history essay

Bibi Atiyas

Dr, Emily Tai

Hist 111

May 19, 2021

Western Europe underwent significant changes politically, socially, technologically, and economically. The history of Western Europe between 300 and 1789 can be categorized into three phases; Romanization, renaissance, and the age of discovery. The “Age of Discovery” is an outdated, Eurocentric term that I always advise students to avoid (look at it this way—were the Aztecs “discovered?” Or were they invaded????) Based on primary literature, the political developments were the greatest source of change between300 and 1789. The issues of de-urbanization, depopulation and barbarian invasions characterized the early years of Western Europe. Later, agricultural and technological innovations contributed to economic developments. Although there were economic, social, and religious changes, the political sphere was outstanding and shaped other spheres of Western Europe, as depicted in this paper. If you are arguing for political developments, why mention economics afterwards? Also, why derive material from this website: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-classical_history

Excerpt from Procopius on the history of wars (532) Procopius https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/procop-wars1.asp

The excerpt assesses the insurrection that turned out to be consequential in Byzantium. The Nika Revolt resulted from a fight against Emperor Justinian, who partially recovered the territories of the Western Roman Empire. Early in his reign, he almost lost his throne for choosing unpopular advisors. In January 532, his rivals united against Justinian forced him to dismiss some ministers. The rivals also attempted to overthrow the Emperor himself ARGH!! This came from this website: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justinian_I

and replace him with one of the senators, Hypatius. He attempted to flee but chose t stay because his wife was not willing to leave. It is recorded in this excerpt that about 30,000 civilians lost their lives during the riots. One of the most outstanding characteristics of politics in the fifth and sixth centuries was imperial control.

Emperor Charlemagne’s Letter to Abbot Baugulf Fulda (780-800) https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/carol-baugulf.asp

In this letter, Charlemagne is concerned about education and wants to promote education in his empire. The Emperor had gained full political control and was exercising his duty over his subjects. The political stability at this time determined the developments in other areas such as religion, science and technology, and economic developments. ARGH!! This came from this website: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-worldhistory/chapter/charlemagnes-reforms/

Having gained stable control, the Emperor thought it was important to empower the subjects in matters of education. The effort was important for the Emperor's image and reputation as a successful emperor.

General capitulary of the Missi for Emperor-Einhard (817-830) https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/basis/einhard.asp

Einhard, in his book titled "The Life of Charlemagne," analyzed some of the political wars and conflicts that existed in early Western Europe. Charlemagne took part in several wars, including the Aquitania war, the Lombard war, and the Saxon war. At this time, the war was the weapon that leaders used to gain political control over their subjects. For example, in 786, the Bretons refused to obey the king, who used the military that compelled them to obey the king. For the forty seveN years of the king's reign, the king was involved in wars skilfully and strategically to increase his kingdom and make it stronger. He also formed alliances with other kings and nations to strengthen his kingdom. This discussion of Charlemagne’s wars does not correspond with the contents of the Capitulary for Missi, which is instructions about how the Counts should be evaluated—the same text that was not fully consulted for the fifth module….but the link you’ve provided is actually to Einhard’s biography, where Charlemagne’s wars ARE discussed!

Excerpts from Machiavelli Prince (Niccollo Machiavelli 1513) https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/prince-excerp.asp

The excerpts about the prince were written in 1513 and are regarded as one of the texts that give a different image to leadership and governance. In Niccolo Machiavelli's text, a prince should choose to be feared than to be loved. In Machiavelli's excerpts, a king's decision should be based on necessity; that is, the most necessary action should be taken.ARGH!! This is from this website: https://www.sparknotes.com/philosophy/prince/section7/page/2/

The statement implies that the prince should do what is necessary, including using war as long as it will safeguard the kingdom. Machiavelli argues that since princes hold remarkable positions, they are watched keenly, and their decisions may lead to praise or blame. He argues that kings and princes must be faithful, generous, cruel, compassionate, and faithless. The use of both positive and negative qualities are based on the idea that the human condition does not allow a leader to exhibit positive characteristics only. The excerpts focused on representing the change in the image of governance. The political change at this time is witnessed today as the government n many nations portray some of the qualities advocated by Machiavelli.

Elizabeth’s Act of Uniformity (1559 John Aylmer) https://history.hanover.edu/texts/engref/er80.html

The excerpt concentrates on the limitations of laws, ordinances, and statutes on the queens' dominions. All provisions that limit the queen are considered null and void. The Act of Uniformity provides that anyone who forfeits the queen's highness will be lawfully convicted. There is a specific order f ministry that people are expected to abide by, and going against the ministry structure is punishable by law. The Act heightens the powers of the queen, who is believed to be ordained by God. The queen and her leadership promote the glory of God. The Act, therefore, gives the queen powers to publish additional rites and ceremonies that promote Godliness. This Act helped in shaping the integration of religion and politics. Political leaders took up a central position in governing religious structures and practices in their kingdom, a step that spread to other territories.

The Massacre of St. Bartholomew’s Day (1572) by De Thou https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/mod/1572stbarts.asp

De Thou talks about the riot, which was approved by the queen in August. 24, 1572. The plan was meant to get rid of all the Protestants. In this plan, The king of Navarre and the prince of Conde were to be soared Sorry?? What word did you mean here? for purposes of alliance and royal dignity. At this time, politics was taking shape, and alliances were formed and dissolveD based on political benefits associated with each alliance. It was also during this time that absolutism and constitutionalism were highly manifested. That was after the Massacre took place….The political leaders, basing their rule on religion, wanted to take full control over their subjects. Believing they were directed by God, the leaders wanted to be dictators with minimal participation of subjects. The events of the time marked the beginning of the English Revolution and the formation of constitutional states. Why discuss the English Revolution when the subject is the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew in France????

James I’s speech to Parliament (Frank Luttmer, 1609) https://history.hanover.edu/courses/excerpts/eurjam1.html

James, I emphasized the theological justification of power as depicted by his speech in parliament in 1609. According to James, monarchy is characterized by three principles; the word of God, policy, and philosophy. The king should also be viewed as a political father who leads the family (subjects). The divine foundation of governance made kings more powerful, and they could make the most critical decisions in the kingdom, sometimes without consulting with other people. ARGH!! This is from this website: https://www.jstor.org/stable/574219?seq=1

According to James' speech, kings are like earthy gods because they represent God on earth. The speech and other writings with similar opinions shaped politics and administration, and some of the principles of governance were drawn from holy scriptures.

Jacque Callots drawings in the series “On the miseries of war” Jacques Callot 1633- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Les_Grandes_Mis%C3%A8res_de_la_guerre

Western Europe also experienced 30 years of war from 1618 to 1648, a war that had many political outcomes. The struggle between Ferdinand and his opponents from German sparked the first phase of war from 1618 to 1635. After 1635, the fight was more of a European struggle as Sweden and France joined hands to fight against the Emperor. ARGH!! This is from this website: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War

Ferdinand had removed a hereditary prince and wanted to reassert imperial power. The decision to remove the prince was a big threat to the autonomy of neighboring states. Artist Jacques Callot created a drawing that depicted the destructions associated with the Thirty Years of War. Similar drawings exist today in museums, implying that the war played a significant role in shaping modern Europe. This statement needed a bit of development—particularly since these were visual sources, it would have been better to share your impressions.

John of Salisbury (1639) https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/salisbury-poli4.asp

John of Salisbury Why discuss John of Salisbury AFTER Machiavelli, when Salisbury wrote in the twelfth century and Machiavelli in the sixteenth?? talks about the differences between a prince and a tyrant. According to John of Salisbury, a prince is the one who accounts for himself as the servant and rules the people by the dictates of the law. A prince uses the power from the Lord to rule his subjects wisely and promotes the common good. On the other hand, a tyrant rules people oppressively and in a cruel manner. The differentiation of princes from tyrants was used to distinguish good leaders from bad political leaders. The work of John Salisbury was used to shape governance and promote a prince-like form of leadership. It was at this time when governance was a critical issue, and it was important for political leaders to demonstrate leadership qualities. This paragraph seems to derive heavily from this website: https://spartacus-educational.com/NORsalisbury.htm

SeventeenTH Century Politics Grafton and Bell (mid-seventeenth century) https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935338.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199935338-e-86?rskey=osS6Hs&result=14

The seventeenth-century politics was marked by political wars and absolutism. In their book, Grafton and Bell reveal that in this century, there was a lot of political propaganda. It was a period of the great monarchy, and art and printing contributed to the shaping of politics. Political leaders used war and military support to gain control over their subjects and neighboring cities. The monarchs had absolute control over their areas of jurisdiction. The ideology of absolutism was based on the belief that power comes from God, and the subjects were to do everything as instructed by their leaders. Absolutism was a significant political stride that prompted leaders to reinforce their borders and start controlling the nobility. Kings and queens built powerful royal places that depicted their power over the kingdom. The theological justification of absolute monarchy was used to enhance power and shaped some of the political territories that exist today. I’m so very sorry, but while I indicated that students could REFER to Grafton and Bell in constructing a narrative (which this paper really doesn’t, to my consternation), their textbook cannot earn credit as an assigned primary source—I’m so sorry.

English bill of rights(1689) https://avalon.law.yale.edu/17th_century/england.asp

In 1689, the English Bill of rights was passed. The Act declared subjects' rights and settled matters related to the succession of the crown. Through the Act, the exercising of power was shaped by rights articulated by the Bill. The Bill established the freedom of speech, frequency in parliament, and free elections in parliament. This was, and still is, an important change in the politics of western Europe. Since its creation, the Bill has been under parliament's custody. This was a significant political change because its main principles are in force today. Other documents that shape human rights, such as the UN declaration of human rights, also base their articles on this Bill. Therefore, it was an important influence in Western Europe. This section draws heavily on this website: https://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/evolutionofparliament/parliamentaryauthority/revolution/collections1/collections-glorious-revolution/billofrights/

And this one:

https://www.ssc.wisc.edu/~rkeyser/wp/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/English-Bill-of-Rights1.pdf

Jean Jacques Rousseau’s Social Contract (1763) https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/mod/rousseau-soccon.asp

Jean better to call him Rousseau?? Unless you know him personally?? discusses the concept of the social contract between subjects and leaders. He argues that although a human being is born free, one is chained by the rules of governance. An analysis of the relationship between people and governance leads to a conclusion that sovereignty is inalienable and indivisible. ARGH!! This is from this website: https://www.sparknotes.com/philosophy/socialcontract/summary/

And this one:

https://iep.utm.edu/soc-cont/

Theorists divide the application of sovereignty because its source cannot be divided. The creation of executives, legislatures, and other arms of government seem to be deceitful as a keen follow-up shows the three arms as one. Jean cites citizen participation as a necessary step towards enhancing a common good. Instead of representation, participation will go a long way to boost the governance outcomes towards the end of the century. Many nations started embracing citizen participation and influenced constitutions that are implemented up to date.

The Panoramic view of Versailles (1819) http://www.stockholm360.net/list.php?id=versailles

The gallery on the Palace of Versailles reflects different political events that are significant in the political history of modern Europe. There were many artistic works that showed the reign of different political leaders and reflected their victory in military and political wars. This derives very heavily from this website: https://en.chateauversailles.fr/discover/estate/palace/hall-mirrors

For For For example, the Hercus salon was crafted at the end of Louis XIV’s reign. The painting depicted the Apotheosis Hercules that was used to illustrate constitutional Absolutism ha was manifested by leaders such as Louis XIV and Francois le Moyne. The painting has a political significance and helped to shape politics and governance.

The Lombard Laws( 1973, Katherine Fischer) https://books.google.co.ke/books?id=9Zp-lQVbDXkC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false

The political invasion of the Lombards affected the German society that had been in contact with the Roman society. Before the laws were established, Germany and Rome had a positive relationship before the fifth century. Rome allowed Germans to enter their territory as long as they did not infiltrate in large numbers. Over time, the population of Germany in the Roman Empire increased, and the Germans were recruited into the army. Towards the end of the fifth century and the beginning of the sixth century, West Rome had given way to some German kingdoms. There was pressure to retain its territorial control, and the Roman Empire attempted to overthrow the German states. The Roman Empire influenced German to come to terms that there is power in the state, although the Germanic family remained powerful. Slowly, new states such as France and England shaped the political structure of the time. This does not discuss the contents of the source.

The biographic film about Louis XIV-The Peoples Profiles (2019) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_gqG-kdouqw

In a video about The Life of Louis XIV, the king is remembered for many political mileages that led to the restoration of peace between France and the Spanish. This was significantly witnessed during the seventeenth century. There were numerous wars at this time, leading to the rapid formation and dissolution of alliances. At this time also, many countries entered into war but withdrew as long as their political and strategic aims had been met. Powerful countries attempted to maintain the balance of power. For King Louis XIV, the fight against four powers made him resolve for peace with the Spanish. I’m so sorry, but this is a secondary source, and cannot be counted as one of your primary sources.

Conclusion

The paper has explored some of the politically significant events that took place in Western European society for the period 300-1789. The middle-age period was marked by many political, social, technological, and economic events that shaped modern Western Europe. However, based on the primary sources provided in the course, it is clear that the political development of the region shaped the other facets. While most events were motivated by political factors, they turned out to be impactful to other areas. Political leaders such as kings, queens, and emperors utilized their powerful positions to control the subjects and expand their territories. Consequently, they invested in economic, religious, and social developments that made their areas of jurisdiction more powerful.

While this paper lists thirteen acceptable primary sources (unfortunately, readings from your Grafton/Bell text and the assigned video on Louis XIV could not be counted as assigned primary sources), there were three problems with this paper that reduced the number of points that could allowed for each citation: first, sources were not presented as a part of a cohesive essay, arguing for your initial thesis about the importance of political change; instead, they were presented as discrete paragraphs, without transitional material to connect them to your argument; second, these sources were not presented in chronological order—which is really important for building an argument for historical change—for example, as per my embedded comments, Machiavelli was discussed before John of Salisbury, and the early medieval Lombard Laws after Versailles. In two cases, there also seemed to be confusion about the sources you were citing—Einhard’s Biography of Charlemagne is different from the Capitulary to which this paper referred; and the Lombard Laws are LAWS, not a history of the Lombards. Finally, there was a *very* high correspondence between several sections of this paper and a number of secondary internet websites, which lowered the amount of academic credit that each cited source could earn. Accordingly, this paper earned 300 from 500 possible points which are D-