Peer Review

Attachment classification and years of service in a sample of human service providers working in child welfare Rachel Copeland a, Lauren Stearnsb, Amanda R. Hiles Howardb, and Casey Callc

aSchool of Public Health, Samford University, Birmingham, Alabama, USA; bDepartment of Psychology, Samford University, Birmingham, Alabama, USA; cKaryn Purvis Institute of Child Development, Texas Christian University, Fort Worth, Texas, USA

ABSTRACT Employee turnover is a pressing problem facing human service pro- fessions, especially professionals providing services in the child wel- fare system. Few studies have examined whether psychological characteristics contribute to turnover. Research suggests that inse- cure attachment representations may impact burnout and secondary traumatic stress, both common causes of turnover. However, little is known about whether attachment representations vary by years of service among human service providers working with the child wel- fare system. The purpose of this study was to determine if attach- ment classifications predicted number of years of service in a sample of 467 service providers working in the child welfare system. Participants completed a demographic questionnaire, including the number of years in the human service profession, and the Adult Attachment Interview (AAI). Multiple regression models were con- ducted to determine if attachment classification and demographic variables predicted number of years of service. Data revealed that having a dismissing attachment classification predicted more years of service. Having a preoccupied attachment classification predicted fewer years of service. Possible causes and well as implications of these differences are discussed.

KEYWORDS Attachment representations; AAI; human service professionals

Turnover in human service professions

Turnover in human service agencies is a well-established and pressing issue. Professionals in child welfare, social work, and mental health tend to have high turnover and low retention rates. Estimates of child welfare turnover range from 20% to 60%, depending on the state and county (Kim & Kao, 2014; Mor Barak, Nissly, & Levin, 2001; Williams, Kirk, & Wilson, 2011). Estimates of intention to leave are high among family social workers (39%) and community health workers (43%), and some human service agencies report turnover rates as high at 60% (Mor Barak et al., 2001). Implications of high turnover are wide-ranging, affecting clients, coworkers, and agencies. Instability among child welfare providers causes discontinuity in services and can have serious implications for the safety and stability of children and families. Employee turnover can cause gaps in services and negatively impact the quality of placement decisions (Agbényiga, 2009; Smith, 2005; Strolin-Goltzman, Kollar, & Trinkle, 2010; Williams et al., 2011). Children and families

CONTACT Rachel Copeland [email protected] School of Public Health, Samford University, 800 Lakeshore Dr., Birmingham, AL 35229

JOURNAL OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN THE SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT 2020, VOL. 30, NO. 5, 621–634 https://doi.org/10.1080/10911359.2020.1732256

© 2020 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

who change mental health and family service providers are at risk for service interruption and are more likely to receive ineffective services (Shier et al., 2012). Within agencies, employee morale and workload are negatively affected when coworkers leave (Ellett, Ellis, & Westbrook, 2007; Shier et al., 2012; Smith, 2005). Additionally, human service agencies suffer when turnover is high. Agencies lose human capital and institutional knowledge when workers leave. The set of skills, knowledge, and practice experiences possessed by human service providers is not transferable when turnover occurs and takes significant time to develop in new workers (Lizano & Barak, 2015; Mor Barak et al., 2001).

Causes of turnover

Causes of turnover have been widely discussed and reviewed in the research literature. Multiple studies point to burnout, stress, job dissatisfaction, and organizational factors as the most predominant antecedents of turnover (Kim & Kao, 2014; Strolin, McCarthy, & Caringi, 2006; Travis, Lizano, & Mor Barak, 2015; Williams et al., 2011; Zlotnik, DePanfilis, Daining, & McDermott Lane, 2005). Burnout is one of the most well- researched and consistently predictive concepts in the human service provider turnover literature. Consisting of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and decreased efficacy in workers, burnout tends to be higher among human service providers and can be caused by the emotionally demanding nature of the work, consistent exposure to trauma and clients with overwhelming problems, and lack of managerial and supervisory support in the work environment (Boyas, Wind, & Ruiz, 2015; Garcia, McGeary, McGeary, Finley, & Peterson, 2014; Travis et al., 2015). Similarly, stress is also a common factor in turnover. Stress is sometimes defined in terms of personal stressors (work/life balance; family stress) or in terms of stress on the job (low supervisory support; challenging nature of the work) (Boyas, Wind, & Ruiz, 2013; Shier et al., 2012). Finally, organizational factors that influence turnover include supervisory support, valuing employees, advancement oppor- tunities, and quality of coworker relationships (Agbényiga, 2009; Kim & Kao, 2014; Landsman, 2001).

While much research has been devoted to factors that cause turnover, little research has been conducted to determine if individual psychological aspects of human service employ- ees impact retention and turnover. Attachment theory is a useful construct in under- standing if psychological characteristics can impact factors known to lead to turnover (i.e. burnout, stress, and vicarious trauma). Individuals develop a way of managing stress and distressing emotions based on their early attachment experiences. A small body of literature exists which examines the impact of attachment category on burnout, compas- sion fatigue, and stress management among human service providers. Because there are so few studies looking at attachment among social work, mental health, and child welfare providers, the literature review was expanded to include other professions whose employ- ees are exposed to traumatic and challenging interpersonal experiences.

Burnout and attachment

Several research studies have examined the link between attachment style and burnout in various employment settings. Most studies find that a secure attachment style is a protective factor against burnout, as individuals with attachment security make better appraisals of

622 R. COPELAND ET AL.

difficult situations, have more effective coping strategies, and are able to utilize and benefit from supervision more efficiently (Burrell et al., 2009; Leiter, Day, & Price, 2015; West, 2015). Similar studies have investigated the role of attachment security and burnout among security guards (Vanheule, Declercq, Meganck, & Desmet, 2008), firefighters (Landen &Wang, 2010) and individuals from diverse professions, including health-care providers (Pines, 2004; Reizer, Ein-Dor, & Shaver, 2014). These studies also found that attachment security was a protective factor against burnout and that individuals with a secure attachment demon- strated better coping, more self-confidence, and more positive work relationships.

Research examining health and human service professionals similarly has found that attachment security correlates to lower burnout rates. A 2004 study of nurses found that securely attached nurses were far less likely to experience burnout and were able to use adaptive coping to manage stress, whereas insecurely attached nurses experienced high rates of burnout and poor stress management (Pines, 2004). Additionally, a 2015 systematic review of 10 studies of health and human service professionals found that attachment security was associated with lower levels of burnout and compassion fatigue, while attachment anxiety (preoccupation) was asso- ciated with higher levels of burnout and compassion fatigue (West, 2015). Findings were somewhat mixed related to attachment avoidance and burnout, but overall, the studies demonstrated higher rates of burnout with attachment avoidance. Finally, a 2009 study of 161 helping professional employees in an assisted living center demonstrated a negative correlation between attachment security and burnout (Simmons, Gooty, Nelson, & Little, 2009).

When examining the literature on attachment and burnout, insecure preoccupied attachment was consistently linked to burnout (Burrell et al., 2009; Reizer et al., 2014; West, 2015). Individuals with attachment preoccupation were also more vulnerable to secondary traumatic stress (Nelson-Gardell & Harris, 2003), struggled more frequently with relationships in the workplace (Leiter et al., 2015), had difficulty separating work and emotions, and more heavily relied on others for reassurance (West, 2015). Individuals classified as preoccupied were the most vulnerable to both burnout and secondary trau- matic stress.

While the research on attachment preoccupation and burnout is relatively conclusive, the research about attachment avoidance and burnout tends to be more mixed. Some studies have found links between a dismissing attachment style (attachment avoidance) and burnout while others have not. Burrell et al. (2009) found no significant relationship between dismissing attachment styles and burnout among paraprofessional home visitors who worked with high-risk families. Similarly, a 2006 study of health-care workers in Canada (Maunder et al., 2006) found no relationship between the dismissing classification and burnout. A recent study of nurses found that burnout was not associated with attachment style, but rather was associated with workplace setting (Ostacoli et al., 2010). Nurses who worked in a hospital oncology unit experienced significantly higher rates of burnout than nurses who worked in hospice. By contrast, a study of Israeli workers across various industries found that dismissing attachment styles were related to burnout (Reizer et al., 2014). Finally, Pines (2004) found that Israeli dialysis nurses, who had dismissing styles, experienced significantly higher rates of burnout compared to their securely attached peers.

JOURNAL OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN THE SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT 623

Attachment theory

Attachment theory posits that early experiences with caregivers shape personality and influence interpersonal relationships over the lifespan (Bowlby, 1988). Attachment devel- ops during infancy and early childhood when children and parents interact around the child’s needs. Attachment is a key component in developing skills to actively and passively manage stress as well as regulate emotions in times of distress (Cassidy, Lichtenstein- Phelps, Sibrava, Thomas, & Borkovec, 2009; Marganska, Gallagher, & Miranda, 2013; Schimmenti & Bifulco, 2015). When parents meet a child’s needs through sensitive and attuned caregiving, a secure attachment is formed (Bretherton, 1992). When a child is able to develop a secure attachment with a caregiver, he or she is better equipped to regulate emotional distress, can rely on others in times of need, and experiences more relational trust and satisfaction.

However, if a parent is inconsistent, rejecting, or chaotic when a child expresses a need, attachment insecurity can develop in the forms of ambivalence, avoidance, or disorganization. The insecure ambivalent attachment category develops from repeated experiences of parental inconsistency and intrusiveness. This lack of predictability tends to promote anxiety about whether the child’s needs will be met. Children with ambiva- lent attachment styles use protest strategies and hyperactivate to get their needs met (Cassidy, 2001). The insecure avoidant attachment category develops from repeated experiences of parental rejection. This parental rejection typically is of the child’s need for physical comfort and closeness as well as emotional comfort and regulation. Children with avoidant attachment styles use deactivating strategies to avoid activating their attachment system, as they know these needs will not be met (Cassidy, 2001). Finally, the disorganized attachment category develops in the context of a parent who is scary, abusive, or consistently disorienting to the child. These children are more likely to be involved with the child welfare system and have no organized pattern for seeking proximity or comfort from a caregiver.

Based on the types of interactions children experience, they develop an internal work- ing model of what to expect in relationships across the lifespan. The internal working model guides an individual's interaction with romantic partners, friends, work colleagues, and with their own children (Harms, 2011; Hazan & Shaver, 1987; van IJzendoorn, 1995). As children grow into adults, their primary attachments shift from parents to romantic partners. Childhood attachment categories become adult attachment representations of what to expect in relationships. The childhood categories of secure, insecure ambivalent, insecure avoidant, and insecure disorganized move to free autonomous, preoccupied, dismissing, and fearful avoidant (Hesse, 2008).

Free autonomous individuals are open with their feelings and emotions, utilize adaptive coping when facing adversity, are generally trusting of others, and have close interpersonal relationships. Preoccupied individuals tend to experience more general anxiety, distress impairment, have difficulty trusting others, and struggle with low self-esteem. Dismissing individuals tend to rely on deactivating strategies, report experiencing less emotional intensity, and are mistrustful of others (Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991). Fearful avoidant individuals tend to avoid others and struggle with prosocial coping and emotional regulation. (Schimmenti & Bifulco, 2015).

624 R. COPELAND ET AL.

Attachment and human service providers

Attachment can be a useful construct by which to understand personal characteristics that may make a human service provider more vulnerable to factors that lead to turnover. Considering stress, burnout, and support at work are related to turnover in human service professions, one’s attachment category may influence a person’s ability to manage the challenges of working in human services. As previously stated, research supports that attachment category is related to burnout and vicarious trauma. It is possible that attachment category may also be related to the length of employment in human service professions. If attachment category is related to length of employment, then it may be possible to prevent the development of burnout and vicarious trauma through employee education and training.

The current study

Given that insecure attachment representations are correlated with burnout, stress man- agement, and various traumas, and that these factors are predictive of turnover, it is important to examine whether attachment classification is related to length of employ- ment in human services. The purpose of the current study was to determine if attachment classifications predicted number of years of service among human service professionals working with children in the child welfare system. We hypothesized that being classified as dismissing would predict more years of service in child welfare and being classified as preoccupied would predict fewer years of service in child welfare.

Methods

Participants

This study was approved by the Institutional Review Board for Human Subjects Research. Participants were 467 professionals providing a range of services for adopted children and youth residing in foster care in the United States of America. Similar to other studies of comparable populations (e.g. Myers, Mobley, & Booth, 2003), participants were primarily female (80.1%) and Caucasian (63.8%). A minority of participants were African American (19.7%), Asian/ Pacific Islander (1.3%), and Hispanic (13.9%). The age of participants ranged from 23 to 67 (M = 37.16, SD = 10.27). Participants were either married (62.1%) or single (24.8%) with only a small number of divorced individuals (13.1%). Over half of the participants (59.7%) had children. More than half provided indirect services (55.9%). Indirect service job titles included clinical supervisor, educator, foster care supervisor, program director, and trainer. Direct service job titles were behavioral intervention specialist, case manager, psychologist, counselor, social worker, therapist, and therapeutic child care specialist. All participants had earned at least a Bachelor’s degree and many (64.1%) had a Masters or Doctorate degree. The number of years of service working in human services ranged from 0 to 28 (M = 11.30, SD = 7.86).

Measures

Adult Attachment Interview (AAI) The AAI is a semi-structured clinical interview comprising 20 questions focused on measuring the internal working model with regards to attachment representations (see

JOURNAL OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN THE SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT 625

George, Kaplan, & Main, 1996; Hesse, 2008; Main, Goldwyn, & Hesse, 2003). The AAI is considered the gold standard for assessing attachment and is well validated, widely used, and reliable (e.g. Bakermans-Kranenburg & van IJzendoorn, 1993; van IJzendoorn, 1995). Interviews were conducted over the phone prior to attending a professional training. Each interview was approximately 60 to 90 min in length. All interviews were transcribed verbatim and coded for attachment representation and coherence. Three research scien- tists trained and reliable with Mary Main and Eric Hesse coded the transcribed interviews. Coders were blind to all information about the participants. One hundred and thirty-six (29.1%) of the transcripts were coded by two raters to establish interrater reliability (κ = .83; IRR 91%) with raters coming to consensus through discussion for any diver- gences. The AAI yields a primary and secondary classification. However, the current study only utilized primary classifications (for more information on AAI classifications and behavioral implications of adult attachment see Hesse & Main, 2000; Main, 2000). Cannot classify and unresolved (i.e. fearful avoidant) are considered additional classifications, rather than independent classification themselves. In other words, they are only given in the presence of another classification (i.e. secure, dismissing, and preoccupied) and would not be considered an independent classification. Thus, participants given a cannot classify and/or unresolved designation were excluded from the current study. Removing cannot classify and unresolved participants from analysis allowed the investigators to more clearly explore the differences between the organized categories of attachment.

Procedures

Data were collected as part of participation in professional training for human service profes- sionals working with the child welfare system in two large metropolitan areas in the southern United States over a period of six years. AAIs were conducted over the telephone two to six weeks prior to training. Demographic information was collected during online registration. Completion of the AAI and the demographic questionnaire were requirements for participation in the training. Participants who wished for their data to be included in the current research study completed an informed consent. Of the 581 participants in the trainings, 545 completed the AAI, demographic questionnaire, and the informed consent. Completion rate was 93.8%. Four interviews could not be transcribed due to poor audio quality and were excluded. Further, all AAIs coded as unresolved or cannot classify were excluded from analysis (n = 74). Therefore, 467 interviews were included in the analysis for the present study.

Results

Approximately half of the participants (47.5%) were classified as secure. Over a third (37.0%) were classified as dismissing and 15.4% were classified as preoccupied. Consistent with previous research (Howard et al., 2013, 2017), attachment insecurity was higher among the current sample of human service professionals than in non-clinical samples (Bakermans-Kranenburg & van IJzendoorn, 2009). The primary interest of the current study was how the distribution of attachment representations varied by the number of years of service in child welfare-related human services. Differences in percentages of attachment style by the number of years of service can be found in Table 1. A graphical representation of this can be found in Figure 1.

626 R. COPELAND ET AL.

Multiple regression models were used in order to determine whether attachment category and demographic variables predicted number of years of service (see Table 1). Multiple regression analysis is used with continuous dependent variables and categorical or continuous independent variables. As categorical predictor variables cannot be entered directly into a regression model and be meaningfully interpreted (Cohen, 1983), dummy variables were used in the regression equation. Two-level categorical variables in the current regression equation included type of services provided (0 = direct; 1 = indirect), gender (0 = female; 1 = male), whether professionals had children (0 = no children; 1 = children), marital status (0 = other; 1 = married), and ethnic background (0 = other; 1 = Caucasian) (see Table 2). Under standard procedure for regression models (Cohen, 1983), a categorical variable with k levels is transformed into k-1 variables each with two levels. For example, if a categorical variable has three levels, then two dichotomous variables should be constructed that contain the same information as the single categorical

Table 1. Differences in percentages of attachment category by the number of years of service (n = 467).

0–5 yrs 6–10 yrs 11–15 yrs 16–20 yrs 20 yrs +

Dismissing 27.4 35.2 33.8 43.1 50.5 Secure 46.0 48.3 52.3 49.0 44.1 Preoccupied 26.6 16.5 13.9 7.9 5.4

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

0 - 5 yrs 6 - 10 yrs 11 - 15 yrs 16 - 20 yrs 20 yrs +

Differences in Attachment Category by Years of Service

Dismissing Secure Preoccupied

Figure 1. A graphical representation of differences in percentage of attachment category by the number of years of service (n = 467).

Table 2. Summary of linear regression predicting years of service from attachment classification and demographic information (n = 467).

Unstandardized Coefficients

B SE β t p

Dismissing 1.17 .54 .07 2.15 .03* Preoccupied −1.52 .74 −.07 −2.06 .04* Indirect Service 7.51 .56 .48 13.42 .00* Male −.08 .63 .00 −.12 .90 Has Children 5.84 .56 .37 10.46 .00* Married .07 .52 .00 .14 .89 Caucasian .49 .52 .03 .94 .35

*p < .05.

JOURNAL OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN THE SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT 627

variable in order to avoid perfect multicollinearity. The omitted category is the reference category because coefficients must be interpreted with reference to it. A positive beta coefficient for any included group means it scored higher on the response variable than did the reference group, or if negative, then lower. A significant beta coefficient for any included group means that the group is significantly different on the response variable from the reference group (Cohen, 1983). For the current analysis, attachment classification (secure, dismissing, and preoccupied) was recoded into dummy variables with secure attachment serving as the reference group. Thus, a significant beta coefficient for the dismissing or preoccupied variables means that the group is significantly different in number of years of service than the securely attached group.

The multiple linear regression model predicting number of years of service in human services from providing indirect services, being male, having children, being married, identifying as Caucasian, and attachment classification (dismissing and preoccupied), was significant, F (7, 459) = 79.52, p <.001, and explained 54.1% of the variance (R2 = .541). Furthermore, as shown in Table 1, providing indirect services, having children, a dismissing classification, and a preoccupied classification were significant individual predictors of number of years of service. Providing indirect services (β = .475, p < .05) predicted years of service. Participants who were indirect service providers had more years of service than direct service providers. Having children (β = .365, p < .05) also predicted years of service. Specifically, participants who had children had more years of service than those who did not have children. These findings are likely to be an artifact of the relationship between age and number of years of service in human services. In other words, participants that have more years of service are likely to be older than those who have fewer years of experience. Moreover, older individuals are more likely to have children and be in an administrative position providing indirect services.

Of greater interest to the current study is the predictive relationship between attachment classification and years of service in human services. The model revealed that dismissing attachment was a significant predictor of years of service (β = .072, p < .05). Having a dismissing attachment classification predicted more years of service than having a secure or preoccupied classification. Further, having a preoccupied attachment was a significant predictor of years of service (β = −.070, p < .05). In other words, having a preoccupied attachment classification predicted fewer years of service than having a dismissing or secure attachment classification. A graphical representation of differences in attachment style by the number of years of service can be found in Figure 1. All other individual predictors (male, married, Caucasian) were not significant, p = ns.

Discussion

This study is original in that it found that attachment category is predictive of number of years of service for human service professionals working with children involved in child welfare. Only the insecure attachment category was predictive of number of years of service, with both dismissing and preoccupied classifications predicting how long one had worked in human services. Individuals with a dismissing attachment category were significantly more likely to have more years working in human services and were more likely to be working in indirect care and supervisory roles. Individuals with preoccupied

628 R. COPELAND ET AL.

attachment classifications had fewer years working in human services, as indicated by a drop in years of employment after the five- to seven-year mark. Securely attached individuals had approximately twenty or more years of employment in human services.

While the current study suggests a relationship between attachment and length of employment in human services, it does not explain why or how the attachment category is related to length of employment. Taken in the context of the existing literature on human service provider turnover and attachment, several explanations for the current findings are possible. Perhaps the most understandable finding in the current study was that preoccupied individuals had the least amount of time employed. It is well established that working in the human service profession is stressful and that there are high rates of burnout as well as challenges with work–family balance (Dickinson & Perry, 2002; Lizano & Barak, 2015; Shier et al., 2012). Individuals with attachment preoccupation experience higher rates of burnout and secondary traumatic stress (Nelson-Gardell & Harris, 2003; West, 2015), struggle with interpersonal relationships (Boyas et al., 2013), become dysre- gulated easily, and experience more somatic complaints (Marganska et al., 2013; Reizer, 2015). Therefore, it would make sense that there is a higher number of preoccupied individuals early in their careers and that this number decreases with more years of service. While burnout and vicarious trauma were not assessed in this study, it is possible that preoccupied individuals are experiencing one or both and left the profession. This may explain why there were fewer preoccupied individuals later in their careers.

A more nuanced explanation is needed for understanding why dismissing individuals had more years of service in human services. As previously established in this paper, the literature is mixed about whether attachment avoidance is related to burnout and turnover (Burrell et al., 2009; Pines, 2004). The literature suggests that the emotional exhaustion component of burnout is more predictive of turnover than depersonalization and efficacy in the workplace (DePanfilis & Zlotnik, 2008; Zlotnik et al., 2005). Additionally, the research that does link attachment avoidance and burnout shows that dismissing attach- ment styles are less likely to experience emotional exhaustion (West, 2015). It is possible that dismissing professionals are experiencing some aspects of burnout, but they are not significant enough to warrant leaving the profession. Considering dismissing individuals rely on deactivating strategies and tend to avoid emotions, they may not experience some aspects of burnout as distressing, allowing them to complete more years of service.

Another possible explanation for the relationship between dismissing attachment classification and years of service is that the individuals with more years of service are also more likely to move to an indirect service position. As an indirect service provider, they are less likely to be in contact with distressed clients and experience the impact of caring for those clients. While this study did not ask about the level of client contact participants had, it is likely that indirect positions involve substantially less day-to-day client contact than frontline employees. Again, considering that dismissing individuals tend to use deactivating strategies to cope with stress (Nielsen et al., 2017), they may be more able to persevere through the challenges faced early in their tenure as front-line workers and move into higher paying, indirect service positions with less client contact later in their career.

A final possibility for why dismissing individuals have more years of service is that a professional’s internal working model with regards to attachment may become more dismissing over time. Though researchers classify participants into categories for ease of

JOURNAL OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN THE SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT 629

explanation, an internal working model with regard to attachment is a continuous variable and can change if exposed to repeated disconfirming experiences (see George et al., 1996; Hesse, 2008; Lopez, Mitchell, & Gormley, 2002; Mikulincer, Ein-Dor, Solomon, & Shaver, 2011). For instance, in the current sample, professionals may have had an attachment style that would be classified as secure early in their career. However, due to the exposure to client trauma, workers began adopting more deactivating strategies to cope, affecting their internal workingmodel tomove them to a dismissing classification. In other words, if workers begin to distance themselves from emotions as a way to cope with witnessing trauma and/or experien- cing stress that occurs in their work, then it is possible for their attachment representation to change. Previous research supports the idea that attachment representations can change over time if exposed to trauma or other experiences that disconfirm their internal working model (Bowlby, 1988; Lopez et al., 2002; Mikulincer et al., 2011).

Limitations and future research

Although the current study had many strengths, including a large sample size and the use of the gold standard in attachment assessment, there are limitations that should be considered when interpreting the findings. While the study found that attachment style predicted length of time working in human services, this study did not examine the reasons that individuals stay in the profession. Additionally, the lack of multiple AAIs over employment does not allow for tracking changes in attachment category over time. It is unknown whether dismissing individuals are better able to remain in the profession over time or whether workers become more dismissing over time due to the nature of the work. Future research should utilize longitudinal analysis to better understand the role that attachment classification has in human service employment.

Additionally, there were no measures of burnout, stress, job satisfaction, or organiza- tional factors to better understand workers’ experiences. Having these types of measures would provide a more precise understanding of if and how attachment classifications are related to various known factors contributing to human service turnover. The literature review demonstrates that attachment preoccupation and burnout are common factors in turnover, but is unclear about dismissing attachment. Using concurrent measures of burnout, stress, and organizational factors in a longitudinal study would provide a more robust understanding of the dynamics between attachment category and reasons for staying or leaving.

Finally, the data were collected over six years and do not account for hiring and organizational trends that may have impacted the results. Considering turnover in human services is a significant problem, many organizations are making changes to prevent high turnover (Caringi et al., 2008; Strolin-Goltzman et al., 2010). It is unknown whether any of the agencies employing the study participants were actively making changes during the time period of this study. Changes in hiring, supervision, organiza- tional culture, and caseload could impact how long individuals are staying employed despite attachment category. Additionally, implementing trauma and attachment- focused services has become more prominent recently (Blome, Bennett, & Page, 2010), and finding staff who are able to implement these kinds of interventions may naturally preclude more insecure individuals. Additional research is needed to understand whether agency changes (supervision, culture, caseload) and intervention changes (attachment

630 R. COPELAND ET AL.

focused, evidence-based practice) mediate the impact of attachment category on employee length of time in human services.

Conclusion

This study adds a new dimension to understanding factors that may influence retention and turnover among human service professionals, specifically those who work with children involved with the child welfare system. This study found that individuals with a dismissing attachment category remain in the human service profession the longest and individuals who are preoccupied have the least amount of time in the profession. For employers, understanding that individual psychological factors may influence burnout, stress management, and vicarious trauma is important in training and supporting employ- ees. Agencies can provide training focused on the interaction between attachment category and management of difficult client experiences. Additionally, training supervisors in attachment-informed supervision may help employees to better manage job stress and promote retention (Bennett, 2008). Due to the ongoing, challenging nature of working with children and families in the child welfare system, addressing the psychological needs of employees may be a viable intervention to stabilize the workforce and provide quality services to children and families in need.

Declaration of interest statement

There are no known conflicts of interest associated with this publication and there has been no significant financial support for this work that could have influenced its outcome.

ORCID

Rachel Copeland http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2974-8747

Data availability

The data described in this article are openly available in the Open Science Framework at DOI:10. 17605/OSF.IO/TPA6U.

References

Agbényiga, D. L. (2009). Child welfare employee recruitment and retention: An organizational culture perspective. Child Welfare, 88(6), 85.

Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (1993). A psychometric study of the adult attachment interview: Reliability and discriminant validity. Developmental Psychology, 29(5), 870–879. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.29.5.870

Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2009). The first 10,000 Adult Attachment Interviews: Distributions of adult attachment representations in clinical and non-clinical groups. Attachment & Human Development, 11(3), 223–263. doi:10.1080/14616730902814762

Bartholomew, K., & Horowitz, L. M. (1991). Attachment styles among young adults: A test of a four-category model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61(2), 226. doi:10.1037/0022- 3514.61.2.226

JOURNAL OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN THE SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT 631

Bennett, C. S. (2008). Attachment-informed supervision for social work field education. Clinical Social Work Journal, 36(1), 97–107. doi:10.1007/s10615-007-0135-z

Blome,W.W., Bennett, S., & Page, T. F. (2010). Organizational challenges to implementing attachment- based practices in public child welfare agencies: An example using the circle of security® model. Journal of Public Child Welfare, 4(4), 427–449. doi:10.1080/15548732.2010.526904

Bowlby, J. (1988). A secure base. New York, NY: Basic Books. Boyas, J. F., Wind, L. H., & Ruiz, E. (2013). Organizational tenure among child welfare workers,

burnout, stress, and intent to leave: Does employment-based social capital make a difference? Children and Youth Services Review, 35(10), 1657–1669. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2013.07.008

Boyas, J. F., Wind, L. H., & Ruiz, E. (2015). Exploring patterns of employee psychosocial outcomes among child welfare workers. Children and Youth Services Review, 52, 174–183. doi:10.1016/j. childyouth.2014.11.002

Bretherton, I. (1992). The origins of attachment theory: John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth. Developmental Psychology, 28(5), 759. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.28.5.759

Burrell, L., McFarlane, E., Tandon, D., Fuddy, L., Duggan, A., & Leaf, P. (2009). Home visitor relationship security: Association with perceptions of work, satisfaction, and turnover. Journal of Human Behavior and the Social Environment, 19, 592–610. doi:10.1080/10911350902929005

Caringi, J. C., Strolin-Goltzman, J., Lawson, H. A., McCarthy, M., Briar-Lawson, K., & Claiborne, N. (2008). Child welfare design teams: An intervention to improve workforce retention and facilitate organizational development. Research on Social Work Practice, 18(6), 565–574. doi:10.1177/ 1049731507309837

Cassidy, J. (2001). Truth, lies, and intimacy: An attachment perspective. Attachment & Human Development, 3(2), 121–155. doi:10.1080/14616730110058999

Cassidy, J., Lichtenstein-Phelps, J., Sibrava, N. J., Thomas, C. L., Jr, & Borkovec, T. D. (2009). Generalized anxiety disorder: Connections with self-reported attachment. Behavior Therapy, 40(1), 23–38. doi:10.1016/j.beth.2007.12.004

Cohen, A. (1983). Comparing regression coefficients across subsamples: A study of the statistical test. Sociological Methods & Research, 12(1), 77–94. doi:10.1177/0049124183012001003

DePanfilis, D., & Zlotnik, J. L. (2008). Retention of front-line staff in child welfare: A systematic review of research. Children and Youth Services Review, 30(9), 995–1008. doi:10.1016/j. childyouth.2007.12.017

Dickinson, N. S., & Perry, R. E. (2002). Factors influencing the retention of specially educated public child welfare workers. Evaluation Research in Child Welfare, 15(4), 89–103.

Dozier, M., Cue, K. L., & Barnett, L. (1994). Clinicians as caregivers: Role of attachment organiza- tion in treatment. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62(4), 793–800. doi:10.1037/ 0022-006X.62.4.793

Ellett, A. J., Ellis, J. I., & Westbrook, T. M. (2007). A qualitative study of 369 child welfare professionals’ perspectives about factors contributing to employee retention and turnover. Children and Youth Services Review, 29(2), 264–281. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2006.07.005

Garcia, H. A., McGeary, C. A., McGeary, D. D., Finley, E. P., & Peterson, A. L. (2014). Burnout in veterans health administration mental health providers in posttraumatic stress clinics. Psychological Services, 11(1), 50. doi:10.1037/a0035643

George, C., Kaplan, N., & Main, M. (1996). Adult attachment interview protocol (3rd ed.). Unpublished manuscript, University of California at Berkeley.

Harms, P. D. (2011). Adult attachment styles in the workplace. Human Resources Management Review, 21, 285–296. doi:10.1016/j.hrmr.2010.10.006

Hazan, C., & Shaver, P. R. (1987). Romantic love conceptualized as an attachment process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 511–524. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.52.3.511

Hesse, E., & Main, M. (2000). Disorganized infant, child, and adult attachment: Collapse in behavioral and attentional strategies. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 48(4), 1097–1127. doi:10.1177/00030651000480041101

Hesse, E. (2008). The Adult Attachment Interview: Protocol, method of analysis, and empirical studies. In J. Cassidy & P. R. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (2nd ed.) (pp. 552–598). New York, NY: The Guilford Press.

632 R. COPELAND ET AL.

Howard, A. R. H., Call, C. D., McKenzie, L. B., Hurst, J. R., Cross, D. R., & Purvis, K. B. (2013). An examination of attachment representations among child welfare professionals. Children and Youth Services Review, 35, 1587–1591. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2013.06.010

Howard, A. R. H., Razuri, E. B., Copeland, R., Call, C., Nunez, M., & Cross, D. R. (2017). The role of attachment classification on disclosure of self and rater-reported adverse childhood experi- ences in a sample of child welfare professionals. Children and Youth Services Review, 83, 131–136.

Kim, H., & Kao, D. (2014). A meta-analysis of turnover intention predictors among US child welfare workers. Children and Youth Services Review, 47, 214–223.

Landen, S. M., & Wang, C. C. D. (2010). Adult attachment, work cohesion, coping, and psycho- logical well-being of firefighters. Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 23(2), 143–162.

Landsman, M. J. (2001). Commitment in public child welfare. Social Service Review, 75(3), 386–419. Leiter, M. P., Day, A., & Price, L. (2015). Attachment styles at work: Measurement, collegial

relationships, and burnout. Burnout Research, 2(1), 25–35. Lizano, E. L., & Barak, M. M. (2015). Job burnout and affective wellbeing: A longitudinal study of

burnout and job satisfaction among public child welfare workers. Children and Youth Services Review, 55, 18–28.

Lopez, F. G., Mitchell, P., & Gormley, B. (2002). Adult attachment orientations and college student distress: Test of a mediational model. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 49(4), 460.

Main, M. (2000). The organized categories of infant, child, and adult attachment: Flexible vs. inflexible attention under attachment-related stress. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 48, 1055–1096. doi:10.1177/00030651000480041801

Main, M., Goldwyn, R., & Hesse, E. (2003). Adult attachment scoring and classification systems. (version 7.2). Unpublished manuscript, University of California at Berkeley.

Marganska, A., Gallagher, M., & Miranda, R. (2013). Adult attachment, emotion dysregulation, and symptoms of depression and generalized anxiety disorder. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 83(1), 131.

Maunder, R. G., Lancee, W.J., Balderson, K.E., Bennett, J.P., Borgundvaag, B., Evans, S... Wasylenki, D.A. (2006). Long-term psychological and occupational effects of providing hospital healthcare during SARS outbreak. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 12(12), 1924–1932. doi:10.3201/eid1212.060584

Mikulincer, M., Ein-Dor, T., Solomon, Z., & Shaver, P. R. (2011). Trajectories of attachment insecurities over a 17-year period: A latent growth curve analysis of the impact of war captivity and posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 30(9), 960–984.

Mor Barak, M., Nissly, J., & Levin, A. (2001). Antecedents to retention and turnover among child welfare, social work, and other human service employees: What can we learn from past research? A review and meta-analysis. Social Service Review, 75, 625–661.

Myers, J. E., Mobley, A. K., & Booth, C. S. (2003). Wellness of counseling students: Practicing what we preach. Counselor Education and Supervision, 42, 264–274. doi:10.1002/j.1556-6978.2003. tb01818.x

Nelson-Gardell, D., & Harris, D. (2003). Childhood abuse history, secondary traumatic stress, and child welfare workers. Child Welfare, 82(1), 5–26.

Nielsen, S. K. K., Lønfeldt, N., Wolitzky-Taylor, K. B., Hageman, I., Vangkilde, S., & Daniel, S. I. F. (2017). Adult attachment style and anxiety–The mediating role of emotion regulation. Journal of Affective Disorders, 218, 253–259.

Ostacoli, L., Cavallo, M., Zuffranieri, M., Negro, M., Sguazzotti, E., Picci, R. L., … Furlan, P. M. (2010). Comparison of experienced burnout symptoms in specialist oncology nurses working in hospital oncology units or in hospices. Palliative & Supportive Care, 8(4), 427–432.

Pines, A. M. (2004). Adult attachment styles and their relationship to burnout: A preliminary, cross-cultural investigation. Work & Stress, 18(1), 66–80. doi:10.1080/02678370310001645025

Reizer, A. (2015). Influence of employees’ attachment styles on their life satisfaction as mediated by job satisfaction and burnout. The Journal of Psychology, 149(4), 356–377.

Reizer, A., Ein-Dor, T., & Shaver, P. (2014). The avoidance cocoon: Examining the interplay between attachment and caregiving in predicting relationship satisfaction. European Journal of Social Psychology, 44(7), 774–786.

JOURNAL OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN THE SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT 633

Schimmenti, A., & Bifulco, A. (2015). Linking lack of care in childhood to anxiety disorders in emerging adulthood: The role of attachment styles. Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 20(1), 41–48.

Shier, M. L., Graham, J. R., Fukuda, E., Brownlee, K., Kline, T. J., Walji, S., & Novik, N. (2012). Social workers and satisfaction with child welfare work: Aspects of work, profession, and personal life that contribute to turnover. Child Welfare, 91(5), 117–138.

Simmons, B. L., Gooty, J., Nelson, D. L., & Little, L. M. (2009). Secure attachment: Implications for hope, trust, burnout, and performance. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 30(2), 233–247.

Smith, B. (2005). Job retention in child welfare: Effects of perceived organizational support, super- visor support and intrinsic job value. Children and Youth Services Review, 27(2), 153–169.

Strolin, J. S., McCarthy, M., & Caringi, J. (2006). Causes and effects of child welfare workforce turnover: Current state of knowledge and future directions. Journal of Public Child Welfare, 1(2), 29–52.

Strolin-Goltzman, J., Kollar, S., & Trinkle, J. (2010). Listening to the voices of children in foster care: Youths speak out about child welfare workforce turnover and selection. Social Work, 55(1), 47–53.

Travis, D. J., Lizano, E. L., & Mor Barak, M. E. (2015). ‘I’m so stressed!’: A longitudinal model of stress, burnout and engagement among social workers in child welfare settings. The British Journal of Social Work, 46(4), 1076–1095.

Tyrrell, C. L., Dozier, M., Teague, G. B., & Fallot, R. D. (1999). Effective treatment relationships for persons with serious psychiatric disorders: The importance of attachment states of mind. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 67(5), 725–733. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.67.5.725

van IJzendoorn, M. H. (1995). Adult attachment representations, parental responsiveness, and infant attachment: A meta-analysis on the predictive validity of the Adult Attachment Interview. Psychological Bulletin, 117(3), 387–403.

Vanheule, S., Declercq, F., Meganck, R., & Desmet, M. (2008). Burnout, critical incidents and social support in security guards. Stress and Health: Journal of the International Society for the Investigation of Stress, 24(2), 137–141.

West, A. L. (2015). Associations among attachment style, burnout, and compassion fatigue in health and human service workers: A systematic review. Journal Of Human Behavior In The Social Environment, 25(6), 571–590.

Williams, S. E., Kirk, A., & Wilson, T. (2011). A recent look at the factors influencing workforce retention in public child welfare. Children and Youth Services Review, 33(1), 157–160.

Zlotnik, J. L., DePanfilis, D., Daining, C., & McDermott Lane, M. (2005). Professional education for child welfare practice: Improving retention in public child welfare agencies. [Technical report]. Retrieved from https://archive.hshsl.umaryland.edu/handle/10713/289

634 R. COPELAND ET AL.

Copyright of Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment is the property of Taylor & Francis Ltd and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use.