Leadership Question
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attachments2.zipTopic 8 Powerpoint Reading Review.pptx
Topic 8. Followers and Followership. Readings.
Text
Green (1975) The Reciprocal Nature of Influence between the Leader and Subordinate
Sanford (1958) The Follower’s Role in the Leadership Phenomena
Hollander (1992) Leadership, Followership, Self, and Others
Dirks (2000) Trust in Leadership and Team Performance: Evidence from NCAA Basketball
Miller and Monge (1986) Participation Satisfaction, and Productivity: A Meta-Analytic Review
Yun, Faraj, and Sim (2005) Contingent Leadership and Effectiveness of Trauma Resuscitation Teams
Supplemental
Zaleznik (1965) The Dynamics of Subordinacy
Crossman and Crossman (2011) Conceptualizing Followership: A Review of the Literature
The dynamics of subordinacy (Zaleznik,1965)
Adaptations to subordinacy grow out of developmental experiences
Tension between
Dominance and submission
Activity and passivity
Dominance
Desire to overpower and control authority figures
Submission
Desire to be dominated and controlled
Activity
Initiates action, intrudes into environment
Passivity
Waits for others to initiate action, then responds
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Patterns of subordinacy (Zaleznik, 1965)
Dominance
Submission
Active
Passive
Impulsive
Acts without thinking
Compulsive
Acts under effect of over-elaborated thought, guilt,
doubt, attitude reversal, hidden aggression, denial of responsibility
Masochistic
Hurts self by provoking others
Identifies with underdog, sees oppression every where
Withdrawn
No longer cares about the orientation content of work
Aims to dominate relationships with superiors through acts of rebellion
Aims to dominate relationships with superiors through passivity
Hidden desire to endure suffering at hands of powerful aggressor
Withdrawal, apathy, depression
Motivation: unconscious aim of displacing the father, combined with fear of control
Constructive form: ability to speak frankly and constructively
Motivation: wish to dominate authority figures and the guilt associated with these wishes
Motivation: fears own aggression getting out of control, so instead of hurting others, hurts self by provoking others
Motivation: withdrawn father, cold hostile mother, inability to mobilize and constructively use aggressive impulses; aggression turned inward
Patterns of subordinacy (Zaleznik, 1965)
Advice for leaders
Know your mind
Avoid the reciprocal
Watch for resonance
Objectify conflict
Identify and address reality
Maintain contact
The Reciprocal Nature of Influence between the Leader and Subordinate Greene (1975)
Does subordinate performance and satisfaction cause the leader to vary his/her style of leadership?
Longitudinal data
Cross-lagged panel correlation
Dynamic correlational analysis
103 first line managers and two immediate subordinates
42 department heads for an insurance company
31 project managers research and engineering for a manufacturer
30 first line managers in finance and marketing for a chemical firm
The Reciprocal Nature of Influence between the Leader and Subordinate Greene (1975)
Leader who is rewarded contingent on the performance of his/her subordinates would be expected to
Develop more positive attitudes toward and reward higher performing subordinates
Restrict or further specify the work of lower performing subordinates (increased initiating structure) and express disapproval (reduction of consideration)
Engage in less structuring behavior and show greater approval and concern for higher performing subordinate (increased consideration)
Leader
Subordinates
Upper management
Performance
Rewards
Attitudes and
behavior
The Reciprocal Nature of Influence between the Leader and Subordinate Greene (1975)
Relationships investigated
Consideration and subordinate satisfaction
Consideration and performance
Initiating structure and satisfaction
Initiating structure and performance
Consideration-causes-subordinate satisfaction – strong support
Subordinate performance causes leader emphasis on consideration – strong support
Initiating structure and satisfaction – no support
Initiating structure and performance – moderate support low performance causes more initiating structure behavior
The Follower’s Role in Leadership Phenomena Sanford (1958)
How does “authoritarianism” affect orientation toward leadership?
Study of attitudes toward Franklin D. Roosevelt
Expectations
People who score on the Authoritarian end of the A-E scale will want strong and directive leadership that pays off in material terms
Would respect FDR because was strong and produced results
People that score on the Equalitarian end will want a warmer, more rational leader
Would respect FDR for his humanitarianism
Sanford’s A-E scale
1-6 points per question
Agree very much 6
Agree very much 6
Agree very much 6
Agree very much 6
Agree very much 6
Agree very much 6
Disagree very much 6
Disagree very much 6
From: Sanford (1950-51)
The Follower’s Role in Leadership Phenomena Sanford (1958)
Procedure
Select 80 people in the $5000-$10000/year income group with at least high school education
Middle to upper-middle class
Split the 80 into two group based on A-E scores; 40 highs, 40 lows
Three judges classify responses to interview items with respect to: emphasis on function, material dependency, emphasis on power, personal warmth
Examine tendency of highs and lows in accordance with expectations
The Follower’s Role in Leadership Phenomena Sanford (1958)
Emphasis on function (e.g., “excellent administrator”)
19 of the 25 responses showing concern with function made by people in the low scoring group (E-end) (difference significant at .02 level)
Material dependency (e.g., “saved us from depression”)
5 of the 6 responses emphasizing material dependency made by high scorers (A-end) (not conclusive due to small number)
Power (e.g., “pillar of strength in time of need”)
18 of the 31 responses emphasizing power were from high scorers, 13 from low (not significant difference)
Warmth (e.g., “great humanitarian”)
12 of the 13 responses emphasizing warmth and humanity from low scorers (difference significant at .01 level)
Conclusion: Personality factors in the follower play a role in determining orientation to leader
Leadership, Followership, Self, and Others Hollander (1992)
Research Question: How do followers contribute to successful leadership?
Literature review
Conclusion: Need to accord a more active role for those considered followers
Leader qualities by stages
Leader qualities are likely to be perceived by followers in terms of relevance to the current context rather than as desirable absolutely
Wanting, getting, doing, maintaining the job
Qualities that seem appropriate for wanting and getting stages not satisfactory for doing and maintaining
Leadership, Followership, Self, and Others Hollander (1992)
Follower perceptions and expectations
Practical importance of follower perceptions of leader-follower relationship
Derailment – lack of interpersonal skills
Kouzes and Posner
Sensitivity to followers, support, praise dominated good relations, absent from bad
Leader-follower relationships
Reciprocal systems
Follower attributions about leaders
Followers’ perceptions of leader affects behavior
Leadership, Followership, Self, and Others Hollander (1992)
Dominance and identification motifs
Authority/power vs. participative ethos/mutual identification
Legitimacy
Election vs. appointment
Transactional leadership
Idiosyncrasy credit
Self-monitoring
Self-serving biases
Charismatic and transformational leadership
Trust in Leadership and Team Performance: Evidence from NCAA Basketball Dirkes (2000)
Trust
Expectation or belief that the team can rely on the leader’s actions of words and that the leader has good intentions toward the team
Trust is important in that it allows the team to accept the leader’s activities, goals, and decisions and work hard to achieve them
When the team feels it cannot rely on the leader or the that the leader does not have the team’s interest at heart, team members are unlikely to carry out the roles specified by the leader or to work toward performance-related objectives and strategies set the by the leader
Trust in Leadership and Team Performance: Evidence from NCAA Basketball Dirkes (2000)
Hypothesis 1 – Trust in leadership has a positive effect on team performance
Hypothesis 2 – Trust in leadership mediates the relationship between the past team performance and future team performance
Performance
Past
Performance
Trust in leadership
Trust in Leadership and Team Performance: Evidence from NCAA Basketball Dirkes (2000)
30 NCAA Division I and Division III basketball teams, 355 individuals completed surveys
Variables
Team performance (winning percentage in conference)
Team performance, prior (winning percentage in conference past 4 years)
Trust in leader (coach)
Trust in teammates
Team talent (measure based on number of players selected for all conference team)
Player tenure (mean length of time players played under coach)
Coach’s record (career winning percentage weighted by length of career)
Coach’s experience (number of games coached)
Trust in Leadership and Team Performance: Evidence from NCAA Basketball Dirkes (2000)
Trust in Leadership and Team Performance: Evidence from NCAA Basketball Dirkes (2000)
Performance
Past
Performance
Trust in leadership
Participation, Satisfaction, and Productivity: A Meta-Analytic Review Miller and Monge (1986)
Meta-analysis of effects on participation on satisfaction and productivity
47 studies found that contained quantifiable estimates of the relationship between participation in decision-making and productivity and satisfaction
41 estimates of effect on satisfaction
25 estimates of effect on productivity
Participation, Satisfaction, and Productivity: A Meta-Analytic Review Miller and Monge (1986)
Models of participation effects
Cognitive
Information input by workers will lead to increased productivity
Affective
Increased participation by workers will lead to greater attainment of higher order needs and, in turn, increase satisfaction
Contingency
Participation will affect productivity and satisfaction differently for different people and situations
Participation, Satisfaction, and Productivity: A Meta-Analytic Review Miller and Monge (1986)
Predictions
Cognitive
Effects of participation on an individual’s productivity will be strongest for decision that draw on the individual’s expertise
No direct influence on satisfaction, productivity mediates
Working in participative climate is not adequate to increase productivity or satisfaction
Affective
Working in participative climate is adequate to increase productivity
No direct link between participation and productivity
Participation may increase satisfaction more for employees not having higher needs met on other parts of job
Contingency
Employees with high independence needs and low authoritarianism will be most positively influence by participation
Some decisions more appropriate for participation
Employees who value participation will be the positively influenced by it
Participation, Satisfaction, and Productivity: A Meta-Analytic Review Miller and Monge (1986)
* students
*
All subgroup estimates significant
Strongest effect for multiple issues
r = .34
Support for affective model
Strong effect size for satisfaction related to multiple issue perceived participation (.46) – effect on climate seems more important
Effect on satisfaction found in laboratory studies may diluted by organizational factors in field settings
No support for contingency model
Job type, level, service/manufacturing
No data on personality
Participation, Satisfaction, and Productivity: A Meta-Analytic Review Miller and Monge (1986)
r =.15
Support for cognitive model
Effect size for productivity higher (.27) than for satisfaction (actual participation .16, perceived participation .21)
Tasks performed in laboratory settings may be simple, so authoritarian leadership more effective
25
Contingent Leadership and Effectiveness of Trauma Resuscitation Teams Yun, Faraj, and Sims (2005)
Research question: What contributes to leader effectiveness in high velocity environments?
Trauma team
Cross functional
Multi-disciplinary
Two main responsibilities
Medical care of trauma patients
Facilitate learning specialized practice of trauma care
Methodology – scenarios
Contingent Leadership and Effectiveness of Trauma Resuscitation Teams Yun, Faraj, and Sims (2005)
Research site: Level 1 trauma center in mid-Atlantic region
Questionnaires distributed to attending surgeons, attending anesthesiologists, trauma nurses, certified nurse anesthetists, residents, and trauma unit nurses and technicians
Contingent Leadership and Effectiveness of Trauma Resuscitation Teams Yun, Faraj, and Sims (2005)
Two patterns of leadership identified through ethnographic approach
Directive
Attending surgeon develops and finalizes patient plan with little consultation with other team members
Empowering
Attending surgeon encourages team members to actively participate in decision-making and task management
Contingent Leadership and Effectiveness of Trauma Resuscitation Teams Yun, Faraj, and Sims (2005)
Hypothesis 1 – the relationship between leadership and team effectiveness is moderated by the severity of patient trauma
Directive leaders provide better quality of care when a patient is very severely injured
Empowering leaders provide better quality of care when a patient is not severely injured
Hypothesis 2 – The relationship between leadership and team effectiveness is moderated by the degree of team experience
Directive leaders provide better quality of care when the trauma resuscitation team is inexperienced
Empowering leaders provide better quality of care when the trauma resuscitation team is experienced
Hypothesis 3 – An empowering leader provides more learning opportunities than does a directive leader
Contingent Leadership and Effectiveness of Trauma Resuscitation Teams Yun, Faraj, and Sims (2005)
Patient condition
Team experience
Experienced
Inexperienced
Severe
Not Severe
Hypothesis 1
Hypothesis 2
30
Contingent Leadership and Effectiveness of Trauma Resuscitation Teams Yun, Faraj, and Sims (2005)
Experienced team
Inexperienced team
Not Severe
Severe
Severe
Not Severe
31
Contingent Leadership and Effectiveness of Trauma Resuscitation Teams Yun, Faraj, and Sims (2005)
Hypothesis 1 Moderation by injury severity
supported
Hypothesis 2 Moderation by team experience
partially supported
Hypothesis 3 Empowering leadership and opportunities for learning
supported
Conclusions
Result support a contingency view of leadership
Results imply the importance of leader adaptability
Topic 9 Powerpoint Reading Review.pptx
Topic 9. Ethics and narcissism. Readings.
Text
Clements and Washbush (1999) The Two Faces of Leadership: Considering the Dark Side of Leader-Follower Dynamics
Conger (1990) The Dark Side of Leadership
Fairholm (1996) Spiritual Leadership: Fulfilling Whole-Self Needs at Work
Brown, Trevino, and Harrison (2005) Ethical Leadership: A Social Learning Perspective for Construct Development and Testing
Portman and Garrett (2005) Beloved Women: Nurturing the Sacred Fire of Leadership from and American Indian Perspective
Supplemental
Kanungo (2001) Ethical Values of Transactional and Transformational Leaders
Kets de Vries and Miller (1985) Narcissism and Leadership: An Object Relations Perspective
The Two Faces of Leadership: Considering the Dark Side of Leader-Follower Dynamics Clements and Washbush (1999)
Leadership commonly portrayed as good and positive
Positive face of leadership
Leadership necessarily involves moral purpose
Followers play a passive role
Can be a dark side to leadership
Leadership can be instrumental in promoting social disaster as well as social good
The Two Faces of Leadership: Considering the Dark Side of Leader-Follower Dynamics Clements and Washbush (1999)
Negative face of leadership
Failure to look inside
Extroverts who become leaders lack introspection
Mirroring
Leaders act in manner to reflect what they believe followers expect
Narcissism
Emotional illiteracy
Leaders lack ability to empathize, energize, foster creativity, respond appropriately to conflict
Unwillingness to let go
Fear of stepping down as leader
Ego identification with leader with leadership
Fear of reprisals
Fear legacy may be destroyed
The Two Faces of Leadership: Considering the Dark Side of Leader-Follower Dynamics Clements and Washbush (1999)
Negative face of followership
Two ways followers can affect leader follower dynamics
Personal traits
Locus of control
Internal – prefers participative leadership style
External – prefers directive style
Authoritarianism
Synergy through interaction
Folie a deux -- Shared madness
Kelly’s taxonomy of followers
Places all responsibility of leader to maintain healthy-leader follower relations, none on followers to understand their own dark sides
The Two Faces of Leadership: Considering the Dark Side of Leader-Follower Dynamics Clements and Washbush (1999)
Negative face of followership
Follower dispositions
Controlling
See relationships in terms of superior-inferior, do what they’re told
Histrionic
Over reactive, highly impressionable, likely to provide unquestioning loyal to charismatic leaders
Passive-aggressive
Pessimism, resentment, covert resistance
Dependent
Extremely likely to be followers, leader not likely to get objective feedback
Masochistic
Positive reinforcement from misfortune, unlikely to offer objective feedback
Ethical Leadership: A Social Learning Perspective for Construct Development and Testing Brown, Trevino, and Harrison (2005)
Ethical leadership is related to previously discussed leader characteristics
Transformational leadership
Leader honesty
Leader considerate/fair treatment
But none encompass all that an ethical leader is seen to do
Ethical Leadership: A Social Learning Perspective for Construct Development and Testing Brown, Trevino, and Harrison (2005)
Ethical leadership as social learning
Leaders influence the ethical conduct of followers through role modelling
Leaders become attractive role, credible, and legitimate ethical role models by engaging in behaviors followers evaluate as normatively appropriate and suggest altruistic motivation
Honesty
Consideration
Fair treatment
Ethical Leadership: A Social Learning Perspective for Construct Development and Testing Brown, Trevino, and Harrison (2005)
Definition of ethical leadership
Demonstration of normatively appropriate conduct through personal actions and interpersonal relationship and the promotion of such conduct to followers through two-way communication, reinforcement, and decision-making
Ethical Leadership: A Social Learning Perspective for Construct Development and Testing Brown, Trevino, and Harrison (2005)
Relationships with leader styles and characteristics
Ethical leadership will be related to, but empirically distinguishable from, the ethical and relationship –oriented dimensions of authentic transformational leadership
Idealized influence
Consideration
Ethical leadership will be related to interactional fairness and trust in the leader
Ethical leadership should be positively related to affective trust
Ethical leadership should be negatively related to abusive supervision
Ethical leadership will be positively related to leader honesty
Ethical Leadership: A Social Learning Perspective for Construct Development and Testing Brown, Trevino, and Harrison (2005)
Relationships with follower attitudes and contextual performance
Ethical leadership will be positively related to employees
Satisfaction with leader
Ratings of leader effectiveness
Willingness to give extra effort
Willingness to report problems to management
Greenleaf - Servant leadership
Leaders should be attentive to concerns of followers, empathize with them, take care of and nurture them
Values everyone’s involvement in the community
Within the community one fully experiences respect, trust and individual strength
Related to Gilligan’s ethics of caring
Spiritual Leadership: Fulfilling Whole-Self Needs at Work Fairholm (1996)
Values of spiritual leadership
Rejection of values based on self-interest
Focus on ultimate ethical values of integrity, independence, and justice
Define corporate leaders as trustees/stewards of life and resources
Spiritual leaders
Clarify followers’ moral identities and strengthen and deepen their commitments
Make connections between others’ interior worlds of moral reflections and the outer worlds of work and social relationships
Spiritual Leadership: Fulfilling Whole-Self Needs at Work Fairholm (1996)
How to apply spiritual leadership
Carefully designed philosophy or vision embedded in the corporate culture
Value of personal development
Commitment to serving others
Sense of interactive, mutual trust
Authentic concern for people and organizational goal
Environment that encourages openness, fairness, individuality, and creativity
Commitment to unity and teamwork
Integrity in all relationships simplicity and flexibility of structure and systems
Emphasis on continuing evaluation of progress
Spiritual Leadership: Fulfilling Whole-Self Needs at Work Fairholm (1996)
Moral leadership
Building shared values
Vision setting
Sharing meaning
Enabling
Influence and power
Intuition
Risk taking
Service
Transformation
Stewardship
Operating in service to rather than in control of those around us
Community
Three components of spiritual leadership
Beloved Women: Nurturing the Sacred Fire of Leadership from and American Indian Perspective Portman and Garrett (2005)
American Indian women have been consistently involved with leadership throughout history
Leadership skills
Patience
Listening
Contemplating
Developing innovative strategies
Highest honor for Cherokee women is to be granted tile of “The Ghigau” or “Beloved Woman”
Beloved Women: Nurturing the Sacred Fire of Leadership from and American Indian Perspective Portman and Garrett (2005)
Relational cultural theory in contrast to Western individualism
Communal ethic
Leadership from an American Indian perspective
Collectivism
Collaboration
Compassion
Courage
Ethical Values of Transactional and Transformational Leaders Kanungo (2001)
Teleological ethics provides moral justification of transactional leadership
Deontological ethics provides moral justification of transformational leadership
Ethical Values of Transactional and Transformational Leaders Kanungo (2001)
