your paper. You can do this through your research question, which will help you identify the goal of your paper. Keep your research question concise, ideally to one sentence. This will ensure your paper stays focused on your main topic.
2. Identify the main topics to be covered. Consider the goal of your paper, and based on your concept map or KWHL chart, list the main topics you would like to include. These points should be briefly addressed in the introduction of your paper. The remainder of your paper can expand on those points.
3. Create the first main topic. Here you should include any background knowledge your audience needs to understand your topic. This can be a complicated word that needs defining or a theory that needs a basic explanation.
4. Create subtopics. List subtopics under each of your main topics. They provide support for each of your main topics. The number of subtopics you include will depend on the topic. However, you should provide at least two subtopics for each main topic to offer enough support.
5. Think about your outline. After constructing your outline, refrain from immediately writing the first draft of your paper. Instead, spend some time thinking about how you’ve organized your outline and if it will make sense for your readers.

   It’s rare that the first draft of an outline will be on target, so keep reworking it until it’s just right. A well-formed outline should take your readers from the introduction of your topic all the way through to your conclusion in an efficient manner (Badke, 2014). You can test whether your outline is in its final draft by asking a few questions to check its strength and validity.

   Here are some questions you might ask:

   • Does my thesis or research question control the direction of my outline?
   • Are all of my main points relevant to answering my research question?
   • Can any of these points be moved around without changing something important about my research question?
   • Does the outline seem logical?
   • Does my argument (the statement of response to my research question) progress, or does it stall?
   • Do I have sufficient support for each of my points?
   • Have I made room in my outline for other points of view about my topic?
   • Does this outline reflect a thorough, thoughtful argument? Have I covered enough ground on my topic to sufficiently answer my research question? (Adapted from the Institute for Writing and Rhetoric, 2015)

In Module 5, you’ll learn how to format main headings and subheadings in an academic paper. For now, explore one or more of the following outlining tools, which are available free. This is a very small sampling of the many outliner tools available online. Notice that two of these tools were also mentioned in the previous section on taking notes.

• Quicklyst ( https://quicklyst.appspot.com/ ) is a free web-based note-taking tool that also creates outlines. It offers an outlining template and allows you to store multiple outlines on different subjects. Quicklyst includes a search tool to allow you to locate specific information within your outline or notes.
• LooseStitch ( http://loosestitch.com/ ) is a free web-based outlining tool that allows you to collaborate on the creation of an outline and also export an outline to Microsoft Word or other software platform.
• Workflowy ( https://workflowy.com/ ) is a free web-based note-taking/outlining tool that is simple to use. It allows you to create your own system for tagging your entries, so they are easily searchable using their search platform. It also includes a checklist feature that could be a useful tool for keeping you on track for meeting deadlines.

In addition to these tools listed, Microsoft Word ( https://support.office.com/en-CA/article/use-outlines-to-structure-notes-and-ideas-56373f1e-f55e-4356-8e87-32e650e5d832 ) also has an outlining tool that can help you organize your information.

While the majority of this section focused on how to create an outline for an academic paper, there is an option for outlining when creating a presentation. It’s called a storyboard, and it provides the layout for a presentation. Storyboarding is best used when you’re creating a visual presentation, such as a PowerPoint or Prezi. The following example shows what a story­board looks like for a Prezi. You also can locate free storyboarding software, such as StoryboardThat ( http://www.storyboardthat.com/ ), online.

Source: The PresentationSchool.com. Reprinted with permission from Martha Denton.

Your Roadmap to Success: Section 4.3

Learning Outcome: Discuss a variety of formats for presenting written, oral, and audiovisual information.

Why is this important?

Presenting written, oral, and audiovisual information will enable you to “show off” what you’ve learned and to express yourself in a variety of forums and formats. Consider Clara, for example. Clara works as a manager at a popular restaurant chain and is required to submit monthly sales reports to corporate headquarters. After learning more about using graphics to display information visually in her GEN 103 course, Clara decided to add some extra tables and charts to her sales reports to better illustrate the data. The corporate staff found them so helpful that they now require all restaurant locations to submit similar charts and tables in their monthly sales reports.

How does this relate to your success in this course?

This section’s outcome is associated with the following course outcome: Utilize electronic tools to search for, locate, organize, and communicate information. Mastering this learning outcome will help you express yourself. It will also give you the tools to find the “answers” you need—whether you are researching a school assignment, looking for a new job, seeking advice for your family, or otherwise.

To review the course learning outcomes and their relevance to you, see the Your Roadmap to Success feature at the beginning of this book. Best of luck on your journey to success!

Part of being information literate is effectively presenting the information you’ve researched in a variety of formats. For an academic course, the format in which you present your information will be determined by your instructor and explained in the assignment instructions. At work or in other situations, you may be required to present information in a technical report, a conference presentation, or a video. The remainder of this module discusses different formats for presenting information. Generally, you’ll present your information in a written form, as an oral presentation, or as an audiovisual. At times, you may need to use a combination of all three. What is shared here is not an exhaustive list of all the presentation options available to you, but simply a few you are likely to encounter in your academic, professional, or personal life.

Written Presentations

When you’re presenting information in a written form, certain rules or standards apply as to what is and is not acceptable, and these rules vary with each type of writing. For instance, academic papers have a more formal set of rules and guidelines to follow than blogs. No matter the format, your writing must successfully communicate your message. If it doesn’t ­effectively communicate your message, you risk losing your readers’ attention. They may even disengage entirely from your message and stop reading it (Bernard et al., 2014).

Academic Paper

As you progress in your academic courses at Ashford University, you will be required to write many formal academic papers. The length of each paper will vary by assignment, as will the depth and complexity of the topics you will be expected to write about. When you are writing a paper of this nature, the audience is generally your professor, and the goal is to demonstrate your ability to understand and synthesize course-related information. One of the best ways to demonstrate your understanding and mastery of the topics in your course is to include information from course readings in your paper. Often, students overlook these resources and jump straight into researching on the Internet. Keep in mind that the materials posted in your classroom are there for a reason and can be a valuable asset to your papers. In your AU classroom, you can locate these resources under the Course Materials tab.

An academic research paper should be formal, not only in its layout (see Module 5), but also in its tone. It should also focus your arguments to a very specific conclusion. William Badke (2014) provides some tips to assist in the process of writing an academic research paper.

Let’s check in with Irwin and see how he’s using these suggestions in the construction of his own academic paper.

• Introduce your paper well. Spend time crafting a well-written introduction as it serves two purposes, to provide your readers with a working knowledge of your topic and to share your research question or thesis statement.

  For Irwin’s introduction, he includes his research question, defines the term social networking and provides the differences between social networking and social media so that his readers have working knowledge of his topic and can apply his definition to the remainder of his paper.

• Keep focused. A solid research question and well-organized notes provide a path to keep you focused toward your conclusion. If you are unclear on the direction your paper is going to take, resist the temptation to begin writing it. Try reorganizing your information and reworking your notes until you have clarity on the direction your paper should take.
  Initially, Irwin struggled with keeping his paper only on the topic of social networking in the workplace. He had discovered so much great information on his topic that he felt it should all go into his paper even though it wasn’t on his initial topic or didn’t answer his research question. After quite a bit of thinking and reorganizing his notes, he decides to follow up his introduction by sticking to the main points: These are popular workplace social networking tools, the benefits of using these tools in the workplace, and how companies and organizations are using social networking tools to gain these benefits.
• Describe before you analyze. Provide background information on your topic so readers can analyze the information you present.
  Irwin does this in his introduction and also when he introduces popular social networking tools for the workplace.
• Be respectful. Any disagreements you may have with an author or viewpoint should be handled with a level of professionalism and respect. Avoid using language that ridicules an opposing point of view.
  As Irwin was conducting his research, he came across quite a few negative articles and points of view on the use of social networking in the workplace. He plans to address a couple of these negatives through his discussion on the benefits of social networking and reminds himself to be professional in his tone and writing.
• Be logical. Keep your readers in mind at all times. They do not know where you are going, so abrupt subject changes risk derailing your focus and losing your readers. Use transitions in your writing when switching topics and have a clear sense of your research question and outline. Make sure each paragraph you write contributes to the solution of your research question.
  To keep his readers on point and reduce any confusion they may have, Irwin includes headings in his paper and transitions to lead his professor in the direction he wants her to go. He’s confident this will keep both of them on track.
• Be explicit. Your readers cannot read your mind. Carefully and clearly explain ideas or topics that are not common knowledge.
  Irwin created a list of topics and terms that he was unfamiliar with at the start of his research and then removed what was considered common knowledge after completing his research. As he progresses through his paper, Irwin carefully introduces and explains each concept or term on his list.
• Be concise. Communicate complicated information using plain language. Say what you mean and avoid using long words and ambiguity.
  Irwin avoids writing run-on sentences and using contractions in his paper. Since he can sometimes be long winded in his writing, he spends extra time proofreading his paper to ensure he presents his ideas clearly and concisely.
• Watch out for flawed arguments. Avoid misrepresenting the authorities you are using to support your arguments and make sure you use only arguments that include evidence to support your claims. When writing your paper, imagine your audience is hostile and resistant to the ideas you are presenting. Make sure you include enough evidence in your paper to not only support your claims, but also to convince your readers. If not enough evidence exists, then admit it in your paper by stating so. You could phrase this point as, “Currently, more evidence is needed before a clear consensus can be reached on this issue.”
  Irwin is confident in his research; he was sure to support the benefits for using social networking in the workplace through his research. He made sure that each benefit he discussed in his paper was supported by at least one resource.
• Know when to quote and when not to quote. This issue will be covered more thoroughly in Module 5. For now, make sure you use quotations in your paper only to back up your view by a notable scholar or when someone states something in a striking way. Avoid using quotations when you can make your point just as well in your own words, when you have already included quite a few quotations in your paper, or when the material you wish to quote is over five to six lines long.
  Irwin learned in his first few classes at AU that placing too many quotes in a paper was not a good idea. He initially thought that using quotes in his papers was not only a good way to save time, but also an easy way to reach the assignment page requirement. His instructors felt otherwise through their feedback on those assignments. Irwin now makes sure that he includes only one quote per page, or one quote every two pages, if needed.
• Watch your conclusions. An effective conclusion summarizes the main points in your paper and makes your position clear. Avoid long conclusions that use elaborate ­language.
  In the past, conclusions have been a struggle for Irwin. He was never sure how much information to include or not include. He didn’t want to restate everything in his paper, and before the end of it, he honestly was quite tired, so he would skip the conclusion. One of his professors pointed out that a good conclusion leaves readers feeling satisfied. Without it, your paper can often feel unfinished or incomplete. This time, Irwin waits to write his conclusion until the very end, right before he finishes proofreading it. After reading his paper so many times, he feels that he is better equipped to write a satisfying yet concise conclusion.
• Make it look professional. Proofread your work. Look for typos, grammar errors, and awkward wording. Try reading your paper out loud slowly, as this can help you detect errors. Use the proper citation format required (APA, MLA, and so on). If you are using Zotero, EndNote, or another citation management tool, be sure to double-check the citations it creates. These tools can be a huge help with the organization of your information, but they are not fool proof.
  Irwin practiced a number of techniques for proofreading his paper. He tried reading it slowly and then reading it aloud. Before submitting it, he even had his wife read it just to double-check him. Irwin used Zotero for his citations and notes. He was sure to double-check each citation based on the information he found in the Ashford Writing Center.

  Quick Tip!

  Practice Makes Perfect

  Like most things in life, practice makes perfect. The same is true for academic writing. The more opportunities you have to write academic papers, the more opportunities you have to improve your writing process. The following suggestions can help you develop stronger academic writing skills:

  • Pay close attention to the feedback and suggestions you receive on your writing assignments. Don’t take these comments personally. Instead, use the feedback from your instructors as opportunities to learn and grow.
  • Carefully read the scholarly articles you gather, looking closely at the structure of the authors’ writing. How do they write their introductions and conclusions? Can you follow their lines of thinking and the structure of their arguments? Learn what you can from these articles and try applying it to your own writing.

Proposals and Grants

At some point in your academic life or professional career, you may have to write a proposal or grant. A proposal presents an idea for a program or a plan of action. Grants request funding for a particular program or initiative. Both require a very specific presentation of information. Each one is written for a specific audience that will review the information for approval. This makes the acceptance of your ideas by your audience key to your success.

The information requirements for proposals and grants will vary based on the institutions you are working with or applying to. Many proposals and grants require some basic information such as an introduction, background, description of the program or need, your goals or vision for the program, and a plan of implementation. Proposals and grants should be written at a high level, using descriptive yet concise language. The actual writing of the proposal or grant is often the most challenging piece of the process, so partnering with colleagues who are experienced in proposal and grant writing can be helpful.

Technical Reports

Technical reports are frequently used to communicate the results of research or to access a problem. They are most often found in the workplace and are usually formatted based on a set of criteria specific to each field or discipline. Here is a closer look at some common types of technical reports.

Research Findings. These reports explain how information was collected in the field. They vary from basic data logging to a detailed description of the problem or issue under study. Often, they include the method or equipment used, the data collection process, and the implications.

Simple Technical Information Report. This type of report provides information on a specific topic with the goal of ensuring the audience has a clear understanding of the subject.

For example, a technical report on investing in the production of new LED technology would most likely explain how this technology has evolved, how it works, and the specific vocabulary indicative to this field. This type of report does not lean in favor for or against investing in this technology or provide recommendations.

Technical Specifications. Specification sheets usually include descriptions of a product’s features, materials, uses, and mechanisms. An effective specification sheet includes visual elements such as graphics, data, and illustrations, instead of large amounts of text to share information about a product. An example would be a specification sheet for a new LED light from a lighting manufacturer.

Technical Evaluation Reports. These reports are sometimes called feasibility reports because they present technical information in a reasonable manner with the goal of determining the likelihood of its occurrence. For example, a technical evaluation report would provide the steps needed to implement a new manufacturing process and list any potential problems. It would not recommend if the process was valid and if the manufacturer should implement it.

Technical Recommendation Reports. This type of report builds on the evaluation report by offering specific recommendations to aid in the decision of the best solution. At times, some reports include both the evaluation and recommendation reports integrated into one report.

Technical Manuals and Instructions. These manuals provide step-by-step instructions using language appropriate for the general public. An example would be appliances, equipment, or program manuals (Wright, 2014).

Whereas the actual structure, content, and organization of a technical report will vary by field, many industries follow the same guidelines when writing the actual report. Here is a list of common guidelines:

• Write the report in active voice using third person. Avoid using personal pronouns, as this will cause your report to sound as if you are presenting subjective, instead of objective, information.
• Always use correct spelling, grammar, and punctuation at all times to give your report a professional tone.
• Present diagrams neatly and include a number and title for all figures.
• Cite all sources used in the creation of the report.
• Never use Wikipedia as a source in your paper. Likewise, evaluate all websites you would like to use with the CRAAP test or other evaluation tool before including their information in your report (Wright, 2014).

Social Media

At times, you may need to present information using a social media tool. Especially in workplace settings, corporate blogs, Facebook pages, Twitter feeds, and other tools are relatively new methods of presenting information. Researchers have also recently taken to social media to share their findings and learn more about each other’s work through social media outlets like Academia.edu and other open access repositories. When presenting information on a social media site, even your own personal blog, ask yourself the following questions:

• Who is my target audience with this information?
• Will I be able to effectively present my information in this medium, or should I communicate it elsewhere?
• Have I proofread the information I’m sharing and double-checked my spelling?
• Does it matter who sees this? Or is it okay if everyone sees this?
• Have I presented my information in a way that ensures others will understand my message?

Oral Presentations

Presenting information orally takes careful planning and attention to detail just as writing does. You not only need to take into account the information you’d like to share, but also need to determine your audience, organize that information, and practice your delivery. Depending on your level of experience, presenting orally can be a bit challenging. From the pace of your presentation to your ability to answer impromptu questions, public speaking takes quite a bit of practice and a deep understanding of your topic.

Types of Oral Presentations

One of your first experiences presenting orally is likely a class presentation you did in grade school. In a class presentation, you have the luxury of being familiar with your audience, and the topic of your presentation has most likely been assigned. You also have a built-in support system with your fellow students. Since each one of you is in the same position, you can practice with each other and offer valuable feedback to help each other succeed.

Many people hone their presentation skills in the workplace, where they may be required to train employees on a new computer system, make a sales presentation to a potential client, inform stakeholders on quarterly projections, or present a departmental budget to upper management. In many cases, presentations are used to communicate important information about the company or organization. Improving your oral presentation skills can make you more valuable to your department and organization.

Presentation Strategies

When you are giving any oral presentation, whether in a classroom or at a conference, it’s common to feel nervous. Fortunately, focusing on the quality of your preparation and information can help. Follow these guidelines from Princeton University when giving an oral presentation.

Preparation will help you deliver an effective presentation and possibly help control your nervousness. Know your topic well. See yourself as an expert. This will boost your self-­confidence. Create a good introduction, focus on the most important points, and end with a strong conclusion.

• Know your topic and become an expert.
• Learn as much about the topic as you can to boost your self-confidence.
• Find out who your audience is to determine how much detail to go into and what vocabulary you may have to define.
• Prepare an outline of your topic with bullets or numbers of the main points.
• Write out your presentation if you need to organize your thoughts, but outline the text for the actual presentation.

Visual aids (maps, photos, film clips, graphs, diagrams, and charts) can enhance a presentation.

• Keep visual aids simple and uncluttered.
• Use color and contrast for emphasis but use them in moderation.
• Use a font large enough to be seen from the back of the room.
• Avoid using sound effects, graphics that move, and dramatic slide transitions.

Handouts provide structure and supplemental material, and are a nice take-a-way for your audience. Handouts should be attractive and inviting to read. Leave enough white space on the handout for audience members to take notes. A handout should be one to two pages long and consist of

• your name
• title of course
• date of presentation
• title of your presentation
• a brief outline of your presentation including your major points
• a bibliography of references used to compile the presentation

Delivery of your presentation requires knowledge of room conditions. Good preparation should relieve most of your nervousness. Everyone feels nervous before a presentation. If you are using any kind of technology (such as an overhead projector or PowerPoint), be prepared for something to go wrong and have a backup plan. Delivery tips include the following:

• Guide your audience stating what your topic is and what you will be covering at the start of your presentation.
• Avoid reading your remarks or the information you have on slides.
• Dress neatly and appropriately.
• Speak in a clear, audible voice loud enough to be heard in the back row.
• Stand up straight; don’t slouch or drape yourself around the podium. Moving around the room will cause the audience to pay attention, but don’t fidget.
• Never apologize to your audience for the state of your knowledge or your degree of preparation. The audience wants to have confidence in you as the authority, so do nothing to undermine that authority.
• Make frequent eye contact with the audience. Engaging them directly with your eyes transfers a bit of your energy to them and keeps them focused on your content.
• If you use PowerPoint or other slides, avoid the tendency to speak to the screen instead of to the audience. Be so familiar with your visual aids that the only reason you look at them is to point out something.
• Never turn your back on the audience and try to avoid walking in front of the projector.
• Adhere strictly to your time limit. Organize your main points and rate of speech.
• At the end of your presentation, summarize your main points and give a strong concluding remark that reinforces why your information is of value.
• Show some enthusiasm.

Equipment tips:

• Work out details with equipment before the day of your presentation.
• Know how to operate the equipment you plan to use.
• Make a Plan B for equipment or technology failure.
• Do not expect an Internet or Wi-Fi connection to work when you need it. Have websites you plan to use available as offline copies. Work offline whenever possible to avoid slow connection speeds.

Audiovisual Presentations

Audiovisuals can have a huge impact on how your audience responds to and understands your presentation. In fact, poorly chosen audiovisuals have the potential to ruin an otherwise stellar presentation. Well-chosen audiovisuals are visually appealing, clarify the message you are communicating, and hold the audience’s attention. Before selecting any type of audiovisual for presentation, make sure it will increase your audience’s engagement with or comprehension of the information you are presenting. Your ability to effectively create and use audiovisuals contributes to your overall visual literacy, which will positively impact your information literacy skills.

Graphics

Graphics include charts, tables, photos, and illustrations. They can help you illustrate difficult concepts or add visual appeal. A well-placed graphic can impress your readers or audience and make your presentation memorable. Before including any graphics in your presentation, keep in mind the purpose of your paper should always be to accurately and clearly communicate your information, so the graphics you include should be meaningful (Sperandei, 2014). Meaningful graphics are connected to the topic of your presentation and enhance your message. They should never distract your audience or detract from the information you are communicating.

Here are some things to keep in mind when using graphics:

• Use graphics such as charts, graphs, or figures to illustrate complex numerical data.
• Avoid using images simply to extract an emotional appeal from your audience that is unrelated to your presentation topic, such as a cute cat picture.
• Use or create only graphics that are instructional or visually appealing.
• Avoid using graphics that are of a poor visual quality.
• Cite any graphic you use from a source. Try creating your own graphics instead of using someone else’s.

Different types of graphics have different strengths depending on how you use them to present information. Here are some examples of common graphics.

Bar graphs can also be called histograms or column bar charts. They are useful for clearly displaying categorical data and illustrating comparisons. Bar graphs can be displayed vertically, horizontally, or even stacked (Figure 4.3). You can create these graphs using Microsoft Word, Excel, or online using special websites.

Figure 4.3 Vertical bar graph

Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Office of Employment and Unemployment Statistics, Current Population Survey. (2004).

Line graphs show trends through the slope of lines. They can be used to display longitudinal data and also to track changes over short and long periods of time. When smaller changes in the data exist, line graphs are more effective to use than bar graphs. Line graphs can also be used to compare changes over the same period of time for more than one group (Figure 4.4). You can create these graphs using Microsoft Word, Excel, or online using special websites.

Figure 4.4 Line graph

Source: Reprinted with permission from Gail Tverberg, http://ourfiniteworld.com .

Pie charts, also known as circle charts, work well when comparing parts of a whole using numbers. The data on a pie chart is divided into slices to illustrate its numerical proportion (Figure 4.5). These charts do not show changes over time and do not work well when the categories are smaller than the human eye can distinguish. As with bar and line graphs, you can create these charts using Microsoft Word, Excel, or online using special websites.

Figure 4.5 Pie chart

Scatter charts, or scatter plots, provide a way to “identify relationships between two continuous variables” (Sperandei, 2014). These charts can identify different types of correlations between variables (Figure 4.6). As with the other graphs and charts, you can create scatter charts using Microsoft Word, Excel, or online using special websites.

Figure 4.6 Scatter chart

Infographics, like the ones used in this textbook, are effective for displaying large quantities of information quickly and clearly. A good infographic uses engaging pictures and an easy-to-follow layout to catch the readers’ attention. You can create infographics online using special websites like Piktochart ( http://piktochart.com ) and Easel.ly ( www.easel.ly/ ).

Video

We currently live in a world saturated with video options, with websites such as YouTube and Vimeo allowing the average person to become an Internet sensation. With numerous tools available, it is possible to make a decent video to present information without a lot of money or training. “New online tools are constantly being introduced (and retired, unfortunately) which enable you to enter your content (words, images, video, etc.), and have it processed into a completed video in a short amount of time” (Bernard, et al., 2014). Video hosting sites like YouTube and Vimeo allow you to host your videos on their sites for free.

Making a video presentation may initially seem like an easy task. However, to create something of quality is actually time-intensive and can be complex. Again, organization is the key to creating a successful video. The first step in designing a video is to write a script, making sure to highlight your key points. Next, the storyboarding process begins, in which you sketch out each scene in the video. This process takes a bit of time and is constantly updated as needed. After that, it’s time to rehearse and start filming, followed by editing and refilming any scenes, if necessary. Producing anything of value takes time, and just like most things, the process of making a quality video should not be rushed. If creating a video is new for you, before deciding on a video presentation, consider taking a class in videography.

Presentation Software

When people discuss presentation software, most automatically think of PowerPoint, the most popular presentation software available. PowerPoint has been around for over two decades, and in the past few years, newer presentation tools such as Haiku Deck ( www.haikudeck.com/ ) and Prezi ( www.prezi.com ) have been gaining in popularity. Each of these tools uses a slideshow format to communicate information to an audience. However, Haiku Deck and Prezi allow you to create and save your slides on their website, making them accessible from any computer. On the other hand, PowerPoint is created using a software program attached to a computer. Once the presentation is complete, it must be uploaded to Slideshare ( www.slideshare.net ) or another hosting program before it can be accessed from anywhere.

Presentation software works best when a speaker discusses the topics presented on each slide, instead of reading each slide verbatim. Here are more tips for creating effective slide presentations.

• Include only a few statistics on a slide. If you have large quantities of data to share, try saving it on a separate handout instead of including it in your presentation. Distribute the handouts at the appropriate time during your presentation or wait until the end.
• Avoid long paragraphs of information. Keep the information you present on each slide clear and concise. Try displaying information on each slide using a bulleted list, sharing only one or two key ideas per slide. This technique helps keep your information organized and ensures the audience can follow you as you verbally explain the ideas you’re sharing.
• Embed technology in your slides to enhance your presentation. This can be links to websites, videos, or other tools. Make sure that what you include is on topic and does not deter from the focus of your presentation.
• Avoid using moving images or graphics that distract from your presentation. This includes slide transitions and sounds.
• Spend time selecting a legible font and background. Beware of using a light font on a light background and a dark font on a dark background. Make sure you vary the size of your font. For example, headings on slides should be slightly larger than the information presented on each slide (Presnell, 2013).

In Module 5, we will meet back up with Irwin as he puts the finishing touches on his paper and completes his reference list.

bar graphs

Graphics used to display categorical data and illustrate comparisons. Also known as histograms or column bar charts.

cloud storage

The storing of digital content on a remote server as opposed to your computer’s hard drive.

grants

Written documents used to request funding for a particular program or initiative.

infographics

Graphics used to display large quantities of information quickly and clearly. A good infographic uses engaging pictures and an easy-to-follow layout to catch the readers’ attention.

line graphs

Graphics used to show trends through the slope of lines. They can be used to display longitudinal data and also to track changes over short and long periods of time.

outline

An ordered list of the main topics and subtopics you plan on covering in your paper. Writers use these tools to help them organize their thoughts before writing a first draft.

paraphrasing

Taking an author’s ideas and putting them into your own words. This differs from summarizing, which also involves condensing the information.

pie charts

Graphics used to compare parts of whole numbers. The data on a pie chart is divided into slices to illustrate its numerical proportion. Also known as circle charts.

proposal

A written document used to present an idea for a program or a plan of action.

quoting

Using someone else’s exact words. Quoting requires the use of quotation marks.

scatter charts

Graphics used to identify different types of correlations between variables. Also known as scatter plots.

summarizing

Condensing a large amount of information and putting it in your own words.

technical reports

Documents used to communicate the results of research or to assess a problem.

Your Roadmap to Success

Your Roadmap to Success: Section 5.1

Learning Outcome: Explain how copyright law and the concepts of public domain, fair use, and open access all relate to intellectual property.

Why is this important?

Having an understanding of copyright law and intellectual property can keep you out of legal trouble online and in school, as well as prevent other people from stealing your ideas and work. Consider Janelle, for example. Janelle has been blogging about her family life ever since she had her first child seven years ago. Since the blog has been gaining in popularity, she wants to make sure she does things the right way. After she learned about copyright law, she realized she needs to be more careful with the images she posts. While it is legal for her to post the family pictures she takes, she needs to be careful about who else might be using them and in what context. She also realized that she shouldn’t be using images from other websites without first getting permission from the owners—just like she wouldn’t want her family photos used on other websites without her knowledge.

How does this relate to your success in this course?

This section’s outcome is associated with the following course outcome: Develop strategies to access and use information ethically and legally. Mastering this learning outcome will help you maintain your integrity and reputation, and protect you from legal action and other negative consequences both within and outside of school.

To review the course learning outcomes and their relevance to you, see the Your Roadmap to Success feature at the beginning of this book. Best of luck on your journey to success!

Module 1 briefly introduced the ACRL threshold concept information has value. Information can be considered a commodity, a method of education, a way to influence, and also a means of understanding the world around you. Let’s take a closer look at how information can be considered a commodity.

The monetary value we place on certain types of information brand them as a commodity. Think of how much money you spend on the purchase of books, movies, magazines, newspapers, or any other type of information source. Society recognizes the amount of time, thought, and resources that go into the creation of information and places a monetary value on this process. Now think about the information you consume online. Much of it is free, so what does this say to you about the process involved in its creation, the resources that go into it, and the value placed on it? Does the mere fact that it is often easy to produce make it less valuable? Ultimately, any information may be valued more or less highly based on its author, its audience or consumer, or its message. Students who are developing their abilities in the information creation as a process threshold concept

• respect the original ideas of others by giving credit to the original ideas of others through proper attribution and citation.
• understand that intellectual property is a legal and social construct that varies by culture.
• articulate the purpose and distinguishing characteristics of copyright, fair use, open access, and the public domain.
• understand how the commodification of their personal information and online interactions affects the information they receive and the information they produce or disseminate online.
• make informed choices regarding their online actions in full awareness of issues related to privacy and the commodification of personal information.

Authors can ensure society respects the value of their original creations through the process of intellectual property. According to the World Intellectual Property Organization, ­intellectual property “refers to creations of the mind, such as inventions; literary and artistic works; designs; and symbols, names and images used in commerce” (WIPO, n.d.). For a work to be considered an author’s intellectual property, it must be covered by copyright, a patent, or trademark. Each of these ensures creators are able to earn recognition for their valuable innovations and contributions to society. The exact laws associated with intellectual property vary from country to country. Let’s take a closer look at copyright.

Living in the digital age offers new challenges when it comes to the access and use of information. This is where copyright, a form of intellectual property, comes in. Copyright is a series of laws and guidelines set forth by a country to protect the original works of an author. Copyright applies to the following (note that this list is not exhaustive):

• Text (for example, in books, journal articles, reports, web pages)
• Images (for example, photographs, artistic works, graphs)
• Video and moving images (for example, films, videos, television commercials)
• Audio recordings (for example, music recordings, radio programs, podcasts)
• Computer programs
• Pictorial, graphic, or sculpted works
• Architectural works

It makes no difference whether these materials are self-published, published by a traditional publisher, or published by a media outlet. They are all covered by copyright.

The laws and guidelines governing copyright in the United States are quite detailed and can seem confusing. Table 5.1 contains some of the key features of copyright law.

Table 5.1: Copyrights of works first published in the United States

Year of first publication Note: publication is not creation	Copyright duration
before 1923 during 1923-63: without notice, or with notice but not renewed within 28 years of first publication during 1964-77: without notice from 1978 to March 1, 1989: without notice and without registration within 5 years of first publication	Work has entered US public domain
during 1923-63: with notice and renewed during 1964-77: with notice	Copyrighted for 95 years after first publication
from 1978 to March 1, 1989: pre-1978 creation with notice, or without notice but registered within 5 years of first publication from March 2, 1989 to 2002: pre·1978 creation	If author is known, copyrighted until the later of either 70 years pma* or Dec 31, 2047. If author is unknown or corporate authorship, the earlier of 95 years after first publication or 120 years after creation, but not earlier than Dec 31, 2047.
from 1978 to March 1, 1989: post-1977 creation with notice. or without notice but registered within 5 years of first publication from March 2, 1989 to 2002: post·1977 creation unpublished before 2003 (i.e. first published after 2002)	If author is known, copyrighted for 70 years pma.* If author is unknown or corporate authorship. the earlier of 95 years after first publication, or 120 years after creation.

* pma: post mortem auctoris. or “after the author’s death”

Looking at Table 5.1, you might think that copyright law covers everything produced. However, quite a bit of information does not qualify for copyright protection. Here is some information not covered by copyright:

• Facts
• Ideas, concepts, and principles
• Noncreative works (phone books, URLs, diagrams, maps, and so on)
• Recipes
• Works not created in a tangible form
• Most government publications

When in doubt, it’s best to assume that copyright law governs a work you’d like to use and you need to obtain permission from the author or copyright holder before using it. This also includes websites. The following sections cover options that fall outside the stringent guidelines of copyright law. They are public domain, fair use, and open access.

Public Domain

Works that have never been or are no longer covered by copyright law belong in the public domain. This includes the previous list of items that do not fall into copyright. Permission is not needed to use materials in the public domain. However, you still must cite the material appropriately according to the reference format required for your paper or project. Keep in mind that web pages that fall outside the .gov domain name are copyrighted and do not fall into the public domain. Table 5.2 contains the guidelines to follow when determining whether a work will be covered in the public domain.

Table 5.2: Guidelines for determining public domain

Year of first publication Note: publication is not creation	Copyright duration
before 1923 during 1923–63: without notice, or with notice but not renewed within 28 years of first publication during 1964–77: without notice from 1978 to March 1, 1989: without notice and without registration within 5 years of first publication	Work has entered US public domain

Fair Use

According to the American Library Association (ALA, n.d.) fair use “allows for the use of copyrighted works for purposes of criticism, comment, news reporting, scholarship, or research.” The goal behind fair use is to promote creativity for the benefit of society. To determine if a work falls into fair use, you must consider four criteria: the purpose of the work, the nature of the work, how much of the work you want to use, and the effect your use will have on the market (see Figure 5.1).

Figure 5.1 The fair use four

The four criteria in Figure 5.1 can help determine if the material you use to prepare an academic paper for your professor will fall under an educational fair use. As long as you do not use a substantive portion of the work and it is factual and/or published, you are most likely covered under public domain. However, if you took that paper and posted it to a website or blog, your paper could fall out of public domain and you risk breaking copyright. If you need help deciding if a work falls under fair use, try using this Fair Use Evaluator ( http://librarycopyright.net /resources/fairuse ).

Failing to accurately determine fair use can put you at risk for breaking copyright. Consider the golden rule and take from someone else only what you wouldn’t mind someone taking from you. Once you make a fair use determination, you no longer need to seek out written permission to use the work, but you still need to give credit to the resource through citing. Keep in mind that only a court can make an actual determination of fair use. However, by using the four fair use criteria, you are using the same information a judge would use in a court of law.

Ashford Student Profile: Andy

Andy’s boss tasked him with creating a PowerPoint presentation for an internal company meeting sharing the products and services offered by the company. Andy decided to enrich the presentation by adding some images he located on various websites into the slides. Since the presentation was for internal use only, Andy didn’t bother requesting permission to use the images or bother to cite them. After the presentation, which was a huge success, Andy decides to post the PowerPoint to his own website. Not only will this promote his company, but it will also display his creative skills to a wider audience.

What are the legal implications of Andy’s actions? Is he breaking copyright? Most likely, his use of the images does not constitute fair use since the images were unaltered reproductions. Also, there’s a good chance that the copyright holder’s business model depends on licensing these images.

Open Access

Open access is the free and unrestricted access to information on the Internet. In the academic world, open access specifically refers to the free and unrestricted access to digital scholarly/peer-reviewed journal articles and research. Open access to these resources helps advance the scholarly conversation (see Module 1 for more information on this topic) by increasing the number of people within a field or discipline who are able to view recent research and innovation. However, many publishers are against the open access model, as it can significantly reduce their revenue, as once pricey publications are now available for free. Since many publishers hold the copyright of the works their authors produce, publishers have the ability and authority to restrict access to this information unless it is purchased.

Many authors and scholars who do hold the copyright to their works are exploring other alternatives, such as open access and the Creative Commons ( http://creativecommons.org/ ). The Creative Commons is a nonprofit organization that provides modified copyright licenses that allow you to decide how the public can use your information. Creative Commons licenses work alongside copyright law by allowing you to decide on the copyright terms that best meet your needs.

Quite a few websites, such as YouTube, Google Images, and Flicker, now allow you to filter your search results to only those that fall within the Creative Commons. You can search these sites on the Creative Commons website.

When we last left Irwin, he had effectively gathered his resources and organized his information to write his paper. As he moves into the last step of the research process, he nervously begins checking the formatting of his citations within his paper and on his references lists. He wants to uphold a high level of academic integrity, but he’s afraid he doesn’t quite know or understand what this entails. In the coming sections, we take detailed look at what he needs to know.

Your Roadmap to Success: Section 5.2

Learning Outcome: Identify the key issues of academic integrity and the role they play in the scholarly conversation.

Why is this important?

Maintaining your academic integrity will earn you the respect of your instructors and classmates. Consider Tyler, for example. Teaching his sons to be men of integrity is important to Tyler. He used what he learned about academic honesty not only to make sure he maintains his own academic integrity as he works toward his college degree, but also as an example of the importance of hard work and honesty for his sons.

How does this relate to your success in this course?

This section’s outcome is associated with the following course outcome: Develop strategies to access and use information ethically and legally. Mastering this learning outcome will help you maintain your integrity and reputation, and protect you from legal action and other negative consequences both within and outside of school.

To review the course learning outcomes and their relevance to you, see the Your Roadmap to Success feature at the beginning of this book. Best of luck on your journey to success!

The academic community believes that one of the goals of an institution of higher learning is to strengthen academic integrity and responsibility among its members. To this end, universities emphasize the importance of sound judgment and a personal sense of ethical responsibility. All members of the academic community—students and faculty—are expected to abide by the highest standards of academic integrity (Ashford Writing Center, n.d., “Academic Dishonesty Definition”).

Academic Honesty and Common Knowledge

Academic honesty means that if you are writing the words of someone else, or if you are discussing a unique idea you learned from research, you must cite your source. Your writing should leave citational footprints so that your readers can track where your work derives from the work of others.

Some students believe they must give credit to a source only when they quote from it directly. This isn’t the case. Changing a few words in a passage or even putting an idea entirely into your own words does not relieve you of the responsibility to credit your source. If an idea is not your own, you must cite the source in the text of your paper and include a complete reference at the end of the paper.

As we discussed in Module 4, the only exception to this citation rule is for facts or concepts that are considered common knowledge. This is information that is widely known and does not stem from one person’s original thought or theory. These facts or concepts are generally known by many people and can easily be found or referenced. Some examples are

• historical facts, such as that New York was one of the thirteen original colonies of the United States or that Robert Kennedy was assassinated in 1968.
• scientific facts, such as that sleep is regulated by the brain, or that carbon is an element with the atomic number 6.
• knowledge shared within the culture, such as that Spanish is commonly spoken as a first language in the United States.

These types of facts do not need to be documented. However, you must reference original ideas, as well as interpretations of common knowledge. For example, you would need to cite your source for a claim that the use of sleeping medications can increase the risk of memory loss (Ashford Writing Center, n.d., “ Academic Dishonesty Definition ,” para. 9).

Academic Dishonesty and Plagiarism

Ashford University defines academic dishonesty as deceitful and/or deceptive attempts to fulfill academic requirements (Ashford Writing Center, n.d., “ Academic Dishonesty Definition ”). Academic dishonesty may take several forms:

Cheating: Intentionally using or attempting to use unauthorized materials, information, or study aids in any academic exercise (e.g., test, essay, etc.).

Fabrication: Intentional and unauthorized falsification or invention of any information or citation in an academic exercise.

Facilitating Academic Dishonesty: Intentionally or knowingly helping or attempting to help another student commit a breach of academic integrity.

Plagiarism: Representing the words or ideas of another as one’s own in any academic exercise.

Students often misunderstand plagiarism, so it’s worth expanding on this definition. Plagiarism occurs when a student deliberately uses another writer’s original ideas or concepts (that is not common knowledge) without acknowledging the source. Acts of plagiarism include, but are not limited to

• copying text from printed materials, which include books, magazines, encyclopedias, newspapers, and so on.
• modifying text with the intent of changing phrases, changing words, or inserting the student’s work into the plagiarized work.
• copying and pasting materials from Internet sources and presenting them as one’s original work.
• using another student’s work, even if the student has the permission of the other student. The use of another’s work constitutes an act of collusion, which constitutes an act of plagiarism.
• using materials purchased from the Internet or elsewhere.
• recycling previous work (that is, old papers) for a current course without instructor permission.
• paraphrasing or summarizing another’s work without giving appropriate credit.

Keep in mind that unintended or accidental plagiarism is still plagiarism. This means that even though you intended to go back and cite outside research properly, forgot to cite it, or did not know you had to cite it, you are still responsible for the act. Intention cannot be proved or disproved; your instructor and the university will not be able to consider whether or not it was your intention to plagiarize, just that you did. Students have a responsibility to understand the university’s stance on academic integrity and the ramifications of plagiarism as outlined in Ashford’s academic catalog under “Specific Policies on Academic Integrity” (http://www.ashford.edu/student-rights-and-responsibilities.htm#catalog11340 ).

When you plagiarize, you are essentially trying to represent someone else’s ideas or words as your own. As stated in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (2010), “Whether paraphrasing, quoting an author directly, or describing an idea that influenced your work, you must credit the source. To avoid charges of plagiarism, take careful notes as you research to keep track of your sources . . . ” (p. 170). Additionally, when students plagiarize, they diminish the learning experience as well as their own education. By plagiarizing, students lose the opportunity to act ethically and think independently and critically. This is one reason that colleges and universities take plagiarism so seriously.

Consequences of Academic Dishonesty

Academic dishonesty undermines the bonds of trust and personal responsibility between and among students and faculty, weakens the credibility of the academic enterprise, and defrauds those who believe in the value and integrity of an academic degree. All universities and colleges therefore have policies identifying the consequences for academic dishonesty. Depending on the institution and the severity of the case, these policies can range from receiving a failing grade on the assignment to dismissal from the school. In some extreme cases, a degree may be retracted after the student has already graduated. According to the Ashford Writing Center website, “A student who commits an act of academic dishonesty may face disciplinary action, including but not limited to: failure to receive credit on an academic exercise, course failure, and/or dismissal from the University” (“Consequences of Academic Dishonesty,” n.d., para. 1).

When a student is suspected of any type of academic dishonesty, usually the faculty, dean, and Student Community Standards committee are notified. If the student feels that this accusation is unjust, he or she will be given a chance to refute the charges. The student must prove that the work is original. Students who have maintained practices of academic integrity, such as keeping detailed notes of research and citations throughout the writing process, are more likely to be able to defend themselves successfully. If a charge of academic dishonesty cannot be refuted, it may seriously tarnish the student’s record and may even follow the student throughout his or her scholastic or professional career.

Plagiarism in the Popular Media

If you’re like most people, the requirement to write won’t end when you complete your degree. You will continue to write for the rest of your life for a variety of reasons and purposes: to fulfill job requirements, to appeal grievances, to explain your position, or even just to express yourself. This process is almost never easy, and the temptation to get a little assistance from someone who has already put in that hard work and struggle may remain. Plenty of people have succumbed to the temptation to do just this, stealing the words and hard work of others.

The following are a few real situations you might have heard about, in which a person committed plagiarism for his or her personal gain. Notice the personal and professional consequences that followed:

• In 2014, the website Buzzfeed.com was found to contain 41 specific instances of plagiarism throughout its content. These instances ranged from an individual sentence or phrasing to entire articles. The person held responsible for this breach was Buzzfeed’s viral politics editor, Benny Johnson, as it was on his watch that these instances of plagiarism were allowed to slip through to publication on the site, intentionally or otherwise. Johnson was fired and his reputation as an editor is under extreme scrutiny.
• Fabrication is a common form of plagiarism in the real world. In 2003, Jayson Blair was found to have fabricated several of his news articles for the New York Times. Blair admitted to using quotations from press events he had not attended and explained that this rather innocent ethical wavering was the beginning of his foray into more serious acts of plagiarism, including the almost word-for-word copying of a story written by another journalist and published by a different newspaper. Blair explained that he committed these acts as a result of feeling inadequate at his job. He lost that job at the New York Times and his credibility as a journalist.
• Another famous case of fabrication occurred in the 1990s. Stephen Glass, a journalist for The New Republic, was discovered to have fabricated up to half of his published work. Glass forged quotations, sources, and other details of what he’d presented as news stories. The discovery of these acts of plagiarism devastated Glass’s journalism career and reputation. He has not worked in journalism since.

The preceding instances of plagiarism are unambiguous. However, it’s not always easy to determine if an action constitutes plagiarism. More nuanced cases may be open to debate. Take a moment to read the following scenario. Given what you have learned about the various forms of plagiarism in this chapter, should this incident be considered plagiarism or not?

• In 2014, HBO debuted a show called True Detective. On the show, some lines of dialogue were nearly or exactly the same as those spoken by characters in the novels of Thomas Ligotti. When asked about this matter, the author of True Detective—Nic Pizzolatto—confessed that he was highly influenced by Ligotti’s work but denied any accusations of plagiarism, saying that any similarities throughout the series were a result of his own internalization of Ligotti’s themes and ideas. On the one hand, Pizzolatto does not seem to have been hiding anything as he had discussed Ligotti’s influence on his writing before ever being accused of plagiarizing him. On the other hand, Pizzolatto used exact lines from Ligotti’s work without giving credit to him in the show for writing them. Consider this: Where does this leave Pizzolatto? Could he have unintentionally plagiarized as a result of “internalizing” Ligotti’s ideas? And if so, what should the punishment be for such a transgression? What should he have done differently?

Quick Tip!

Accessing Resources for Academic Integrity

The Ashford Writing Center has multiple resources to help you ensure your own academic integrity:

For a definition of academic dishonesty, see this guide: https://awc.ashford.edu /ap-academic-dishonesty-definition.html

Ashford University’s consequences of academic dishonesty can be found here: https://awc.ashford.edu/ap-consequences-of-academic-dishonesty.html

For a guide to various types of plagiarism and recognizing plagiarism, and for best practices for avoiding academic dishonesty, review the Academic Integrity Learning Module: https://awc.ashford.edu/ap-academic-integrity-module.html

Privacy Issues

In the digital age, the amount of privacy we each have been accustomed to is changing. No longer is it a matter of unlisting your phone number from the phone book to protect your privacy. Often, a simple Google search on a person’s name can reveal phone number, age, address, and a list of possible relatives—not to mention any Facebook groups the person may belong to or websites posted to. Being information literate means protecting your private and personal information, along with the information of others. Protecting your privacy in this day and age can be a challenge, especially if you are unaware of certain laws and strategies that can help you.

Let’s take a quick look at some privacy laws. The Privacy Act of 1974 prevents government agencies from disclosing your personal information without your written consent. For more information on this act, check out the Department of Justice website ( http://www.justice.gov/opcl/overview-privacy-act-1974-2015-edition ). In 1996, the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) was passed to protect your medical information. One goal of this act is to make it easier to protect the confidentiality and security of your healthcare information. Check out the Health and Human Services website ( http://www.hhs.gov/ocr/privacy/ ) for information. The Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) protects the privacy of your student education records by preventing school employees from disclosing your personal information. It also ensures that your school records cannot be shared without your consent. For more information on this law, see the U.S. Department of Education’s website ( http://www2.ed.gov/policy/gen/guid/fpco/ferpa/index.html ).

Protecting your digital information becomes increasingly important the more you use the Internet. Luckily, there are some strategies that can help. As you surf the Internet, you leave behind a trail of information, sometimes called your digital footprint. Not only is your computer collecting information on your actions, but also the websites you visit are saving information on how you use their sites. In addition to clearing out your cache and cookies regularly (see Module 2), you should also consider installing antispyware software on your computer. This software will scan your computer and detect if any spyware or other security risks have been installed on your computer.

With a detailed understanding of academic integrity fresh in his mind, Irwin decides to go back and double-check certain sections of his paper. He knows that at times during the research process he was tired and most likely not as diligent as he needed to be when citing his sources and summarizing the information he located. He then turns to his paper and makes sure that each thought that was not his own is cited. However, he’s not sure if he has cited them correctly in APA format. He has been counting on Zotero to form his citations but needs more information on APA to make sure they are correct.

Your Roadmap to Success: Section 5.3

Learning Outcome #1: Discuss the benefits of using the APA style for academic writing.

Why is this important?

If you want to get good grades on the papers you write at Ashford, learning how to use APA style is a must. Consider Maria, for example. Maria received her degree in business administration from Ashford and is now in graduate school working toward an MBA. She is glad she learned how to use APA style in her first year at Ashford because it helped her stay organized with her research. She still uses APA style today in her work for her graduate courses.

How does this relate to your success in this course?

This section’s outcome is associated with the following course outcome: Utilize electronic tools to search for, locate, organize, and communicate information. Mastering this learning outcome will help you express yourself. It will also give you the tools to find the “answers” you need—whether you are researching a school assignment, looking for a new job, seeking advice for your family, or otherwise.

Learning Outcome #2: Compile an annotated bibliography and a references list, demonstrating an understanding of both purpose and formatting of each.

Why is this important?

Compiling an annotated bibliography will help you formulate your research papers and develop your critical thinking skills. Consider John, for example. John wasn’t looking forward to creating an annotated bibliography because he thought writing notes about his sources would be a waste of time. While it did take some extra time in the beginning, he found that it saved him a whole lot more time when he had to write the actual paper. Now he compiles annotated bibliographies for all of his papers, regardless of whether he is required to do so because it helps to keep him organized and save time.

How does this relate to your success in this course?

This section’s outcome is associated with the following course outcome: Develop strategies to access and use information ethically and legally. Mastering this learning outcome will help you maintain your integrity and reputation, and protect you from legal action and other negative consequences both within and outside of school.

To review the course learning outcomes and their relevance to you, see the Your Roadmap to Success feature at the beginning of this book. Best of luck on your journey to success!

Consider this student’s situation: Sally has heard of APA before, in previous courses here at Ashford and perhaps from a class back in high school, and she feels that she has a vague notion of what it means. It has something to do with formatting and including sources, or something, right? She submits her first assignment for a new class at Ashford, not giving too much thought to APA. A few days later, she is surprised to find that she received a low grade on her paper and that the majority of missed points came from the APA category.

Does this scenario sound familiar to you? Many students who are new to college and academic or professional writing find themselves wondering what “APA style” really means.

Style Guides

Most writing calls for the adherence to a particular style guide. A style guide is a set of formatting and citation rules that writers and editors follow. There are numerous style guides in use for different purposes. The Associated Press Stylebook (AP style) is the standard for all journalists. The Modern Language Association has a style guide (MLA style) that is commonly used by humanities scholars. Many publishers follow the Chicago Manual of Style. Countless companies have their own style guides for internal use. The style guide you need to use will depend on the purpose and audience of your writing.

APA style is the style guide of the American Psychological Association (APA), one of the largest scientific and professional associations in the United States. APA style refers to the set of rules and guidelines developed by this association to ensure a professional and academic standard of scholarly writing, formatting, and citing.

APA style is commonly used not only in psychology, but throughout the social sciences. Because Ashford University has a large social science focus, APA style is the most common set of formatting guidelines used at Ashford. In fact, you will find that APA style is required in most Ashford University courses. As opposed to some other style guidelines, APA emphasizes the author and date of publication when citing a source. This focus on the date is important for emphasizing rapidly changing and evolving fields of study.

Benefits of Understanding and Using APA Style

Learning to use APA style will benefit you enormously not only in your academic career at Ashford, but also in other institutions and even in your profession. Some of the benefits include the following:

• You will more quickly recognize the information you need when you are looking at a paper formatted in APA. This will increase your effectiveness as a researcher.
• Carefully adhering to APA style will help you develop your scholarly research muscles by practicing the habits of research, which involve the ability to read and create reference citations and locate pertinent information. If you do not know how to find the date or publisher of a particular source, you do not know everything you need to know to be an effective researcher and evaluator of information. Understanding and mastering these conventions will send a clear signal to your readers that you have carefully considered all elements of your source.
• Facility with APA style will help you as you pursue graduate study either here at Ashford or at other institutions. Even if those institutions require that you use a different style, learning one style will enable you to adapt quickly to a new one.

Even if graduate study is not on the horizon for you, your understanding of APA style will help you in your career and future writing endeavors. As mentioned previously, companies generally require their employees to adhere to a particular style guide, and you will be expected to master it for any and all writing you are asked to do while on the job. Additionally, coming to recognize the standards of any style guide will help you more easily read and understand information organized according to that particular style guide. Learning how to closely follow the guidelines of APA style and format your documents according to it now will give you the skills to adapt to any and all style guides in the future.

Citing in APA Style

Citing in APA style is two-fold: It includes in-text citations and a corresponding references list. This means that when you’re writing your paper, as you paraphrase, summarize, or quote from sources, you include a citation in the text at the point of use. These are called in-text citations. Generally, in-text citations include at least two components: author’s last name and publication year. When quoting, you need a third component: the page or paragraph number where the quote is found. This is how a basic in-text citation looks: (Author’s last name, Year, p. #). The in-text citation follows either the paraphrased material or the quote. We provide specific examples and models for in-text citations later in this module.

The second component of citing in APA style is the list of cited sources in your paper, called the references list. According to the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 6th edition (2010), citing requires that references list citations identify general publication information, including but not limited to author name, title, publication or publisher, and year of publication. Because so many sources appear online and do not have publication dates or even authors, additional information may be required, including retrieval data and corporate author information.

References List

APA style requires that any writing assignment involving outside research include a references list. This list includes citations for all the resources you referred to within your paper, whether this was by direct quotation or by paraphrasing or summarizing the outside work. According to the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (2010), “References acknowledge the work of previous scholars and provide a reliable way to locate it. . . . The references cited in the manuscript do not need to be exhaustive but should be sufficient to support the need for your research and to ensure that readers can place it in the context of previous research and theorizing” (p. 37).

Different types of sources have unique formatting rules that govern their citation. Here are key rules for compiling the whole references page:

• Center the word References at the top of the new page. No boldface, no italic, no quotation marks. Just this word: References. The page should have the essay title and page number in the header, as on all the other essay pages.
• Double space every line. No additional spacing is required.
• Alphabetize entries by authors’ last names. This includes corporate authors, such as the U.S. Department of Education. In that situation, you alphabetize the entry under the letter U.
• Create a hanging indent for every line after the first in your citation. To do so in Microsoft Word, highlight your list, click the arrow in the lower-right corner of the Paragraph group on the Home tab of the Ribbon, and then select Hanging from the Special list box in the Paragraph dialog box.
• Be mindful of punctuation, italic, and capitalization rules. For instance, APA style requires very specific capitalization rules for titles, and whereas printed source citations end in a period, online source citations that include web addresses do not.

As you create your references list, you can consult citation generators that may help you create a citation when you enter the publication information. Sometimes, too, the library you are using to search will provide you with APA citations of the sources you research. However, we advise that you consider these generators and provided entries only as a starting point for citation creation. They are sometimes outdated, incorrect, or not properly formatted. But if you start with these entries, you can easily edit them to the proper APA format discussed here.

For example, you may consult RefWorks, a citation generator available at the Ashford Writing Center here: https://awc.ashford.edu/writing-tools-ref-works.html .

With this extra information on APA, Irwin double-checks the citations he has gathered and makes sure he has located the required information to form complete citations.

The Annotated Bibliography

In some of your college courses, you may be asked to develop an annotated bibliography as you begin researching a topic. You may be wondering how an annotated bibliography is different from a references list. An annotated bibliography is a list of sources, such as books, journal articles, and online documents, used in researching an essay, research paper, or other project. In addition to the source entries only—which is the references list—it includes your notes, which comment on or summarize the main points of each source and relate them to your thesis. This is the annotation (to “annotate” something means to “take notes”). Therefore, an annotated bibliography has two elements, the citations and annotations; whereas a references list has only one, the citations.

Purpose of the Annotated Bibliography

One benefit of compiling an annotated bibliography is that doing so helps you begin formulating and refining your ideas for your paper. Through researching and summarizing sources, you develop a sense of the academic conversation that exists around your topic. You begin to understand the overall direction of arguments or hypotheses, and the development of concepts or theories. As stated on the Ashford Writing Center website, “Many pertinent ideas and supporting details come from analyzing and summarizing your sources” (“Sample Annotated Bibliography,” n.d., para. 2). Additionally, you develop your critical reading skills by assessing whether each argument or study is sound. In this way, you begin to focus your research topic more precisely. As you can see, an annotated bibliography is not only a good practice for academic integrity, but also a practical tool that positions you on solid ground to begin your paper.

Content of the Annotations

You may begin your annotated bibliography as soon as you begin research. Each time you find a source, you’ll create an APA-style reference citation as explained earlier and then write your annotation below the reference entry in paragraph form.

While there is no APA rule governing the composition of your annotations, each is generally only one or two paragraphs long (approximately 150–200 words), written in complete sentences. Each annotation typically includes three elements: a brief summary of the source, its thesis, and its relevance to your own assignment. You may also include any additional critical analysis that will support your project, such as your opinion of the piece or whether it makes an important contribution to the existing academic conversation. Avoid quoting directly from the source in the annotation. Although mentioning key terms and concepts that you may want to discuss in your own work is a good idea, you should summarize the annotation in your own words.

Composition and Formatting of the Annotated Bibliography

The annotated bibliography is separate from the research paper. It is generally an assignment that occurs during the research phase before you write a paper. Your annotated bibliography and the references you include should be formatted according to APA style described in the “References List” section earlier in this chapter. The annotation paragraphs come after each reference citation.

Each annotation will look like a paragraph; however, instead of using traditional paragraph indentations, Ashford requires that you indent the entire paragraph ½ (0.5) inch.

An annotated bibliography entry should look like this:

Donaldson, J. F., Graham, S. W., Martindill, W., & Bradley, S. (2000). Adult undergraduate students: How do they define their experiences and their success? Journal of Continuing Higher Education, 48(2) 2–11.

This small study confirms current thinking that adults return to school for primarily external reasons, e.g., a major life event or career advancement. The research further illustrates that actual success in learning comes from an internal locus of control that includes life experience, maturity, motivation, and self-monitoring. This study will support my paper’s thesis that adults are less likely to return to school for self-fulfilling purposes than for professional ones.

Figure 5.2 shows a sample annotated bibliography. You can see another one here: https://awc.ashford.edu/PDFHandouts%5CA%202_Sample_Annotated_Bibliography_final.pdf .

Figure 5.2 Annotated bibliography

Your Roadmap to Success: Section 5.4

Learning Outcome: Follow the ICE method of quoting in text, and demonstrate appropriate paraphrasing, summarizing, and citing according to APA style.

Why is this important?

Following the ICE method and paraphrasing, summarizing, and citing according to APA style will help you write clearly, while correctly and effectively contributing to the scholarly conversation. Consider Adena, for example. Adena had been out of school for a long time, and she was worried she wouldn’t sound “academic enough” in her papers. That is no longer the case after she learned the ICE method; she has found the ICE method to be a simple technique that not only helps her give credit where credit is due, but also helps her sound like the scholar she really is!

How does this relate to your success in this course?

This section’s outcome is associated with the following course outcome: Develop strategies to access and use information ethically and legally. Mastering this learning outcome will help you maintain your integrity and reputation, and protect you from legal action and other negative consequences both within and outside of school.

To review the course learning outcomes and their relevance to you, see the Your Roadmap to Success feature at the beginning of this book. Best of luck on your journey to success!

In Module 4, we discussed how to credit sources when taking notes during research. In this section, we build on those concepts by discussing how to credit sources within your paper. Incorporating ideas and words from outside sources is an important part of academic writing because, as you learned, it puts you into the scholarly conversation and makes your own ideas and your paper more credible. Properly crediting the sources you use is also an important way you share pertinent information about those sources with your readers. As we discussed in Module 4 within the context of note taking, three types of information must be credited: direct quotations, paraphrased content, and summarized content. In this section, we explore how to credit an outside source in the body of your paper. We then discuss how to determine when it’s best to directly quote a source, paraphrase, or summarize, and how to go about each.

The ICE Method for Crediting Outside Sources

When including outside sources in your writing, follow the ICE method:

I: Introduce

C: Cite

E: Explain

As you’ll see, you’ll use this method when you’re inserting direct quotations as well as when you’re paraphrasing or summarizing someone else’s ideas.

Introduce the Source

Introduce the source by giving your readers any information that would be useful to know: Who said it? Where did this idea come from? When was it said? Here are some examples of how to introduce a source:

In her essay “The Crummy First Draft,” Lekkerkerk (2014) argues that . . .

Michandra Claire Jones (2015), celebrated poet and author, wrote that . . .

In the textbook Information Literacy, Mossler (2015) states . . .

After introducing the quote, be sure that you use a signal verb to indicate that the source’s words are next. In the third example here, you can see that states has been used to signal the source’s words. Other signal verbs include

acknowledges advises agrees argues analyzes answers asserts assumes believes charges claims considers criticizes declares describes disagrees

discusses explains emphasizes expresses holds implies interprets leaves us with lists objects observes offers opposes points to presents proposes

recognizes regards remarks replies reports responds reveals says states suggests supports tells us thinks wants to wishes wonders

Cite the Source

When citing outside sources, you are required to include the author’s or authors’ last names; date of publication; and, for direct quotations, page number on which the quoted passage appears. If there is no page number, use a paragraph number to indicate the location of the quotation.

Precisely how do you insert this required information into your writing? You have two options. The first is to include the full or last names of the authors directly in a sentence and the year of publication in parentheses just following the names. If directly quoting, include at the end of your sentence the page number where the quotation can be found. Here are some examples:

Johnson (2009) says he believes that scholars . . .

Norman Johnson (2009) says, “Scholars should pursue PhDs” (p. 167).

Your second option is to include all of the required information in parentheses at the end of the sentence. Here are some examples:

Research suggests that graphic warnings on cigarette packages promote smoking cessation (Smith, 2015).

According to one research study, “In the year following the introduction of graphic warnings . . .” (Smith, 2015, p. 16).

Marcus explains that smoking can be deterred by “carefully placed warnings with disturbing imagery included” (Tomlinson, 2008, p. 16).

Notice in the preceding examples that quotation marks always have a beginning and end, occurring immediately before the first word of the quotation and immediately after the last word. Periods are always placed after the end-of-sentence parentheses, as in (p. 132).

Explain the Relevance

After introducing and citing the passage, you will need to explain the significance: How might this author’s idea relate to my thesis? How does this data add to what I am trying to prove in this paragraph? Why am I putting this quotation in my paper? What am I trying to show here? Never leave any room for interpretation. It is your responsibility as the writer to interpret the information for your readers and identify its significance.

Here is an example of an explanation that would be appropriate to accompany the following Mack quotation:

Judge Mack viewed juveniles as children first. He envisioned a system that would protect and give treatment to these young offenders so that they could become productive adults, and saw no place for criminal responsibility and punishment within this system.

Now, here is an example of the ICE method at work in a paragraph:

In the beginning stages of the juvenile justice system, it operated in accordance to a paternalistic philosophy. This can be understood through the published words of Judge Julian Mack, who had a hand in the establishment of the juvenile justice system. In 1909, he stated that this system should treat juveniles “as a wise and merciful father handles his own child” (as cited in Scott & Steinberg, 2008, p. 16). Judge Mack viewed juveniles as children first. He envisioned a system that would protect and give treatment to these young offenders so that they could become productive adults, and saw no place for criminal responsibility and punishment within this system.

Color Key:

• Context

• Whose words these are and why he is an authority on this topic

• Quoted material along with citation

• This part provides readers with the source of this quote as well as his relationship or authority on the topic.

Tips for Quoting

The following are some suggestions for including direct quotations in your academic papers:

• Quote only the good stuff. Remember: “Less is more.” Don’t pad your essay with other people’s ideas. You should not use quotes as fillers to make page count. They should be relevant to your argument. If a quotation doesn’t add substance to your essay, don’t use it. On the other hand, if a quotation backs up a point you’ve made, especially if it does so in language so skillful that you couldn’t possibly change it, use it! However, you should avoid using any quotation you don’t understand. The ICE method requires that you explain it, so understanding it is essential.
• Keep quotations short, ideally about one to two sentences. Or use just a few key words or a phrase. If a quotation is more than 40 words long, “block the quotation” by having it start on a new line, and indenting it. Here’s an example:

  In the chapter “Chicken Man,” McBride (1997) narrated his rebellion as a teenager with honesty but without remorse:

  I was obviously hiding, and angry as well, but I would never admit that to myself. The marvelous orchestrated chaos that Mommy had so painstakingly constructed to make her house run smoothly broke down when Daddy died, and Mommy was in no fixing mood. (p. 140)

  Note: When you block a quotation, the period or other closing punctuation stays with the final sentence instead of after the parenthetical citation. For in-text citations within your paper that are not block quotes, the citation is part of the sentence, and the period follows the parenthesis. The block quote is opposite.

• Make sure you copy quotations correctly. Misspellings and use of incorrect grammar or punctuation when it’s obvious that the source couldn’t have made those mistakes affect your own credibility as a writer. Accuracy indicates care for your work.
• Use brackets when you alter a word or phrase from the quotation. For example: Picciano (2001) states, “[Distance learning] technologies [have] certain benefits and certain limitations and, as indicated earlier, a best technology does not yet exist” (p. 61).
• Use an ellipsis when you omit words or phrases from the quotation. Use an ellipsis (three periods in a row: . . .) when you omit an entire sentence. For example: When Fuller (2005) returned home, she explained, “. . . I was dislocated and depressed” (p. 72).

  Note: The ending punctuation follows the in-text citations. Consider the parenthetical in-text citation as part of your sentence; therefore, your punctuation comes at the very end, after the parentheses.

• Avoid starting or ending a paragraph with a quotation. You should begin and conclude paragraphs with your own ideas. The first sentence of a paragraph—which is known as the topic sentence or assertion—should support the focus of the essay. In turn, the quotation supports the topic sentence. The last sentence of the paragraph should be part of your analysis of the quotation.

Paraphrasing

We have all watched a good television show or an interesting news story that we wanted to tell others about. When you are explaining the show or story, you most likely tell your friends, your family, or your coworkers what happened, how it happened, and why it happened. In doing so, you describe things such as the plot, main characters, events, and important points using your own words. This is paraphrasing—using your own words to express someone else’s message or ideas.

As we discussed in Module 4, when you paraphrase in writing, the ideas and meaning of the original source must be maintained; the main ideas need to come through, but the wording has to be your own. And, of course, you need to give credit to the author. As we have mentioned, you don’t want to over quote in your paper. A great alternative to quoting is to paraphrase information instead. However, paraphrasing takes a little more skill than directly quoting information, because to paraphrase correctly, you need to understand what the original quote or passage is about to be able to write about it in your own words.

Guidelines for Paraphrasing

How do you paraphrase a source?

• Read the original two or three times or until you are sure you understand it and its meaning.
• Put the original aside and try to write the main ideas in your own words. Say what the source says, but no more, and try to reproduce the source’s order of ideas and emphasis.
• Look closely at unfamiliar words, observing carefully the exact sense in which the writer uses the words.
• Check your paraphrase, as often as needed, against the original for accurate tone and meaning, changing any words or phrases that match the original too closely. If the wording of the paraphrase is too close to the wording of the original, then it can be considered plagiarism.
• If you choose to use exact words or phrases from the original source, quote them in your paraphrased version.
• Try to keep your paraphrased version near the same length as the original text (for example, if the paragraph you are paraphrasing is five sentences long, try to make your paraphrased paragraph five sentences as well).
• Include a citation for the source of the information (including the page numbers, if available) so that you can cite the source accurately. Even when you paraphrase, you must still give credit to the original author.

When Is Paraphrasing Useful?

You should paraphrase when

• you want to express the author’s idea but not necessarily the author’s language.
• you want to clarify an author’s ideas for the readers or for yourself.
• you want an alternative to quoting.
• you want to integrate information from charts, graphs, tables, lectures, and so on.
• you need an authority on the topic or to support your ideas.

Examples of Good Paraphrasing

Paraphrasing can be done with individual sentences or entire paragraphs. Here are some examples:

Original sentence:Her life spanned years of incredible change for women (Smith, 2015, p. 1).

Paraphrased version: Mary lived through an era of liberating reform for women (Smith, 2015, p. 1).

Original sentence: Giraffes like Acacia leaves and hay, and they can consume 65 pounds of food a day (National Geographic, 2013, p. 16).

Paraphrased version:A giraffe can eat up to 65 pounds of Acacia leaves and hay every day (National Geographic, 2013, p. 16).

As you can see in the examples, the essence and meaning of the paraphrased versions are similar to the original sentences. The paraphrased sentences even use the main key words from the original source, but the order and structure of the sentence changed when the author put the information in his own words. You can apply these same tactics to paraphrasing longer texts as well. Here is an example of how to paraphrase a paragraph of information:

Original paragraph:

The feminization of clerical work and teaching by the turn of the century reflected the growth of business and public education. It also reflected limited opportunities elsewhere. Throughout the nineteenth century, stereotyping of work by sex had restricted women’s employment. Job options were limited; any field that admitted women attracted a surplus of applicants willing to work for less pay than men would have received. The entry of women into such fields—whether grammar school teaching or office work—drove down wages.

Woloch, N. (2002). Women and the American experience: A concise history. New York, NY: McGraw–Hill Higher Education.

Paraphrased version:

According to Nancy Woloch (2002) in Women and the American Experience: A Concise History, the “feminization” of jobs in the nineteenth century had two major effects: a lack of employment opportunities for women and inadequate compensation for positions that were available. Thus, while clerical and teaching jobs indicated a boom in these sectors, women were forced to apply for jobs that would pay them less than male workers were paid (p. 170).

This version is properly paraphrased because

• it introduces the source in a proper signal phrase.
• it is about the same length as the original passage.
• it uses the author’s own words and sentence structure.
• it encloses a key word from the original source within quotation marks.
• it includes a parenthetical citation in correct APA format.

Summarizing

Another good skill to help you incorporate research into your writing is summarizing.

Recall from Module 4 that summarizing is taking larger selections of text and reducing them to their basic essentials—the gist, the key ideas, the main points that are worth noting and remembering. Think of a summary as the “general idea in brief form”; it’s the distillation, condensation, or reduction of a larger work into its primary notions and main ideas.

As with directly quoting and paraphrasing, summarizing requires you to cite your sources properly if you are to avoid “accidental” plagiarism. Moreover, a summary should not change the meaning of the original source. A good summary should be a shortened version that conveys the purpose and main points of the original source.

Components of a Good Summary

Follow these components of a good summary:

• Write in the present tense.
• Make sure to include the author and title of the work. For example:

  In Pixar’s 2003 movie Finding Nemo . . .

  In Stephen King’s horror book The Shining (1977), . . .

  In Emily Dickinson’s poem “Because I Could Not Stop for Death,”

• Be concise: A summary should not be equal in length to the original text; it should be about one-tenth as long.
• Include two to three main points of the text or work.
• Include the conclusion or the final findings of the work.
• If you must use the words of the author, cite them.
• Don’t put your own opinions, ideas, or interpretations into the summary. The purpose of writing a summary is to accurately represent what the author wanted to say, not to provide a critique.

When Is a Summary Useful?

You should summarize when

• you want to give an overview of a source’s main ideas or points.
• you can express a source’s ideas or points in fewer words than the original text.
• you need to give a brief synopsis of more than one source.
• you want an authority on the topic to support your ideas.

Examples of Good and Bad Summaries

When you summarize, be careful that you do not put a particular spin on what you write. This is important because the goal of a summary is to be as brief and accurate as possible.

For example, here is an example of a bad summary about Pixar’s popular movie Finding Nemo:

So there’s a film where a man’s wife is brutally murdered by a serial killer and his son his left physically disabled. In a twist of events, the son is kidnapped and kept in a tank while his father chases the kidnapper thousands of miles with the help of a mentally challenged woman. Finding Nemo is quite the thriller.

This is an example of a bad summary because it is vague. It also contains opinion and twists the events of the story into something it is not. Pixar’s Finding Nemo is not a thriller or ­horror story as described in the preceding example; it is an animated children’s movie about fish.

Here is a better summary of Finding Nemo:

Pixar’s Finding Nemo (2003) is a story about Marlin, a clown fish, who is overly cautious with his son, Nemo, who has a damaged fin. When Nemo swims too close to the surface to prove himself, he is caught by a diver, and horrified Marlin must set out to find him. A blue reef fish named Dory, who has a really short memory, joins Marlin and together they encounter sharks, jellyfish, and a host of ocean dangers. Meanwhile, Nemo plots his escape from a dentist’s fish tank where he is being held. In the end, Marlin and his son Nemo are rejoined, and they both learn about trust and what it means to be a family. (Finding Nemo, 2003)

This is a better summary than the original one because

• it is accurate and factual.
• it states the main characters and events of the story.
• it gives the crucial details without giving too many details.
• it tells the moral of the story and the conclusion without twisting the meaning.

This is a good summary because

• it states the producer, the year, and the title of the work.
• it is about one-tenth the length of the original passage.
• it is clear and understandable to readers.
• it is void of any quotations or paraphrases.
• it includes a parenthetical citation in correct APA format.

Your Roadmap to Success: Section 5.5

Learning Outcome: Format the narrative and visual elements of a research paper according to APA style.

Why is this important?

Formatting your paper according to APA style will help you communicate your ideas in a consistent manner so that instructors and other students will be able to follow your logic. Consider Derek, for example. Derek has formed a study group with a few other students at Ashford. They often read each other’s papers and give each other feedback before they submit the final drafts to their instructors. Derek is glad they all format their assignments according to APA style because he knows what to expect and can quickly identify the elements of their papers. In many ways, APA style helps keep them “on the same page.”

How does this relate to your success in this course?

This section’s outcome is associated with the following course outcome: Utilize electronic tools to search for, locate, organize, and communicate information. Mastering this learning outcome will help you express yourself. It will also give you the tools to find the “answers” you need—whether you are researching a school assignment, looking for a new job, seeking advice for your family, or otherwise.

To review the course learning outcomes and their relevance to you, see the Your Roadmap to Success feature at the beginning of this book. Best of luck on your journey to success!

APA style governs not only how you credit and cite sources, but also how you format your paper. This section discusses the APA formatting rules and conventions for arranging and laying out your paper, including the text elements as well as any illustrations and tables.

Formatting Text Elements

The title page and narrative sections of your paper require unique formatting in APA style.

Font, Spacing, and Margins

You should use a clear font that is easy to read. Per Ashford’s Writing Guidelines, you should use 12 pt. Times New Roman font, with 1-inch margins on all sides. APA style requires that you double-space the entire document, including the title page, quotations, and the references list. Lastly, if printing your paper, you should use standard-sized paper (8.5" x 11").

Title Page

APA style requires that the first page of your paper be a title page, which exists to communicate the basic information about you, your course, and your assignment. Centered and in the middle of your title page, you need to include

• the paper’s title
• your first and last name
• the course number and course title
• your instructor’s first and last name
• the date the assignment will be submitted

Running Headers

A running header is an abbreviated title that appears at the top of every page of your paper, starting on the title page. APA style requires a running header identifying the paper’s title in the upper left corner of each page of your paper, and the page number in the upper right corner. All pages in the paper should be consecutively numbered (the title page is page 1). If the title of your paper is very long, you will need to use a shortened version in your running header.

For help formatting your running head in Microsoft Word, visit the Ashford Writing Center’s web page describing this process:
https://awc.ashford.edu/writing-tools-microsoft-office-2010.html .

APA style requires that the running header on your title page have slightly different wording from the running header in the remainder of your paper. Only the title page includes the words “Running head:” in the header, followed by your title in all capital letters at the upper left. The page number 1 should appear at upper right. On all other pages of your paper, include only the paper’s title in all capital letters. Figure 5.3 shows a sample title page.

Figure 5.3 Sample title page

Section Headings

If your instructor requires them, or if your paper contains distinct parts or sections, you might want to consider using section headings. In papers that contain multiple components or distinctive sections, such as a history paper that covers six events or a lab report with different steps, APA style prescribes specific guidelines for section headings. There are levels of headings for subtopics within major sections; you must be mindful of which subsection is housed within which major section.

For example, in a history paper covering six events, and one event is the Civil Rights Movement, you may have subtopics dividing the different civil rights groups: African Americans, women, Chicana/Chicano, and so on. Under those subheadings, you may have even more specific topics, like Cesar Chavez and the United Farm Workers movement, under the Chicana/Chicano rights movement. These levels follow this pattern: Civil Rights Movement (Paper Title) > Chicana/Chicano Rights Movement (Level 1) > United Farm Workers (Level 2) > Cesar Chavez (Level 3).

Levels of headings

Level	Format
1	Centered, Boldface, Uppercase and Lowercase Headings
2	Flush left, Boldface, Uppercase and Lowercase Heading
3	Indented, boldface, lowercase heading ending with a period.
4	Indented, boldface, italicized, lowercase heading ending with a period.
5	Indented, italicized, lowercase heading ending with a period.

The following example shows how these headings might appear in an academic paper. Though the sample illustrates all five levels of headings, most papers have no more than three levels of headings.

The Civil Rights Movement

The introductory paragraph/s follow directly after the title of the paper. Your introduction does not need to have a heading . . . it is assumed that the first paragraph/s of the paper are introductory.

Chicana/Chicano Rights Movement

This is a Level 1 heading—it marks a major section in your paper that is a component of the overall topic: civil rights movements.

The United Farm Workers

This is a Level 2 heading—it is a major subtopic for the section on Chicana/Chicano rights.

Cesar Chavez.

This is a Level 3 heading. This section will focus on a major figure in the history of the United Farm Workers (UFW), Cesar Chavez. This may include biographical information and highlight his career and connection to the UFW, as well as connect him to the larger Chicana/Chicano Rights Movement.

The hunger strike.

This is a Level 4 heading. It pertains to an even more specific event or concept under the Level 3 heading. In history, Cesar Chavez led a famous hunger strike to highlight the need for UFW organizing.

Chavez’s legacy.

This is a Level 5 heading. This heading might summarize all of the subheadings prior and not the lasting effects of the very specific concepts and events covered so far. The next section to follow may transition to another major section, and return to a Level 1 heading.

The use of headings effectively organizes ideas within the essay, and succinct headings aid the readers in identifying key points within the writing. Figure 5.4 shows a sample APA-formatted paper.

Figure 5.4 APA paper

Visuals

Visuals such as photos, maps, charts, graphs, and illustrations can be very useful in explaining or illustrating your point. APA style divides visuals into two categories: figures and tables. Place each visual as close as possible to the paragraph referring to it so that your readers can scan from your narrative to your visual.

Figures

APA style refers to visuals such as charts, graphs, drawings, photographs, and images as figures. You should label each figure with the word Figure and an Arabic numeral in italic. Accompany the label with a caption explaining what the figure shows or why you’ve included it. Include a reference to the source of the figure if it came from an outside source.

The standards for good figures are simplicity, clarity, continuity, and information value. A good figure

• augments rather than duplicates the text.
• conveys only essential facts.
• omits visually distracting detail.
• is easy to read—its elements are large enough to be read with ease.
• is easy to understand—its purpose is readily apparent.
• is carefully planned and prepared.

The following example illustrates the basic structure of figures.

Figure #

Title in italic

Figure X

Explain the figure and its significance in a few sentences. Be sure to explain any abbreviations, unique features, or percentages of the figure as well. Adapted from “Title of the article or web page” by Last name, First initial., Year, Journal/website title in italic, volume # in italic, p. #. Retrieved from URL

For example:

Figure 1

APA Essay Checklist for Students

Figure 1

“The APA Essay Checklist for Students” is a comprehensive list of resources to help students format their paper properly. The purple underlined wordings are examples of hyperlinks that students can click on and interact with. Adapted from “APA Essay Check for Students” by Ashford University, 2015, Ashford Writing Center, Retrieved from https://awc.ashford.edu/cd-apa-checklist.html

Tables

Tables are a useful device for comparing and contrasting the same characteristics for two or more topics. Typically, each topic fills one row of the table, and the characteristics being compared constitute the columns. For example, a table on an overhead screen in an airport terminal might have rows identifying 20 or 30 flights, with columns indicating departure time and gate.

When presenting data in a table format, label the table with the word Table, an Arabic numeral, and a title. The label and title should be placed above the table. If you are reprinting or copying a table from an outside source, you must include a citation for the table directly under the table (not at the end of your paper in your references list).

The following example illustrates the basic structure of table.

Table #

Table Title in Italic

Column Header	Column Header	Column Header	Column Header
#	#	#	#
#	#	#	#
#	#	#	#

Note. General notes to a table appear here, including definitions of abbreviations. Adapted from “Title of the article or webpage” by Last name, First initial., Year, Journal/website title in italic, volume # in italic, p. #. Retrieved from URL

For example:

Table 1

Facebook Users by Country

Rank	Country	Population	Number of Users	Percentage of ­Country’s Population
	World	6,895,889,000	1,000,000,000	14.50%
1	United States	315,120,000	167,431,700	53.97%
2	Brazil	193,946,886	65,237,180	32.44%
3	India	1,210,193,422	62,761,420	5.35%
4	Indonesia	242,968,342	50,583,320	20.82%
5	Mexico	112,468,855	39,933,040	35.51%
6	United Kingdom	62,348,447	32,827,180	52.65%
7	Turkey	77,804,122	32,354,900	41.59%
8	Philippines	99,900,177	30,265,200	30.30%
9	France	64,768,389	25,614,100	39.55%
10	Germany	81,802, 257	25,350,560	30.99%

Note. Of the 1 billion active Facebook users, only ~17% of them are in the United States. If you add the U.S. and U.K. populations together, then that’s approximately 200 million users. So it’s safe to say that ~20% of their users are strictly English-speaking from those 2 countries alone. Canada has ~18 million users, and Australia has 21 million users. Altogether, then, that’s approximately 240 million users that are predominantly English-speaking users. That’s just ~25% of Facebook’s total active users. Adapted from “How Much Is the Availability of Instagram in 25 Languages Going to Impact Its Growth?” by Quora Top Stories, 2013, Retrieved from
http://quoratopstories.tumblr.com/post/41262590575/how-much-is-the-availability-of-instagram-in-25

Irwin now feels well versed in the area of APA and is confident double-checking the citations Zotero created in the text of his paper and on his reference page. As Irwin completes the research process, he is excited to submit his paper to his professor. He knows he has worked hard and has followed each of the steps of the research process to the best of his ability.

Quick Tip!

Accessing APA Resources

The following resources can help you use APA style correctly:

The APA Style Aid is a one-stop shop for all your APA style needs:
https://www.wou.edu/provost/library/clip/apa/index.html

Here is an APA checklist that you should use for your formal assignments in your courses:
https://awc.ashford.edu/cd-apa-checklist.html

This guide will help you to set up your document in APA style:
https://awc.ashford.edu/PDFHandouts/Formatting_tutorial_microsoft_2010_final.pdf

Here is information on how to include in-text citations (see pages 4–10):
https://awc.ashford.edu/PDFHandouts/APA_Made_Easy.pdf

And here is a guide that will help you format whatever kind of source you are using for your references page (your textbook, for example):
https://awc.ashford.edu/PDFHandouts/APA_References_List_Sample.pdf

You can also review this sample paper to see in-text citations within a paper:
https://cdmsmedia.bridgepointeducation.com/MediaService/MediaService.svc/
constellation/book/AUWC.12.4/%7Bhandouts%7Da.14_sample_exposition_paper.pdf

academic integrity

A measure of a student’s sound judgment and ethical responsibility within the scholarly arena. Avoiding plagiarism is a key component of maintaining academic integrity.

common knowledge

Information that is widely known and does not stem from one person’s original thought or theory. These facts or concepts are generally known by many people and can easily be found or referenced. Common knowledge does not require citations in academic papers.

copyright

A series of laws and guidelines set forth by a country to protect the original works of an author.

fair use

The use of a copyrighted work for the purpose of criticism, comment, news reporting, scholarship, or research. The goal behind fair use is to promote creativity for the benefit of society.

ICE method

A technique used to incorporate outside sources into an academic paper. The technique involves first introducing the source, then citing the source, and finally explaining the source.

intellectual property

Creations of the mind, such as inventions or literary and artistic works. For a work to be considered an author’s intellectual property, it must be covered by copyright, a patent, or trademark.

open access

The free and unrestricted access to information on the Internet. In the academic world, open access specifically refers to the free and unrestricted access to digital scholarly/peer-reviewed journal articles and research.

public domain

Works that have never been or are no longer covered by copyright law.

references list

According to APA style, this list includes citations for all the resources referred to within a paper, whether this was by direct quotation or by paraphrasing or summarizing the outside work.

signal verb

A verb that indicates that someone else’s ideas are about to be cited. They should be conjugated in the present tense.

title page

According to APA style, this document exists to communicate the basic information about you, your course, and your assignment.