Week 6 Discussion Response

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

A systematic review of the application of interactive virtual reality to sport

David L. Neumann1,2 • Robyn L. Moffitt1,2 • Patrick R. Thomas2 •

Kylie Loveday1 • David P. Watling1 • Chantal L. Lombard1 • Simona Antonova1 •

Michael A. Tremeer1

Received: 26 April 2016 / Accepted: 10 July 2017 / Published online: 19 July 2017 ! Springer-Verlag London Ltd. 2017

Abstract Virtual reality (VR) technology is being increasingly used by athletes, coaches, and other sport-re-

lated professionals. The present systematic review aimed to

document research on the application of VR to sport to better understand the outcomes that have emerged in this

work. Research literature databases were searched, and the

results screened to identify articles reporting applications of interactive VR to sport with healthy human participants.

Twenty articles were identified and coded to document the

study aims, research designs, participant characteristics, sport types, VR technology, measures, and key findings.

From the review, it was shown that interactive VR appli-

cations have enhanced a range of performance, physio- logical, and psychological outcomes. The specific effects

have been influenced by factors related to the athlete and

the VR system, which comprise athlete factors, VR envi- ronment factors, task factors, and the non-VR environment

factors. Important variables include the presence of others

in the virtual environment, competitiveness, task auton- omy, immersion, attentional focus, and feedback. The

majority of research has been conducted on endurance sports, such as running, cycling, and rowing, and more

research is required to examine the use of interactive VR in

skill-based sports. Additional directions for future research and reporting standards for researchers are suggested.

Keywords Virtual reality ! Sport ! Exercise ! Systematic review

1 Introduction

The application of computer-based technology to sport is an area of intense interest. Such technologies include

computerised modelling, data acquisition and analysis,

mobile computers, and information technology networks (Baca et al. 2009). Virtual reality (VR) is another tech-

nology, and it was first applied to sport research in the

1990s, although there has been a resurgence of interest in recent years. VR refers to a computer-simulated environ-

ment that aims to induce a sense of being mentally or

physically present in another place (Baños et al. 2000; Sherman and Craig 2002). An important feature of VR is

that the individual can interact with the environment. In the

context of sport, interaction might occur through an exer- tion interface (Mueller et al. 2007). For example, physical

effort on a machine such as an ergometer can be related to

the speed of movement through a virtual race course. Motion capture video systems, infrared beams, and wear-

able sensors are other approaches that can be used to translate physical actions into virtual sport performance.

The key elements that define VR applications to sport

are the use of computer-generated sport-relevant content and a means for the athlete to interact with the virtual

environment. When defined in this way, the application of

VR to sport has a number of strengths. As noted by Hoffman et al. (2014), the VR environment can be con-

trolled and manipulated in specific and reproducible ways.

Hoffman et al. used these characteristics to train partici- pants to use a rowing race pacing strategy. VR can also be

used for assessment, to gain feedback on performance, and

& David L. Neumann [email protected]

1 School of Appled Psychology, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Queensland 4222, Australia

2 Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Gold Coast, Queensland 4222, Australia

123

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https://doi.org/10.1007/s10055-017-0320-5

to practice specific skills. The VR environment does not

need to be limited to a single person. Other individuals may be present such as a coach, teammate, or competitor even if

they are physically located in another place. The ability to

connect with individuals via the Internet allows for inter- action without the need for travel. Finally, the increasing

availability of commercially produced software or full VR

systems avoids the need for specialised technical expertise and allows VR to be used in local gyms and at home.

The present study aimed to provide a systematic review of research on VR applications to sport. The PsycINFO,

SPORTDiscus, Scopus, Google Scholar, and Cochrane

Library databases were first searched for the existence of similar reviews. The search yielded systematic reviews on

VR in physical rehabilitation (e.g. Laver et al. 2015), VR in

psychological interventions (e.g. Meyerbröker and Emmelkamp 2010), and the use of exergames or active

videogames (e.g. Guy et al. 2011; Larsen et al. 2013; Peng

et al. 2013). The search helped to minimise overlap with existing reviews. Accordingly, the present review focused

on VR applications to sport and sport-related exercise with

healthy individuals. Studies were included if they were based on recognised sports even if those sports are used as

a component of physical conditioning or fitness programs

(e.g. cycling, running, rowing). As a result, this review focused on sport-based tasks as distinct from research with

interactive videogame systems that promote physical

activity through gameplay (i.e. exergames). The broad question examined in the present review was:

What is known about the application of VR to sport? In

particular, the review aimed to provide a definition of VR when used for sports. A further aim was to document the

aims, methods, and the broad findings from the research

conducted to date. Past research may be interpreted within the context of existing theories in sport and exercise, but of

particular focus in the present review were those factors

that are unique to VR applications to sport. The review also aimed to identify the gaps in the research to date and

develop recommended reporting standards for researchers

who apply VR to sport.

2 Literature review method

The literature search and selection method followed the

Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines (Liberati et al. 2009)

and the use of inclusion and exclusion rules described by

Meline (2006). Initially, the SPORTDiscus and PsycINFO databases were searched. The PsycINFO database includes

sport and exercise psychology journals, in addition to the

ACM Transactions on Applied Perception, the ACM Transactions on Computer–Human Interaction, and the

IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication. The

search was conducted using the terms: (sport* OR exercis* OR fitness OR physical train* or physical activit*) AND

(virtual realit* OR virtual environment* OR virtual world*

OR virtual system* OR virtual partner*). The search was limited to articles published from 1990 and up to the date

of the search (February, 2016) and included articles that

were in press. In addition, to identify any missed articles due to the inconsistent use of terms (e.g. virtual reality

versus virtual competitor) the reference lists of the articles selected for final inclusion from the database search were

examined. An examination was also made of the citations

of these articles, as collated from the Scopus database. The database search yielded 263 articles from the Psy-

chINFO database and 377 articles from the SPORTDiscus

database for a total of 640 articles. This reduced to 620 articles following removal of duplicates. A search of the

reference lists and citations yielded a further 66 unique

articles. Articles were screened for exclusion or inclusion by two individuals in a two-step process: title and abstract

(Step 1) and the full article (Step 2).1 The following

exclusion criteria were used: date (published before 1990), language (not published in English language), source (a

dissertation, thesis, abstract only, magazine article, or not a

peer-reviewed source), study type (a review, meta-analysis, commentary, letter to the editor, editorial report, or other

non-empirical article), no VR was used (a computer-gen-

erated environment was not used or there was no interac- tivity with the environment), population (the sample did

not include healthy human participants), task (the methods

did not include participation in a sport or a physical exer- cise that used equipment related to a sport or sports train-

ing), game (the task was based wholly on an exergame/

active videogame), rehabilitation (the purpose of the task was to rehabilitate those with physical injury), and measure

(performance, physiological, or psychological outcomes

were not the primary measures). Following the screening and selection process, 20 arti-

cles were included for full review. Of these articles, 18

were published in journals with journal citation metrics reported by the Web of Science database. The mean impact

factor (based on the most recent year) was 2.21 (range

0.06–4.47, SD = 1.21) indicating that the journals were largely of good quality although with some exceptions.

Consistent with this interpretation, the journal rankings

varied evenly across the full spectrum of Q1 (n = 5), Q2 (n = 5), Q3 (n = 4), and Q4 (n = 4). The articles were

coded by four authors and coding decisions were cross-

1 Cohen’s kappa for the decisions to exclude or include based on title and abstract (Step 1) was j = 0.64 and based on review of full article (Step 2) was j = 0.69, both of which fall within the guidelines for substantial agreement. Full agreement was reached at each step following discussion.

184 Virtual Reality (2018) 22:183–198

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checked. Articles were coded for characteristics related to

the study (aims, type, location, conditions/groups, outcome measures, key findings), participants (sample size, age,

experience with sport), virtual reality technology (task

type, system, display features, point of view, others in the environment, immersion/presence measures), and sport

task (type).

3 Defining virtual reality in sport

VR when applied to sport may be defined as instances

when individuals are engaged in a sport that is represented in a computer-simulated environment which aims to induce

a sense of being mentally or physically present and enables

interactivity with the environment. This definition high- lights the computer-simulated nature and interactivity of

the virtual environment, which are key element of more

general definitions of VR (e.g. Baños et al. 2000; Sherman and Craig 2002). It also aims to highlight the application of

VR to sport from the perspective of the user (athlete).

Realistic responses to virtual environments are suggested to occur when the system induces a sense of presence and

the perception that the events are actually occurring (Slater

2009). In this respect, it is important that VR uses a computer-generated environment because this is a key

feature that allows for interactivity and the perception of

presence (Baños et al. 2000; Sherman and Craig 2002). In other words, the virtual environment or elements within it

will move or change in response to the actions of the

athlete. However, the method by which the virtual envi- ronment is presented to the athlete should not be specified

in the definition because it might impose technological

limitations to the application of VR to sport (see Steuer 1992).

In many applications outside of sport, the virtual envi-

ronment is displayed using a computer automatic virtual environment (CAVE) or head-mounted display (HMD).

The CAVE is composed of a large cube made up of display

screens that the user physically enters to become sur- rounded by the virtual environment. A HMD is a wearable

device that covers the eyes and thus removes vision of the

outside world. It has one or more small screens on which the virtual world is viewed in stereovision with a wide field

of view. The HMD is combined with head tracking to allow

the user to view areas of the virtual environment that are outside of the immediate field of view by turning their

head. Being a smaller, more portable, and a more afford-

able system, the HMD is more popular than the CAVE, although both may be regarded as sharing the same key

features of an immersive system (Slater 2009).

However, the potential applications for using CAVE and HMD systems can be limited for some types of sports.

A HMD may be impractical or potentially dangerous for

some sports. For example, running a race on a treadmill using a HMD can be hazardous because vision of the

moving treadmill is removed. The head movements and

sweating of the athlete can also make the HMD uncom- fortable to wear. Indeed, in no studies identified in this

review was a HMD system used despite researchers con-

sistently using the term virtual reality to describe their approach. The most common approach was a two-dimen-

sional depiction of the virtual environment using a com- puter screen or a projector. A computer screen or projector

has the advantages of ease of use and practicality with sport

but may induce less presence than a HMD or CAVE sys- tem. Further research is required to determine whether

there is significant difference in presence when a computer

screen or projector is used. Several instances can be identified in which researchers

used methodology that approximated the proposed defini-

tion of VR applications to sport. For example, some researchers have used a visual display that shows a video of

a real environment (e.g. Plante et al. 2006). Feltz et al.

(2011) conducted a series of studies that investigated the Köhler motivation gain effect with a plank exercise task.

These studies showed the participant via a video (i.e. not a

computer-generated avatar) and included a second indi- vidual shown on a second visual display without any

interaction. Videos of real environments and people may

have potential for VR applications to sport, but they must include elements of interactivity to fulfil the proposed

definition of VR. Similarly, other researchers have used

computer-generated environments to examine baseball batting (Ranganathan and Carlton 2007), handball goal-

keeping (Vignais et al. 2015), and soccer goalkeeping

(Stinson and Bowman 2014), but these did not allow for any interactivity with the environment and were not

included in the review. Thus, the present review was

focussed more specifically on interactive VR applications to sport. In some cases, it was also found that researchers

used a non-animated avatar against a blank screen (e.g.

Briki et al. 2013), but these do not meet the proposed definition because the methods did not simulate a real

environment.

Another important consideration for interactive VR applications to sport is the distinction between sport,

exercise, and exergaming. Sport may be defined as an

activity that requires motor skill and/or hand-eye coordi- nation combined with physical exertion and includes rules

and elements of competition (Australian Bureau of Statis-

tics 2008). Exercise, used synonymously with physical exercise, is a structured activity that may include repetitive

elements that is performed to maintain or improve physical

fitness (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2008). Exergame/ active videogame is a videogame played on commercial

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game console systems (e.g. Xbox, Wii, PlayStation) that

combines gameplay with physical movements that are more than sedentary behaviour (Kim et al. 2014). Exercise

and exergames together represent a more general case of

enhancing physical activity and may not necessarily be based on a sport.

Exercises or exergames that are not based on a sport

clearly do not represent instances of VR applications to sport even if they incorporate a virtual environment.

However, investigators have used sport-related computer games, particularly those that run on a games console, in

research. Console games based on sports have been used to

examine skill acquisition and transfer in children (Rey- nolds et al. 2014) and adults (Tirp et al. 2015). However,

these applications lacked an appropriate exertion interface

(e.g. participants ran on the spot to simulate running in the game) or essential sporting equipment (e.g. no darts were

used in a dart game), and these aspects can make the task

substantially different to perform the sport in real life. VR has also been applied to exercise and improving physical

fitness. In several studies, researchers have used sport-re-

lated tasks such as cycling, running, and rowing (e.g. Murray et al. 2016). These applications have relevance to

sport performance particularly because many of these

studies have introduced elements of competition or pres- sure to meet team goals.

4 A conceptual framework for the application of virtual reality to sport

The application of VR to sport has taken many forms, with

various types of sport tasks, VR technologies, and types of

athletes used in the research. Some researchers have examined questions relating to the use of VR technology

itself, such as comparing outcomes when using VR and not

using VR (e.g. Annesi and Mazas 1997; Legrand et al. 2011; Mestre et al. 2011; Plante et al. 2003a), the effects of

immersion in the virtual environment (Ijsselsteijn et al.

2004; Vogt et al. 2015), and differences between computer- controlled and real virtual competitors (Snyder et al. 2012).

In contrast, other researchers have used VR technology as

part of a methodology to answer more general questions about factors related to sport performance. For example,

Oliveira et al. (2015) used a virtual partner as a means to

compare the effects of self-selected and externally imposed exercise intensity.

We developed a broad conceptual model that sum-

marises and provides a framework to interpret the research conducted to date. As shown in Fig. 1, the VR system

results in outcomes that occur concurrently or following

engagement in the VR sport task. The VR system is composed of four components. These are the VR

environment, the sport task, the athlete, and the non-VR

environment. Research on VR applications to sport have largely focussed on only the first three of these compo-

nents. The VR environment is the unique component for

VR applications to sport and is the focus of most research. The second component, the sport task used, will differ

according to the application and can vary between endur-

ance-type sports or skill-based sports. The third component relates to characteristics of the athlete, such as skill level

and competitiveness. The characteristics of the athlete may act independently or they may interact with other elements

of the VR system to influence outcomes. The fourth com-

ponent encompasses those aspects of the real-world envi- ronment in which the athlete completes the task. Ambient

temperature, humidity, and time of day are among the

relevant factors that can be present and influence outcomes. Finally, all four elements of the VR system will produce

outcomes that emerge on an ongoing basis when per-

forming the sport task (concurrent outcomes) or they may emerge at a later time (posttask outcomes). The posttask

outcomes may be short term or long term.

The four components of the VR system share elements in common with other models applied to sport and exercise

psychology. For example, Tenenbaum and Hutchinson

(2007) proposed that perceived effort and effort tolerance are determined by the individual (e.g. dispositions, task

familiarity, demographic characteristics), the task (e.g.

intensity, duration), and the environmental conditions (e.g. social, physical features) that are present in a given situa-

tion. These conditions are analogous to the three non-VR

components of the VR system as presented in Fig. 1. Such a similarity is to be expected because VR aims to simulate

a real environment. However, research on VR applications

to sport have not yet examined the effects of the real (non- VR) environment on performance. Instead, attention has

been directed towards variables related to the virtual

environment, such as immersion, presence, and interac- tivity with virtual others. Research supporting the con-

ceptual framework depicted in Fig. 1 is presented below.

5 The virtual reality system

5.1 Virtual reality environment and task factors

The first two components, the VR environment and sport task, may be considered together because they can be

closely linked. For example, a rower may complete a time

trial using a rowing ergometer. However, the ergometer is merely the exertion interface. It is transformed into a vir-

tual boat such that pulls on the ergometer handle are

depicted as movements of the virtual oars through the water. Increasing exertion on the task (e.g. rowing at a

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higher intensity) will be reflected in changes in the virtual

environment (e.g. faster movement through the water and passing scenery). Thus, performance and other factors

related to the task will influence the virtual environment

and this relationship can be reciprocal. Research has shown that several characteristics of the VR

environment and the task influence outcomes. A summary of

the methodological approaches used to create the VR envi- ronment and task is provided in Table 1. As can be seen, the

sport tasks used most often have been cycling and running, but rowing, weightlifting, and golf have also been examined.

Cycling, running, and rowing are sports that contain ele-

ments of endurance and persistence. These sports are also relatively easy to translate into a virtual environment. The

exertion interface of the treadmill or ergometer can readily

monitor information with regard to the speed and other performance elements (e.g. cadence) and translate this

information into virtual movements. Interactivity is further

enhanced by including directional controls although few VR systems have been used which have this capability.

The VR software and display equipment used in

research has varied from commercially available products to those that are custom made. The virtual environment is

typically displayed on computer screens or projected

against a wall. A larger display or the inclusion of more multimodal elements of the environment will increase the

sense of immersion in the virtual world (Vogt et al. 2015)

and this can influence performance. Using a more immer- sive virtual environment during a cycling task (i.e. showing

the track from the point of view of the rider versus from a

birds eye view) has increased motivation and the speed of cycling in participants (Ijsselsteijn et al. 2004). Using a

virtual running task, over a third of participants have reported that the immersion induced by the VR environ-

ment is an important motivating feature (Nunes et al.

2014). There might be a dose-dependent relationship between the level of immersion induced by the VR system

and the magnitude of the resulting outcomes.

The presence of others in the virtual environment has also emerged as an important feature of the VR environ-

ment. Indeed, the presence of others may be even more

important than the capability of the VR system to induce feelings of immersion or the presence. In a survey study

examining golf play in a virtual environment, Lee et al.

(2012) distinguished between two types of presence: telepresence or the feeling of being physical immersed in

VR Display ■ screen ■ HMD ■ CAVE

Exertion interface

Athlete

Location

Social

CONCURRENT OUTCOMES

POSTTASK OUTCOMES

Short-term Long-term

Physiological

Psychological

Performance

Sport Pr

es en

ce o

f o th

er s

VR SYSTEM

Fig. 1 A model of interactive virtual reality (VR) in sport and sport-related exercise showing the relationship between components of the VR system, current outcomes, and posttask outcomes

Virtual Reality (2018) 22:183–198 187

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the virtual environment and social presence or the feeling

of being with and communicating with others in the virtual environment. Social presence was shown to play a more

important role in perceived enjoyment, perceived value,

and behavioural intentions than telepresence. Further, unlike social presence, telepresence did not significantly

predict any of these outcomes.

The presence of others has also influenced motivation and performance for aerobic sport tasks. Using a running

task, Nunes et al. (2014) reported that participants pre-

ferred to run in the presence of virtual others than to run on the virtual course alone (Nunes et al. 2014). Irwin et al.

(2012) examined the Köhler motivation gain effect while

participants cycled in a virtual environment. Participants cycled at an intensity of 65% of heart rate reserve for as

long as they felt comfortable. Different groups of partici-

pants completed trials while cycling in the virtual envi- ronment alone or at the same time as another person (a

Table 1 Characteristics of the task and virtual reality system of studies investigating virtual reality in sport

Authors Years Task Sport equipment VR technology VR display

Point of view

Others in environment

Anderson- Hanley et al.

2011 Cycling Recumbent stationary bicycle

Netathlon riding software Laptop screen

Not specified

Some conditions

Anderson- Hanley et al.

2012 Cycling Recumbent stationary bicycle

Netathlon riding software Laptop screen

Not specified

Yes

Anderson- Hanley et al.

2014 Cycling Recumbent stationary bicycle

Netathlon riding software Laptop screen

Not specified

Yes

Annesi and Mazas

1997 Cycling Stationary recumbent bicycle

Tectrix VR bike Screen Not specified

Yes

Baños et al. 2016 Walking Treadmill Commercial VR exergaming platform) Projected Third Not specified

Chen et al. 2015 Weightlifting Dumbbells Cave automatic virtual environment (CAVE)

Projected Not specified

No

Hoffman et al.

2014 Rowing Indoor rowing ergometer

Not specified Screen First Not specified

Ijsselsteijn et al.

2004 Cycling Stationary racing bicycle

Tacx T19000i-magic’ VR trainer Projected First and third

Yes

Irwin et al. 2012 Cycling Stationary bicycle Expresso fitness bike system Screen Not specified

Some conditions

Lee et al. 2012 Golf Golf ball and clubs Golfzon managed and operated virtual golf simulator

Projected First Not specified

Legrand et al.

2011 Running or cycling

Treadmill and regular bicycle ergometer

Tacx I-magic fortius Projected Not specified

No

Mestre et al. 2011 Cycling Stationary bicycle Tacx VR trainer Screen Third Yes

Murray et al.

2016 Rowing Indoor rowing ergometer

Netathlon 2 XF software Projected Third Yes

Nunes et al. 2014 Running Treadmill Running wheel Screen Third Some conditions

Oliviera et al.

2015 Cycling Cycle ergometer CompuTrainer 3D software Screen Not specified

Yes

Plante et al. 2003a Cycling Stationary bicycle Trek extreme mountain biking and cycle Fx ITS-1 with ultra-coach VR lite

Screen Third Yes

Plante et al. 2003b Cycling Stationary bicycle Trek extreme mountain biking and cycle Fx ITS-1

Screen Third Yes

Sigrist et al. 2015 Rowing Indoor rowing ergometer

Cave automatic virtual environment (CAVE)

Projected Not specified

No

Snyder et al. 2012 Cycling Recumbent stationary bicycle

Cybercycle expresso S3R Screen Third Yes

Vogt et al. 2015 Cycling Cycle ergometer Custom made Projected First No

VR virtual reality

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confederate) who the participant was informed had per-

formed moderately better than they did in a baseline trial. Cycling with the other person was either in a conjunctive

situation (a ‘‘team score’’ would be based on the rider who

quit the task first) or a coactive situation (no team part- nership). Task persistence was higher in the coactive sit-

uation than when cycling alone. Moreover, a further

enhancement of persistence was observed in the conjunc- tive situation, suggesting motivational gains when per-

forming a VR-based sport in a team situation. In the study by Irwin et al. (2012), the confederate was

shown via a video loop on another screen and not in the VR

environment. Murray et al. (2016) also examined the Köhler motivation gain effect in which the teammate was

present as a virtual partner in the virtual environment.

Female participants novice to rowing completed a rowing trial in the presence of a virtual teammate in a conjunctive

situation (the shortest distance rowed over a 9-min trial

would count as the team score) or in the VR environment alone. Prior to the trial, participants were informed that the

teammate had rowed 40% longer than them in an initial

baseline row. A Köhler motivation gain effect was found in that participants rowed further and had a higher heart rate

in the presence of a teammate than when rowing in the VR

environment alone. Moreover, the conditions did not differ in felt arousal, positive feelings, or ratings of perceived

exertion. The latter finding suggests that performance

improvements can be induced by a virtual partner in the absence of negative psychological costs.

The presence of others in a virtual environment can be

used to more directly induce a pressure to perform in a competitive situation. Using a sample of older adults,

Anderson-Hanley et al. (2011) compared cycling through a

virtual course either alone or in the presence of on-screen rider avatars. In the latter condition, participants were

explicitly asked to outpace the avatars. The introduction of

the on-screen avatars increased cycling power output when compared to solo cycling condition. However, this effect

was observed only in participants who were classified as

high in competitiveness based on a self-report question- naire. A limitation of this study was that all participants

completed the solo cycling condition first and the com-

petitive situation second. Nevertheless, the findings suggest that competitiveness is an important moderating factor in

responses to VR.

Similar outcomes to Anderson-Hanley et al. (2011) were reached in a study by Snyder et al. (2012) who compared

two competitive situations while participants cycled in a

VR environment. In the virtual condition, the participants were informed that the avatar of the other rider was con-

trolled by the computer. In a live rider condition, the par-

ticipants were introduced to a confederate and were informed that the avatar speed was controlled by the

cycling speed of the confederate. Cycling performance,

measured as watts generated, was higher for the live rider condition than in the virtual rider condition. Again, this

difference emerged only in participants high in competi-

tiveness. No differences between the rider conditions emerged for participants low in competitiveness.

Competitive situations can be constructed within a vir-

tual environment in various ways. Nunes et al. (2014) devised three competitive modes based on whether par-

ticipants competed against themselves (i.e. a prior perfor- mance), against an individual chosen for them who is

superior, or against any individual chosen by the partici-

pant. Using a VR running task, all types of competitive situations enhanced physical exertion (as measured by

heart rate) and self-reported motivation when compared to

running on the virtual course alone. Evidence was also found that participants who were not initially competitive

still felt pressure to outperform the on-screen avatars.

However, similar to the conclusions reached by Anderson- Hanley et al. (2011) and Snyder et al. (2012), participants

who had a stronger preference for competitive situations

showed the highest task performance. A different approach to the use of another individual in

the virtual environment was reported by Oliveira et al.

(2015). Participants completed two conditions of a VR cycling task. In one condition, the participant self-selected

the intensity of the cycling trial. In the other condition,

participants were asked to follow a virtual cyclist. The virtual cyclist was set to a speed that matched the self-

selected intensity condition. No significant differences

were found between conditions on physiological effort or affective responses. Typically, an externally imposed

intensity results in an increase in negative affect. The

findings thus suggest that this affective ‘‘cost’’ is mitigated when participants match the imposed pace of a virtual

partner. However, further research is required to confirm

these findings. For example, order effects may have been a factor because all participants completed the self-selected

condition first and followed by the externally imposed

intensity condition.

5.2 User (Athlete) factors

The third component of the VR system is the athlete who is

engaging in the virtual sport. The characteristics of the

athlete user have the potential to mediate or moderate the effects of VR on performance and psychological outcomes.

Athlete user factors may include physical characteristics,

expertise and experience, and psychological characteris- tics. As shown in Table 2, the participants recruited in

research to date have been relatively homogenous. The

typical participant has been a young adult sampled from Western countries who are novice to the sport. It has been

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suggested that using novices is advantageous because it results in a sample that is more physiologically equivalent

and their performance is less likely to be influenced by

prior learning (Hoffmann et al. 2014). However, it reduces the generalisation of findings to participants that are

younger or older or who compete at the elite level.

It is surprising that most studies have not reported comparisons between males and females given the docu-

mented gender differences in not only sport performance

but also in experience with computerised environments (e.g. computer games). Plante et al. (2003a) included

gender as a factor when examining the effects of VR on

mood during cycling. Females showed a larger difference in reported relaxation between the VR alone (no cycling)

and both the cycling alone and cycling with VR conditions

when compared to males. Plante et al. (2003b) also used a cycling task and reported gender differences in ratings of

energy. Males reported higher energy when cycling alone, cycling with VR, or experiencing VR alone than in a

baseline control condition that did not involve VR or

cycling. In contrast, females reported more energy in cycling alone or cycling with VR than when VR was used

without cycling or in the baseline condition. While pre-

liminary, there is some suggestion that females may be influenced more by the VR environment than males.

The preferences of the individual user may be an

important psychological factor that moderates outcomes. Legrand et al. (2011) assigned participants to either a

cycling task alone (no VR input), a self-selected VR task

(either jogging or cycling), or an externally imposed VR task (either jogging or cycling). All conditions improved

positive affect and reduced negative affect when assessed

by pre- and posttask subjective measures. The in-task subjective measures showed that participants in the self-

Table 2 Sample size and participant characteristics of studies investigating virtual reality in sport

Authors Years N Gender Age (in years) Experience type Location

Anderson-Hanley et al. 2011 14 Both M = 78.51 Novice U.S.A.

Range 60–99

Anderson-Hanley et al. 2012 79 Both M = 78.76 Novice U.S.A.

Anderson-Hanley et al. 2014 30 Both M = 79.5 Novice U.S.A.

Annesi and Mazas 1997 39 Both M = 37.7 Novice U.S.A.

Baños et al. 2016 109 Both M = 11.86 Novice Spain

Range 10–15

Chen et al. 2015 11 Both M = 24.5 Novice U.S.A.

Hoffman et al. 2014 15 Males M = 24.1 Novice France

Ijsselsteijn et al. 2004 24 Both M = 41.3 Novice Netherlands

Irwin et al. 2012 58 Females M = 20.54 Novice U.S.A.

Lee et al. 2012 275 Both 80.4% fell within 30–49 Experienced South Korea

Legrand et al. 2011 131 Both M = 19.31 Experienced France

Mestre et al. 2011 6 Not specified Range 19–25 Novice France

Murray et al. 2016 60 Female M = 20.20 Novice Australia

Range 18–30

Nunes et al. 2014 12 Both M = 33.91 Novice Brazil

Range 22–52

Oliviera et al. 2015 17 Male M = 31 Novice Brazil

Range 18–40

Plante et al. 2003a 88 Both M = 38.10 Novice U.S.A.

Range 20–67

Plante et al. 2003b 121 Both M = 18.58 Novice U.S.A.

Range 17–27

Sigrist et al. 2015 24 Both M = 26.1 Novice Switzerland

Range 21–33

Snyder et al. 2012 23 Females M = 19.2 Novice U.S.A.

Range 17–22

Vogt et al. 2015 22 Both M = 30.27 Novice Germany

190 Virtual Reality (2018) 22:183–198

123

selected VR task reported higher pleasure than the cycling

alone or the externally imposed VR task, which themselves did not differ. Autonomy or the appropriate matching of an

individual to a preferred sport may thus be important for

mood benefits when using VR. As noted above, individual preferences for task intensity may be another factor in that

using VR technology may reduce the negative impact of

performing at an externally imposed intensity (Oliveira et al. 2015).

5.3 Non-VR environment factors

The final component of the VR system, the real-world environment, has received no attention in research con-

ducted to date. Researchers have used a controlled indoor

environment and have kept key variables like temperature, humidity, and time of day constant or allowed them to vary

at random. Tenenbaum and Hutchinson (2007) noted that

the environment can be divided into physical and social components and a similar distinction can be made here. In

particular, based on research showing that the presence of

others in the virtual environment can influence perfor- mance and psychological states, it would be expected that

the presence of others in the real environment will also

have an influence. Further research is required to examine the effects of environmental factors and to determine the

relative strength of these factors when present virtually

versus when present in reality.

5.4 Concurrent and posttask outcomes

A summary of the key research aims and outcomes is

shown in Table 3. The majority of the outcomes have been

observed concurrently with the task, but some have been observed posttask (i.e. short-term and long-term effects;

see Fig. 1). Concurrent outcomes are those that influence

ongoing behaviour (e.g. performance, persistence, affective states, perceived exertion). For example, VR tasks that

induce competitiveness may induce short-term increases in

performance if the individual is running at a pace slower than a virtual competitor (Nunes et al. 2014). Posttask

outcomes will influence behaviour at a later time and are

thus independent of the ongoing interaction with the VR system (e.g. meeting performance goals, competition out-

comes). For instance, Annesi and Mazas (1997) showed

that an exercise program that used a VR cycling task increased adherence to the exercise program relative to

cycling alone.

Outcomes may also be divided into those related to task performance, physiological effects, and psychological

processes. As shown in Table 3, performance outcomes in

past research include adherence (Anderson-Hanley et al. 2014; Annesi and Mazas 1997; Irwin et al. 2012), distance

travelled or speed in the virtual environment (Hoffmann

et al. 2014; Ijsselsteijn et al. 2004; Murray et al. 2016; Nunes et al. 2014; Snyder et al. 2012), physical intensity

exerted (Anderson-Hanley et al. 2011; Chen et al. 2015;

Snyder et al. 2012), in-task persistence (Irwin et al. 2012), and strategy (Hoffmann et al. 2014). Physiological out-

comes have included heart rate (Nunes et al. 2014; Snyder

et al. 2012), oxygen consumption and blood lactate level (Oliveira et al. 2015), muscle fatigue (Chen et al. 2015),

and electroencephalogram (EEG) amplitude and frequency (Vogt et al. 2015). Psychological outcomes may relate to

behavioural intentions (Lee et al. 2012), cognitive func-

tions (Anderson-Hanley et al. 2012), motivation (Ijssel- steijn et al. 2004; Nunes et al. 2014), perceived pressure

(Ijsselsteijn et al. 2004), attentional focus (Baños et al.

2016; Mestre et al. 2011), and various positive and nega- tive feeling states.

The application of VR to sport has resulted in several

beneficial outcomes. When compared to control conditions, tasks that incorporate VR have shown improved adherence

(Annesi and Mazas 1997), better race strategy performance

(Hoffmann et al. 2014), higher cognitive functioning (Anderson-Hanley et al. 2012), improved mood and

reduced tiredness (Plante et al. 2003b), increased workload

(Chen et al. 2015), and higher enjoyment (Mestre et al. 2011; Murray et al. 2016). However, the control condition

used in most research has involved performance of the

sport on its own. This approach may be questioned because it does not control for the presence of an external stimulus

during the task. It is possible that the VR environment may

produce its effects because it distracts and diverts attention away from the task (Baños et al. 2016; Mestre et al. 2011),

rather than because it induces a sense of the presence or

includes elements of interactivity, which are the key fea- tures of a VR environment.

It is also noteworthy that better performance or psy-

chological outcomes have not always resulted when VR is used (e.g. Lee et al. 2012; Legrand et al. 2011) suggesting

that other factors may moderate its effectiveness. As noted

above and shown in Table 3, these factors may relate to the VR system or user, such as level of immersion (Ijsselsteijn

et al. 2004), competitiveness (Anderson-Hanley et al. 2011;

Nunes et al. 2014; Snyder et al. 2012), social presence (Irwin et al. 2012; Lee et al. 2012; Murray et al. 2016),

self-selection of tasks (Legrand et al. 2011), attentional

focus (Mestre et al. 2011), and the mood altering effects of the task itself (Plante et al. 2003b).

Performance and psychological outcomes may result

from the additive or interactive effects of the VR system. For example, a high level of immersion will enhance

motivation and performance (Ijsselsteijn et al. 2004).

However, immersion may be increased in different ways. It can be enhanced by using a more realistic VR environment

Virtual Reality (2018) 22:183–198 191

123

T ab

le 3

C h ar ac te ri st ic s o f th e d es ig n , ai m s, co n d it io n s, m ea su re s, an d k ey

fi n d in g s o f st u d ie s in v es ti g at in g v ir tu al

re al it y in

sp o rt

A u th o rs

Y ea rs

S tu d y d es ig n

A im

s C o n d it io n s

M ea su re s

Im m er si o n /

p re se n ce

m ea su re

K ey

fi n d in g s

A n d er so n -

H an le y

et al .

2 0 1 1

Q u as i-

E x p er im

en ta l

T o ev al u at e th e ef fe ct

o f

so ci al

fa ci li ta ti o n an d

co m p et it iv en es s o n

cy cl in g in

o ld er

ad u lt s

(1 ) S ta ti o n ar y cy cl in g w it h V R

(2 ) S ta ti o n ar y cy cl in g w it h V R

an d o n -s cr ee n co m p et it o rs

C o m p et it iv en es s an d cy cl in g

ef fo rt

N o

T h e in tr o d u ct io n o f co m p et it o r

av at ar s in cr ea se d cy cl in g

in te n si ty

m o re

fo r co m p et it iv e

o ld er

ad u lt s th an

fo r th o se

w h o

w er e le ss

co m p et it iv e

A n d er so n -

H an le y

et al .

2 0 1 2

E x p er im

en ta l

T o d et er m in e if v ir tu al

cy cl in g w o u ld

re su lt in

g re at er

ex ec u ti v e

fu n ct io n , an d in cr ea se

b ra in -d er iv ed

n eu ro tr o p h ic

g ro w th

fa ct o r

(1 ) S ta ti o n ar y cy cl in g (2 )

S ta ti o n ar y cy cl in g w it h

in te ra ct iv e V R

to u rs

E x ec u ti v e fu n ct io n an d o th er

co g n it iv e fu n ct io n m ea su re s,

B M I, b o d y co m p o si ti o n ,

st re n g th , en er g y ex p en d it u re ,

an d b ra in -d er iv ed

n eu ro tr o p ic

fa ct o r

N o

V R cy cl in g to u rs sh o w ed

g re at er

ex ec u ti v e fu n ct io n in g an d

n eu ro p la st ic it y th an

cy cl in g o n

it s o w n ; V R

cy cl in g to u rs

h ad

a 2 3 %

re la ti v e ri sk

re d u ct io n in

m il d co g n it iv e im

p ai rm

en t

A n d er so n -

H an le y

et al .

2 0 1 4

E x p er im

en ta l

T o d et er m in e if h ig h er

ex ec u ti v e fu n ct io n w o u ld

p re d ic t cy cl in g

b eh av io u r o v er

a 3 -m

o n th

fo ll o w -u p

p er io d

(1 ) S ta ti o n ar y cy cl in g (2 )

S ta ti o n ar y cy cl in g w it h

in te ra ct iv e V R

to u rs

E x ec u ti v e fu n ct io n , se lf -

ef fi ca cy , p er ce iv ed

b en efi ts

an d b ar ri er s to

ex er ci se , so ci al

su p p o rt , m o ti v at io n , co g n it iv e

im p ai rm

en t, an d p h y si ca l

il ln es s

N o

E x er ci se

se lf -e ffi ca cy

an d

d ec li n in g ex ec u ti v e fu n ct io n at

p o st -i n te rv en ti o n w er e

as so ci at ed

w it h m o re

fr eq u en t

ex er ci se

d u ri n g fo ll o w -u p

A n n es i an d

M az as

1 9 9 7

E x p er im

en ta l

T o te st th e ef fe ct iv en es s o f

V R

o n in cr ea si n g

ad h er en ce , at te n d an ce ,

an d fe el in g st at es

(1 ) U p ri g h t b ic y cl e (2 )

R ec u m b en t b ic y cl e (3 )

R ec u m b en t b ic y cl e w it h V R

A tt en d an ce , ad h er en ce , ex er ci se -

in d u ce d fe el in g s, an d se lf -

m o ti v at io n

N o

V R

cy cl in g w as

ef fe ct iv e in

m ai n ta in in g ad h er en ce

to re g u la r cy cl in g ; ex er ci se -

in d u ce d fe el in g s w er e n o t

af fe ct ed

b y V R

cy cl in g

B añ o s

et al .

2 0 1 6

Q u as i-

E x p er im

en ta l

T o d et er m in e if a V R

w al k in g ta sk

cr ea te s

at te n ti o n al

d is tr ac ti o n

fr o m

b o d il y se n sa ti o n s in

o v er w ei g h t ch il d re n

(1 ) G ro u p (o v er w ei g h t, n o rm

al w ei g h t) (2 ) C o n d it io n (n o V R ,

V R )

H R , at te n ti o n al

fo cu s, ex er ci se -

in d u ce d fe el in g s, ra ti n g s o f

p er ce iv ed

ex er ti o n , en jo y m en t,

an d p re fe re n ce

N o

V R

d ec re as ed

fo cu s o n b o d il y

se n sa ti o n s an d in cr ea se d

ex te rn al

fo cu s fo r o v er w ei g h t

ch il d re n ; en jo y m en t ra ti n g s

w er e h ig h er

in th e V R

co n d it io n

C h en

et al .

2 0 1 5

E x p er im

en ta l

T o d et er m in e if V R

im p ro v es

w ei g h tl if ti n g

p er fo rm

an ce

an d ra ti n g s

o f p er ce iv ed

ex er ti o n

(1 ) V R (n o V R , 3 -D

st er eo , 2 -D

st er eo ) (2 ) W ei g h t o f li ft (l o w ,

m o d er at e,

h ig h ) (3 ) H ei g h t o f

li ft (l o w , m o d er at e,

h ig h )

M u sc le

fa ti g u e,

p o w er –

fr eq u en cy , ra ti n g s o f p er ce iv ed

ex er ti o n , an d p er ce iv ed

w o rk lo ad

N o

B ic ep

m u sc le

ac ti v it y an d

w o rk lo ad

w as

h ig h er

in b o th

V R

co n d it io n s th an

n o V R

co n d it io n ; ra ti n g s o f p er ce iv ed

ex er ti o n d id

n o t d if fe r ac ro ss

co n d it io n s

H o ff m an

et al .

2 0 1 4

E x p er im

en ta l

T o d et er m in e if V R

u si n g

an av at ar

to tr ai n a ra ce

st ra te g y w o u ld

im p ro v e

en er g y m an ag em

en t an d

ra ce

o u tc o m es

(1 ) V R

w it h n o av at ar

(2 ) V R

w it h av at ar

u si n g a fa st -s ta rt

ra ce

st ra te g y

V en ti la to ry

an d en er g y

ex p en d it u re

v ar ia b le s, ra ce

ti m e,

p o w er

o u tp u t, p ac e,

S te p M ax , an d ra ce

st ra te g y

N o

T ra in in g w it h an

av at ar

to u se

a fa st -s ta rt ra ce

st ra te g y

im p ro v ed

ra ce

st ra te g y p ro fi le s

an d ra ce

ti m e p er fo rm

an ce

at p o st -t es t an d re te n ti o n te st

192 Virtual Reality (2018) 22:183–198

123

T ab

le 3

co n ti n u ed

A u th o rs

Y ea rs

S tu d y d es ig n

A im

s C o n d it io n s

M ea su re s

Im m er si o n /

p re se n ce

m ea su re

K ey

fi n d in g s

Ij ss el st ei jn

et al .

2 0 0 4

E x p er im

en ta l

T o d et er m in e if im

m er si v e

V R

en v ir o n m en ts

an d a

v ir tu al

co ac h in cr ea se

m o ti v at io n to

cy cl e

(1 ) Im

m er si o n (h ig h , lo w ) (2 )

V ir tu al

co ac h (w

it h , w it h o u t)

In tr in si c m o ti v at io n , H R , an d

av er ag e sp ee d

T h e IT C

S en se

o f P re se n ce

In v en to ry

W h en

V R

w as

m o re

im m er si v e,

m o ti v at io n an d av er ag e sp ee d

w er e in cr ea se d ; th e v ir tu al

co ac h re d u ce d p er ce iv ed

p re ss u re , te n si o n an d co n tr o l

Ir w in

et al .

2 0 1 2

E x p er im

en ta l

T o d et er m in e if m o ti v at io n

to p er si st w o u ld

b e

in fl u en ce d b y th e

p re se n ce

o f a p ar tn er

in a

co n ju n ct iv e o r co ac ti v e

si tu at io n

(1 ) In d iv id u al

(2 ) C o n ju n ct iv e

(3 ) C o ac ti v e

P er si st en ce , se lf -e ffi ca cy ,

in te n ti o n to

ex er ci se , ra ti n g s o f

p er ce iv ed

ex er ti o n , an d

in te n ti o n to

ex er ci se

N o

V R

co m b in ed

w it h a p ar tn er

sh o w ed

g re at er

ta sk

p er si st en ce

in co n ju n ct iv e

co n d it io n s th an

co ac ti v e

co n d it io n s w it h b o th

h ig h er

th an

n o p ar tn er

L ee

et al .

2 0 1 2

S u rv ey

T o in v es ti g at e th e

p sy ch o lo g ic al

ef fe ct s o f

p re se n ce

an d im

m er si o n

in V R

(1 ) V R

co n d it io n

P er ce iv ed

en jo y m en t, p er ce iv ed

v al u e,

an d b eh av io u ra l

in te n ti o n

A q u es ti o n n ai re

d es ig n ed

to m ea su re

te le p re se n ce

an d so ci al

p re se n ce

S o ci al

p re se n ce

ra th er

th an

th e

V R

te ch n o lo g y it se lf w as

re sp o n si b le

fo r en jo y m en t,

p er ce iv ed

v al u e,

an d

b eh av io u ra l in te n ti o n

L eg ra n d

et al .

2 0 1 1

E x p er im

en ta l

T o ex am

in e re g u la r

ex er ci se

v er su s a V R

cy cl in g an d V R

ru n n in g

ta sk

an d al so

th e ef fe ct o f

im p o se d v er su s se lf -

se le ct ed

V R

ta sk s o n

af fe ct

an d v al en ce

(1 ) B ic y cl e er g o m et er

w it h n o

V R (2 ) P ar ti ci p an t ch o ic e o f

V R cy cl in g o r ru n n in g (3 )

E x p er im

en te r al lo ca te d V R

cy cl in g o r ru n n in g

P o si ti v e af fe ct , n eg at iv e af fe ct ,

v al en ce

N o

M o o d b en efi ts fo ll o w in g th e ta sk

w er e o b se rv ed

re g ar d le ss

o f

co n d it io n ; a se lf -s el ec te d V R

ta sk

re su lt ed

in h ig h er

p o si ti v e

v al en ce

d u ri n g th e ta sk

th an

w h en

th e V R ty p e o f ta sk

w as

ex te rn al ly

im p o se d

M es tr e

et al .

2 0 1 1

E x p er im

en ta l

T o te st th e ro le

o f V R an d

a v ir tu al

co ac h o n

at te n ti o n al

fo cu s,

p er fo rm

an ce , an d

en jo y m en t

(1 ) N o V R

(2 ) V R

(3 ) V R

an d

fo ll o w in g v ir tu al

co ac h p ac er

P er ce iv ed

ex er ti o n , p h y si ca l

ac ti v it y en jo y m en t, at te n ti o n al

fo cu s, an d p er fo rm

an ce

(s p ee d ,

p o w er , p ed al li n g fr eq u en cy ,

an d H R )

N o

D is so ci at iv e at te n ti o n al

fo cu s

w as

g re at er

in th e V R

co n d it io n s an d en jo y m en t w as

g re at er

fo r V R co n d it io n th an

N o V R co n d it io n an d g re at er

fo r V R w it h v ir tu al

co ac h th an

V R

M u rr ay

et al .

2 0 1 6

E x p er im

en ta l

T o d et er m in e if th e

p re se n ce

o f o th er s in

an im

m er si v e V R

af fe ct s

p er fo rm

an ce , m o ti v at io n ,

an d af fe ct

d u ri n g an

ae ro b ic

ro w in g ta sk

(1 ) N o V R (2 ) in d iv id u al V R (3 )

co m p an io n V R

D is ta n ce , p o w er , st ro k es

p er

m in u te , H R , ex er ci se

th o u g h ts ,

p er ce iv ed

b en efi ts

an d b ar ri er s

to ex er ci se , ra ti n g s o f

p er ce iv ed

ex er ti o n , af fe ct ,

ar o u sa l, in tr in si c m o ti v at io n ,

an d en jo y m en t o f ex er ci se

N o

In d iv id u al

an d co m p an io n V R

re su lt ed

in b et te r ro w in g

p er fo rm

an ce

an d m o re

en jo y m en t w it h o u t an

in cr ea se

in p er ce iv ed

ex er ti o n ;

co m p an io n V R g ro u p

ex ce ed ed

in d iv id u al

V R g ro u p

in d is ta n ce

tr av el le d an d H R

Virtual Reality (2018) 22:183–198 193

123

T ab

le 3

co n ti n u ed

A u th o rs

Y ea rs

S tu d y d es ig n

A im

s C o n d it io n s

M ea su re s

Im m er si o n /

p re se n ce

m ea su re

K ey

fi n d in g s

N u n es

et al .

2 0 1 4

E x p er im

en ta l

T o d et er m in e if th er e is

a d if fe re n ce

in p er fo rm

an ce

d u ri n g a

ru n n in g ta sk

in th e

p re se n ce

o f a v ir tu al

co m p et it o r

(1 ) S in g le p la y er

o n ly

(2 ) S in g le

p la y er

co m p et it iv e ag ai n st

o n es el f (3 ) C o m p et it iv e m o d e

ag ai n st a su p er io r ad v er sa ry

(4 ) C o m p et it iv e m o d e ag ai n st

an ad v er sa ry

ch o se n b y

p ar ti ci p an t

P er fo rm

an ce

(s p ee d , h ea rt b ea t,

an d d is ta n ce ), p er ce iv ed

ex er ti o n , p re fe rr ed

ex er ci se

co n d it io n

N o

P ar ti ci p an ts

re p o rt ed

th e

co m p et it iv e m o d e w as

m o re

m o ti v at in g ; p er ce iv ed

ex er ti o n

an d p er fo rm

an ce

w as

h ig h er

in co m p et it o r co n d it io n s th an

in si n g le

p la y er

m o d e

O li v ie ra

et al .

2 0 1 5

E x p er im

en ta l

T o d et er m in e if se lf -

se le ct ed

o r im

p o se d

ex er ci se

in te n si ty

an d

d u ra ti o n p ro d u ce

b et te r

cy cl in g p er fo rm

an ce ,

af fe ct iv e re sp o n se s, an d

en jo y m en t

(1 ) S el f- se le ct ed

in te n si ty

an d

d u ra ti o n w it h si n g le

v ir tu al

cy cl is t (2 ) Im

p o se d in te n si ty

an d d u ra ti o n w it h ad d it io n al

v ir tu al

cy cl is t

H R , o x y g en

co n su m p ti o n , b lo o d

la ct at e,

co n ce n tr at io n , ra ti n g s

o f p er ce iv ed

ex er ti o n , af fe ct ,

ar o u sa l, an d en jo y m en t o f

ex er ci se

N o

N o si g n ifi ca n t d if fe re n ce s in

p er fo rm

an ce

o r p sy ch o lo g ic al

o u tc o m es

ac ro ss

co n d it io n s

w er e o b se rv ed ; th er e w as

a tr en d to w ar d s h ig h er

en jo y m en t in

th e im

p o se d

se ss io n

P la n te

et al .

2 0 0 3 a

E x p er im

en ta l

T o in v es ti g at e w h et h er

V R

en h an ce s th e p o te n ti al

p o si ti v e ef fe ct s o f

cy cl in g

(1 ) S ta ti o n ar y cy cl in g at

m o d er at e in te n si ty

w it h n o V R

(2 ) P la y in g a V R

co m p u te r

b ic y cl e g am

e w it h n o ex er ci se

(3 ) S ta ti o n ar y cy cl in g at

m o d er at e in te n si ty

w it h V R

M o o d , p er ce iv ed

ex er ti o n , so ci al

d es ir ab il it y , en jo y m en t, an d

H R

N o

W h en

cy cl in g w as

p ai re d w it h

V R

m o o d in cr ea se d an d

ti re d n es s d ec re as ed

w h en

co m p ar ed

to cy cl in g al o n e

P la n te

et al .

2 0 0 3 b

E x p er im

en ta l

T o in v es ti g at e w h et h er

V R

en h an ce s th e

p sy ch o lo g ic al

b en efi ts

o f

cy cl in g al o n e

(1 ) W at ch

v id eo

si m u la ti n g a

cy cl in g ex p er ie n ce

(2 ) P la y in g

a V R

co m p u te r b ic y cl e g am

e w it h o u t ex er ci se

(3 ) S ta ti o n ar y

cy cl in g w it h o u t V R (4 )

S ta ti o n ar y cy cl in g w it h V R

M o o d , p er ce iv ed

ex er ti o n , so ci al

d es ir ab il it y , an d H R

N o

C y cl in g b u t n o t V R

g av e m o o d

im p ro v em

en ts

d ir ec tl y

fo ll o w in g th e ta sk ; b o th

V R

an d cy cl in g d ec re as ed

ti re d n es s;

V R

sh o w ed

p sy ch o lo g ic al

b en efi ts

h o u rs

af te r cy cl in g fo r fe m al es

o n ly

S ig ri st

et al .

2 0 1 5

E x p er im

en ta l

T o te st th e ef fe ct

o f

co n cu rr en t au g m en te d

fe ed b ac k o n le ar n in g an d

p er fo rm

an ce

o f a V R

ro w in g ta sk

(1 ) V is u al

fe ed b ac k (2 )

A u d io v is u al

fe ed b ac k (3 )

V is u o h ap ti c fe ed b ac k

S p at ia l er ro r, te m p o ra l er ro r,

co m fo rt , u se fu ln es s an d

ap p li ca b il it y o f fe ed b ac k , an d

st ra te g y fo r re ca ll in g ta u g h t

m o v em

en t

N o

P er fo rm

an ce

w as

b et te r fo r al l

g ro u p s in

fe ed b ac k co m p ar ed

to n o -f ee d b ac k tr ia ls ;

au d io v is u al

fe ed b ac k p ro d u ce d

b et te r le ar n in g an d g re at er

co m fo rt th an

v is u o h ap ti c

fe ed b ac k

S n y d er

et al .

2 0 1 2

E x p er im

en ta l

T o ex am

in e th e in fl u en ce

o f a v ir tu al

v er su s li v e

co m p et it o r o n cy cl in g

in te n si ty

an d en er g y

ex er ti o n

(1 ) C o m p et it iv en es s le v el

(2 )

L iv e o r v ir tu al

co m p et it o r

C o m p et it iv en es s an d cy cl in g

in te n si ty

(e n er g y o u tp u t, H R ,

an d sp ee d )

N o

P ar ti ci p an ts

w h o w er e h ig h ly

co m p et it iv e p ro d u ce d g re at er

cy cl in g in te n si ty

w h en

co m p et in g ag ai n st a li v e v er su s

a v ir tu al

co m p et it o r

194 Virtual Reality (2018) 22:183–198

123

as done by Ijsselsteijn et al. (2004). It can also be enhanced

if the individual has a high trait level to feel a greater sense of the presence. Interactions between external and indi-

vidual factors may also influence outcomes. For instance,

the introduction of a virtual competitor (VR environment factor) can increase performance (Nunes et al. 2014),

although the increase may only be observed if the individual

is competitive (athlete factor) as demonstrated in research (Anderson-Hanley et al. 2011; Snyder et al. 2012). Further

research is required to examine other interactive effects.

6 Future research directions and recommendations

The present review has highlighted issues that warrant further investigation. Most research to date has focussed on

VR tasks that involve aerobic sports (cycling, running, and

rowing). More research is required on the effectiveness of a VR environment for learning or improving the mechanics

of skill acquisition and performance in skill-based sports

(see Sigrist et al. 2015 for an example). The capacity for VR environments to be created in specific and reproducible

ways can allow for the training and assessment of skills and

decision-making processes. Some of the factors identified as important with aerobic sports (e.g. attentional focus,

competitiveness) may also be important in skill-based

sports when VR is used. Research is required to examine the generality of effects

with VR. Studies should include more diverse populations,

particularly experienced and elite athletes, children, and the elderly. In addition, research has also not examined rela-

tionships between performance in VR and real-world

environments. Identifying how the two situations differ and how they are the same could inform how VR influences

performance and psychological states. The transfer of

performance from the virtual environment to the real world has also not been tested, yet it seems an essential

requirement if VR is to be used as a training approach for

sport. Further research is required that aims to directly

manipulate psychological processes. For example, it has

been suggested that VR environments induce a dissociative attentional focus and that this may be related to affective

responses (Mestre et al. 2011). Baños et al. (2016) applied

this concept by asking overweight and normal weight children to walk on a treadmill while focussing their

attention on their physical feelings or while focusing their

attention on a virtual environment. Ratings of enjoyment were higher for the VR condition than the self-focused

condition, although there were no differences in perceived

exertion or feeling states. The findings are promising but are in need of replication and extension. Past research withT

ab le

3 co n ti n u ed

A u th o rs

Y ea rs

S tu d y d es ig n

A im

s C o n d it io n s

M ea su re s

Im m er si o n /

p re se n ce

m ea su re

K ey

fi n d in g s

V o g t et

al .

2 0 1 5

E x p er im

en ta l

T o te st th e ef fe ct

o f

ex er ci se

an d V R

im m er si o n o n co g n it iv e

p er fo rm

an ce

(1 ) S es si o n (a ct iv e cy cl in g ,

p as si v e au to m at ic

d ri v e)

(2 )

V R co n d it io n (f ro n t sc re en

o n ly , su rr o u n d w it h al l

sc re en s, co n tr o l w it h n o

sc re en s)

C o g n it iv e p er fo rm

an ce , H R ,

se n se

o f p re se n ce , an d E E G

am p li tu d e an d fr eq u en cy

Y es

S en se

o f p re se n ce

w as

as so ci at ed

w it h in cr ea se d E E G

ac ti v it y ; p re se n ce

w as

h ig h es t

in th e su rr o u n d V R

co n d it io n

d u ri n g ac ti v e cy cl in g ;

co g n it iv e p er fo rm

an ce

d id

n o t

d if fe r ac ro ss

co n d it io n s

V R v ir tu al

re al it y ; H R h ea rt ra te ; B M I B o d y M as s In d ex

Virtual Reality (2018) 22:183–198 195

123

non-VR tasks has also found that an external associative

focus enhances sport and exercise outcomes (e.g. Neumann and Heng 2011; Neumann and Piercy 2013). An external

associative focus involves focussing on the effects of

movements on the environment and the achievement of task goals (Neumann and Brown 2013; Stevinson and

Biddle 1999). Future research could thus use VR to induce

an external associative focus and examine its effectiveness in enhancing performance.

Further research is required to elucidate what factors are relevant to performance and affective outcomes.

Research using multiple measures or manipulations may

be particularly useful to determine the relative amounts of variance in performance attributed to different aspects of

the VR environment. In addition, different features of the

sport task should be varied. For example, intensity may be a particularly salient factor for aerobic sports. A higher

intensity level may switch attentional focus towards

internal physiological states (Stevinson and Biddle 1999) and result in individuals focusing attention away from the

VR environment. It may be possible to enhance atten-

tional focus on the virtual environment by requiring participants to follow a virtual partner as done by Oliveira

et al. (2015).

Finally, the nature of computer-based interactions is becoming more diverse and with a greater amount of

overlap between the different forms of technology and

their applications. The present review applied a definition of VR that required interactivity with the virtual envi-

ronment. However, it is acknowledged that researchers

are developing and testing systems that employ a virtual environment that the athlete responds to, even though the

behaviour of the athlete does not affect any feature of the

environment. For example, goalkeeping skills in penalty shots have been examined in both handball (Vignais et al.

2015), and soccer/football (Stinson and Bowman 2014).

In these applications, the goalkeeper viewed a virtual environment depicting an individual shooting a penalty

and was required to move their body in the predicted

direction of the ball. Their movements did not influence the action of the virtual penalty kick taker (e.g. moving

too early had no effect). Another instance that resembles

VR is the use of augmented reality. In such applications, a user has an indirect view of a physical, real-world

environment in which computer-generated input is added

to. The input may be visual, auditory, or other senses. This blending of real and virtual environmental elements

has yet to be extensively examined in sporting

applications. Based on the present review, recommendations can also

be made to ensure appropriate methodology and report in

studies. It is recommended that researchers:

1. Use the term virtual reality accurately and consistently

in reference to studies that have employed VR

technologies according to accepted definitions such as the one proposed here. The term should not be

confused with exergames, which refers to the more

general case of enhancing physical activity via inter- active computer game play. If interactivity with the

virtual environment is a particular feature that is to be

highlighted, such as in the present review, the term interactive VR may be used.

2. Report participants prior experience with VR in general

andwith the specificVR systembecause experience level may be an important factor that influences outcomes.

3. Use a measure of immersion or the presence as a

standard part of the protocol because these aspects are a core feature of VR, and the level of immersion has

emerged as an important factor that influences out-

comes (Ijsselsteijn et al. 2004; Vogt et al. 2015). Such measures include the Reality Judgement and Presence

Questionnaire (Baños et al. 2000) and the Presence

Questionnaire (Witmer and Singer 1998). 4. Provide full details of the VR system that is used.

These details include the name of the system or

software used, the participant point of view, the presence of others in the VR environment, the presence

of sounds in the VR environment, and the mechanisms

through which the participant interacts with the VR environment.

5. Report on relevant procedures that are important

psychologically, such as whether participants had choice over the type of VR task or discrete elements

within the task.

7 Conclusions

This review identified research studies that have investi-

gated the application of VR to sport. The research findings to date indicate that VR can be a promising adjunct to

existing real-world training and participation in sport.

A VR-based system for training and participation has several advantages such as enabling athletes to train

regardless of weather conditions, providing a means to

compete with others in a different geographic location, and allowing precise and replicable control over features of the

virtual environment. Future research would benefit from a

theoretical framework of VR application to sport (see Fig. 1). The present review has shown that the character-

istics of the individual user and system are important fac-

tors that can influence a range of performance, physiological, and psychological outcomes. By under-

standing the experience of when individuals are engaged in

196 Virtual Reality (2018) 22:183–198

123

sport within a VR environment, researchers, coaches, and

athletes will able to use the technology for the benefit of athletes and society in general.

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