Assessment Tool Analysis

3

Use of Assessment in Counseling

chapter

1

What is assessment? What are the different ways counselors use assessment in the work they do? How did assessment become such an important part of counseling? In this chap- ter several key assessment terms are defi ned, and the purpose and uses of assessment are described. Then, a brief history of assessment is provided followed by a discussion of cur- rent attitudes toward assessment use. Finally, the chapter concludes with key questions and guiding principles of assessment in counseling.

Test Your Knowledge

Respond to the following items by selecting T for “True” or F for “False”:

□ T □ F 1. Assessment aids counseling by providing information for the client alone.

□ T □ F 2. Assessment and test are synonymous terms. □ T □ F 3. Early group tests were used to assess intelligence and ability

among World War I recruits. □ T □ F 4. A problem-solving model is a useful method for

conceptualizing the purpose of assessment. □ T □ F 5. Personality assessment is the most signifi cant area counselors

are known for in assessment development.

Introduction to Assessment

Assessment is a part of everyone’s daily lives. In any instance where someone has to make a judgment or solve a problem based on an outcome or information gained, assessment

Hays, D. G. (2013). Assessment in counseling : A guide to the use of psychological assessment procedures. American Counseling Association. Created from waldenu on 2023-09-16 12:12:07.

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4 • Foundations of Assessment in Counseling

is occurring. Individuals are recipients and participants of assessment data. Think back to your early memories of being assessed, tested, or evaluated in some way. Did it relate to a spelling or history test in school? Did it involve a report card you brought home? Were you being assessed for a disability or placed in a gifted program? Did you feel sad or anxious about something? Now, think of maybe more recent memories: taking a college or graduate entrance exam, discussing with a physician or counselor some symptom or issue you are experiencing, selecting a career path, interviewing for a job, even trying out a new recipe or working on a home improvement project, to name a few. No matter the memories—posi- tive or negative—assessment occurs in various settings: schools, colleges, and universities; homes; health care settings; agencies; neighborhoods; communities; and so on.

It is not surprising, then, that assessment has always played an important part in coun- seling. From its inception, the fi eld of counseling typically involved helping students with academic and career planning on the basis of test results. In recent years, the role of coun- seling (and the nature of assessment) has broadened to address a variety of concerns, such as self-esteem, shyness, personal growth, family and couple relationships, sexual identity, sexual abuse, cross-cultural communication, substance abuse, eating disorders, depres- sion, anxiety, and suicidal ideation. Counselors also rely on assessment data for program planning and evaluation. Clients use assessment results to understand themselves better and to make plans for the future. The assessment process can be therapeutic in itself by helping clients to clarify goals and gain a sense of perspective and support.

Key Assessment Terms

There are many terms associated with assessment in counseling. In this section fi ve key terms (i.e., assessment, tests, measurement, variable, and psychometrics) are presented. Throughout the text information on terms associated with these are outlined. Before defi n- ing these terms, it is important to defi ne what the term client means throughout the text. A client may be an individual or group of individuals being assessed in various settings, such as counseling agencies, private practice settings, schools, colleges and universities, and career centers. A client can also refer to places or settings in general, such as in cases of program evaluation (e.g., a character education program). Finally, a client may be as- sociated with objects or things such as dropout rates, divorce rates, violence, trauma, or neighborhoods. In essence, clients are people, places, or things.

Assessment

Assessment is an umbrella term for the evaluation methods counselors use to better un- derstand characteristics of people, places, and things. Other terms used interchangeably in counseling to describe assessment are appraisal and evaluation. For most purposes, as- sessment can be conceptualized in terms of problem solving (Brown-Chidsey, 2005; Lovitt, 1998; Nezu & Nezu, 1993). The Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing (American Educational Research Association [AERA], American Psychological Association [APA], & National Council on Measurement in Education [NCME], 1999) defi nes assessment as “any systematic method of obtaining information from tests and other sources, used to draw inferences about characteristics of people, objects, or programs” (p. 172). The fi rst part of the defi nition (“any systematic method of obtaining information from tests and other sources”) indicates that a broad range of evaluation methods—such as standardized tests, rating scales and observations, interviews, classifi cation techniques, and records—may be used as a means of obtaining data about clients. The second part of the defi nition (“used to draw inferences about characteristics of people, objects, or programs”) emphasizes the use of assessment data to help counselors understand their clients and the situations in which clients fi nd themselves. Collectively, these two defi nition parts refer to a broad process of tool selection, administration and interpretation of data to provide a basis for forming

Hays, D. G. (2013). Assessment in counseling : A guide to the use of psychological assessment procedures. American Counseling Association. Created from waldenu on 2023-09-16 12:12:07.

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5 Use of Assessment in Counseling •

and testing hypotheses regarding the nature of a client’s issues, and possible treatment approaches. The assessment process is discussed in more depth in Chapters 2, 6, and 15.

Some of the common assessment categories discussed in this text are intelligence (Chap- ter 9), ability (Chapter 10), career (Chapters 11 and 12), and personality (Chapter 13). These categories include both formal and informal assessment methods (see Chapter 2). Follow- ing are brief defi nitions of each category:

• Intelligence assessment: evaluation of cognitive abilities such as communication, reasoning, abstract thought, learning, and problem solving. Intelligence has been defi ned in many ways, although intelligence assessment is primarily measured through tests geared toward more traditional defi nitions.

• Ability assessment: assessment of acquired information (achievement) or an ability to acquire information (aptitude) about a particular subject matter or domain. Ability assessments are typically used for educational purposes, although some career and intelligence assessments may also be categorized as ability measures.

• Career assessment: measure of a client’s career development process as well as the content domains of that process. Process-oriented variables include career readiness, concerns, planning, and maturity. Content domains involve career values and inter- ests inventories. Career assessment can involve individual tools or more comprehen- sive assessment programs.

• Personality assessment: examination of individual attributes, types, and traits re- lated to cognitions, emotions, actions, and attitudes. Personality assessment can be classifi ed as structured (objective) or unstructured (projective).

As you can see from these descriptions, assessment categories are not fi xed and can over- lap one another.

Tests

A test is a systematic and often standardized process for sampling and describing a behav- ior of interest for individuals or groups. Tests can measure past, present, and/or future be- havior or some refl ection or feeling toward a behavior of interest. Tests can be interpreted in reference to a test taker’s previous performance (self-referenced), some objective or criterion (criterion referenced), or that of a standardization sample (norm referenced). Standardization and test norms are discussed in more depth in Chapter 6.

Questionnaires and inventories, such as personality and interest inventories, elicit self- reports of opinions, preferences, and typical reactions to everyday situations. In practice, questionnaires and inventories also are often referred to as tests if they meet certain stan- dardization criteria.

Tests are only one aspect of assessment. Assessment is a more comprehensive activity than testing by itself because it includes the integration and interpretation of test results and other evaluation methods. In sum, assessment involves judgments based on quantita- tive and qualitative descriptions of client data from a variety of sources.

Measurement

Measurement is a description of the degree to which a client possesses some character- istic. Traditionally, measurement deals with quantitative units, such as those associated with length (e.g., meter, inch), time (e.g., second, minute), mass (e.g., kilogram, pound), and temperature (e.g., Kelvin, Fahrenheit). In the physical sciences, measurement has been described as the actual or estimated magnitude of quantity relative to another (see Mi- chell, 1997). The measurement concept has long been applied to the social sciences, such as when S. S. Stevens (1946) defi ned measurement as the assignment of numerals to objects or events according to some rule. These “rules” refer to scales of measurement (i.e., nominal,

Hays, D. G. (2013). Assessment in counseling : A guide to the use of psychological assessment procedures. American Counseling Association. Created from waldenu on 2023-09-16 12:12:07.

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6 • Foundations of Assessment in Counseling

ordinal, interval, and ratio; see Chapter 5). In addition, measurement in social sciences relates to providing data that meet some criteria, and thus tests are administered to assess the degree to which criteria are met.

Variable

Another key term is variable, which gets assigned a label through measurement. A vari- able refers to a construct or concept that can take on more than one value. Values can be qualitative or quantitative. For example, qualitative variables can include groupings such as gender, ethnicity, sports team, and hair color; they tend to involve categorical variables. Quantitative variables might include continuous variables (i.e., variables measured on some continuum), such as test scores, age, and rank. In assessment, you will encounter sev- eral types of variables: independent variables (preexisting variable or variable able to be manipulated that is assumed to infl uence some outcome), dependent variables (construct affected by the independent variable; also known as an outcome or response variable), and extraneous variables (a “noise” variable that impacts a dependent variable yet is unrelated to the assessment process—also known as a confounding variable).

Psychometrics

Psychometrics is the study of measurement technique and theory. Although a lengthy dis- cussion is beyond the scope of this text, psychometricians have proposed common theories and techniques such as classical test theory, item response theory, Rasch modeling, factor analysis, and structural equation modeling. Classical test theory and its common concepts of measurement error, reliability, and validity are discussed in Chapter 5.

Purpose of Assessment in Counseling

Now that you have a basic understanding of the general terminology, let’s take a look at how and why assessment is used in counseling. Assessment is benefi cial in counseling because it provides information for both counselors and clients so they can understand and respond to client concerns as well as plan and evaluate programs. In addition, it can be therapeutic and can help clients understand both their past and present attitudes and actions as well as their plans for the future. Thus, assessments serve a diagnostic use, help to evaluate client prog- ress, and are useful to improve or promote client awareness, knowledge, and skills. Gregory (2011) further cited several test uses: classifi cation (i.e., program placement, screening, and certifi cation), diagnosis and treatment planning, client self-knowledge, program evaluation, and research to guide counseling theory and technique development. Whichever purpose(s) counselors cite as the reason for assessment, it is important to convey this purpose to the client throughout the assessment process. That is, assessment should be part of the learning process for a client rather than something that is tacked on to counseling sessions.

Because performing an assessment is similar to engaging in problem solving, the fi ve steps in a problem-solving model can be used to describe a psychological assessment model (Chang, D’Zurilla, & Sanna, 2004; D’Zurilla & Goldfried, 1971; D’Zurilla & Nezu, 1999). De- pending on a client’s problem-solving style, he or she will have varying levels of success in resolving a problem (Nezu, D’Zurilla, Zwick, & Nezu, 2004). Following is a brief description of the fi ve steps involved (see Table 1.1 for specifi c ways the model relates to the assessment process):

1. Problem Orientation. This fi rst step assesses how a problem is viewed (can be posi- tive or negative) and requires the client to recognize and accept the problem. With completion of this step, the client and counselor can begin to approach it in a system- atic fashion as indicated by the problem-solving model.

Hays, D. G. (2013). Assessment in counseling : A guide to the use of psychological assessment procedures. American Counseling Association. Created from waldenu on 2023-09-16 12:12:07.

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7 Use of Assessment in Counseling •

Table 1.1 Assessment and Problem-Solving Steps

Problem-Solving Step Assessment Purpose Counseling Example

Problem Orientation: stimulate counselors and clients to consider various issues

Problem Identifi cation: clarify the nature of a problem or issue

Generation of Alternatives: suggest alternative solutions

Decision Making: determine appropriate treatment for the client

Verifi cation: evaluate the effectiveness of a particular solution

Almost any assessment procedure can be used to increase sensitivity to potential problems. Instruments that promote self- awareness and self-exploration can stimu- late clients to cope with developmental issues before they become actual problems. Surveys of groups or classes can help counselors identify common problems or concerns that can be taken into account in planning programs for clients.

Assessment procedures can help clarify the nature of the client’s problem and ultimately strengthen communication and the overall counseling relationship as well as clarify goals. For example, screening inventories or problem checklists can be used to assess the type and the extent of a client’s concerns. Personal diaries or logs can be used to iden- tify situations in which the problem occurs. Personality inventories can help counselors and clients understand personality dynamics underlying certain situations.

Assessment procedures enable counselors and clients to identify alternative solutions for client problems, view problems from dif- ferent angles, as well as stimulate new learn- ing. For example, an assessment interview can be used to determine what techniques have worked for the client in the past when faced with a similar problem. Checklists or inventories (such as a study skills inventory or work skills survey) yield data that can be used to generate alternatives.

Counselors use assessment materials to help clients weigh the attractiveness of each alternative and the likelihood of achieving each alternative. The likelihood of achiev- ing different alternatives can be evaluated by expectancy (or experience) tables that show the success rate for people with dif- ferent types of test scores or characteristics (Anastasi & Urbina, 1997). Balance sheets or decision-making grids enable clients to compare the desirability and feasibility of various alternatives (Howard, 2001).

Assessment procedures to verify success may include goal attainment scaling (Kiresuk, Smith, & Cardillo, 1994), self-monitoring techniques (Korotitsch & Nelson-Gray, 1999), the readministration of tests that the client completed earlier in counseling, client satisfaction surveys, and the use of outcome questionnaires (Wells, Burlingame, Lambert, & Hoag, 1996). In addition to serving as a guide for the counseling process, verifi ca- tion efforts also provide a means of account- ability for the counseling agency.

A counselor uses a needs assessment, such as an alcohol screening inventory, to identify areas of focus.

A counselor can pro- vide a diagnosis to classify a set of con- cerns or symptoms, such as the case of a relationship diffi culty or an anxiety disorder.

A counselor uses an interest inventory to suggest alternative career choices for a client.

A counselor helps a client identify positive self-statements to create alternatives.

A counselor uses a values clarifi cation exercise to assess the attractiveness of various alternatives.

A counselor uses a personality inventory to help select a client’s intervention.

Client feedback can be used to make changes to an intervention.

A counselor can request a client self- monitoring exercise to assess maintenance of change.

Hays, D. G. (2013). Assessment in counseling : A guide to the use of psychological assessment procedures. American Counseling Association. Created from waldenu on 2023-09-16 12:12:07.

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8 • Foundations of Assessment in Counseling

2. Problem Identifi cation. This step involves the counselor and the client attempting to identify the problem in as much detail as possible. A client is more likely to continue in counseling and to achieve positive outcomes if the counselor and client agree on the nature of the problem (Busseri & Tyler, 2004). Identifi cation of the problem also aids in communication with others, such as referral sources, family, and friends.

3. Generation of Alternatives. In the third step, the counselor and client generate alter- natives to help resolve the problem. Counselors use assessment procedures to assist clients in discovering strengths on which they can build to overcome diffi culties or enhance development.

4. Decision Making. In this step clients anticipate the consequences of the various alter- natives. According to classical decision theory, choice is a function of the probability of success and the desirability of the outcome (Horan, 1979). This equation emphasizes the importance of assessing both the likelihood of success of various alternatives and the attractiveness of those alternatives for the client. Clients will usually want to con- sider those alternatives that maximize the likelihood of a favorable outcome.

5. Verifi cation. The counselor in this fi nal step should discuss with the client how the client will know when the problem has been solved. This step requires that goals be clearly specifi ed, that they be translated into specifi c behavioral objectives, and that the possibility for progress in accomplishing these goals be realistically viewed. Counselors are to verify the effectiveness of their interventions.

In understanding the purpose of assessments in counseling, it is also important to un- derstand what purposes do not characterize assessments—particularly tests. Tyler (1984) highlighted several things tests do not measure:

• Tests cannot measure unique characteristics, only attributes common to many people. • Individual assessment cannot be used to make group comparisons; counselors can

only estimate how well an individual will function in a culture for which the assess- ment is appropriate. Tests are not suitable for comparing groups that are not identical.

• Because test scores are plotted on a distribution of scores, we tend to infer scores on the distribution ends as “good versus poor” (p. 48). To this end counselors often evaluate scores without examining the appropriate norms and without considering that highness or lowness of scores do not measure a client’s worth.

• On a related note, a “good score” may measure some absence of pathology (such as in personality assessment) rather than universal attributes to which humans aspire.

• Tests cannot measure innate characteristics. Although there are biological compo- nents to some attributes (such as intelligence), beginning at birth these components interact with various environmental factors that further shape responses. Thus, even if counselors can assume that intelligence tests are free from cultural bias (which they are not), responses on intelligence tests are a combination of hereditary tenden- cies and individual responses to particular environments.

• Test scores are not fi nal measurements of anything but outlets—in conjunction with multiple assessment sources—for facilitating client growth. Clients’ high-stakes de- cisions should not be based solely on test scores.

To this list I add the following:

• Tests cannot measure all things equally. Some things, such as reaction time, may be easier to assess than others, such as intelligence or disability.

• Tests are not necessarily indicative of the totality of behaviors, attitudes, or skills. Tests are only one sampling of these areas and thus should be evaluated as such.

• Test results are not always useful. In fact, they are often misused in decision mak- ing and applied to individuals inappropriately. Concerns include the following:

Hays, D. G. (2013). Assessment in counseling : A guide to the use of psychological assessment procedures. American Counseling Association. Created from waldenu on 2023-09-16 12:12:07.

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9 Use of Assessment in Counseling •

(a) misuse with minority groups, who may differ signifi cantly from the popula- tion for whom the test was developed; (b) use of tests to label or stereotype a person based on the test results; and (c) the disproportionate infl uence of tests in so-called high-stakes decisions, such as selection for college or employment. In some situations, too much emphasis may be placed on test results, often be- cause of their quantitative or scientifi c nature; in other situations, pertinent test information may be disregarded, especially if it confl icts with an individual’s personal beliefs or desires.

Please see the tip sheet at the end of the chapter for sound assessment procedures.

History of Assessment Let’s step back from how assessment is used (and should not be used) today and refl ect on how counselors began using assessment in the fi rst place. This section presents early key developments in intelligence, ability, interest, and personality assessment; most of these developments occurred from the late-19th to mid-20th century. After reviewing this brief history of assessment, perhaps you can understand why current assessment practices across various settings exist, how benefi cial assessment can be to counselors and clients, what mistakes those who have administered tests have made, and why certain practices should be continually challenged and scrutinized. Table 1.2 provides a time line of major assessment developments.

Table 1.2 Key Historical Events in Assessment

Year Event

2200 BC Chinese tested aspiring public offi cials for work evaluations and promotion decisions 1879 Wundt founded the fi rst psychological laboratory, conducting several experiments

with brass instruments 1880s Galton initiated the social science testing movement, measuring individual

differences in sensory processes 1890 James Cattell coined the term mental test 1900 Esquirol and Seguin performed formalized intelligence assessment in medical

communities College Entrance Examination Board (CEEB, now known as the College Board) created 1905 Binet–Simon scale developed; revised in 1908 and 1911 Goddard misused test at Vineland Training School and Ellis Island 1916 Stanford–Binet Scale created 1917 Army Alpha and Beta tests, Woodworth Personal Data Sheet developed 1921 Rorschach Inkblot Test published 1923 Terman and colleagues develop the Stanford Achievement Test 1926 Scholastic Aptitude Test published by CEEB Strong Vocational Interest Blank created 1938 Buros Center for Testing developed the Mental Measurements Yearbook Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) created 1939–1950s Wechsler Scales of Intelligence developed 1940s Myers–Briggs Type Indicator published 1942 Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) created 1947 Educational Testing Service created 1964 Civil Rights Act 1974 Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act 1975 Education of All Handicapped Children Act (Pub. L. No. 94-142) 1990 American With Disabilities Act (Pub. L. No. 101-336) 1995 Individuals With Disabilities Education Act Amendments 1996 Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) 2001 No Child Left Behind Act (Pub. L. No. 107-110)a

aAdditional legislation concerning assessment is presented in Chapter 3.

Hays, D. G. (2013). Assessment in counseling : A guide to the use of psychological assessment procedures. American Counseling Association. Created from waldenu on 2023-09-16 12:12:07.

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10 • Foundations of Assessment in Counseling

The discussion focuses primarily on historical events from the mid-1800s until present day. The earliest form of testing dates back to Ancient China, where in 2200 BC (over 4,400 years ago!) the Chinese used a civil service testing program to assess, evaluate, place, and promote its employees. Every three years offi cials tested employees on fi ve topics: civil law, military affairs, geography, agriculture, and revenue. The testing program was abol- ished in 1906 after several complaints and questions about its administration and utility, although the program infl uenced American and European civil service program place- ments in the 1800s. Let’s jump 4,000 years later, when individuals began recording formal assessment procedures in the social sciences.

Developments in Individual Intelligence Assessment

In the mid to late 1800s, there was an increasing interest in studying individual human differences, particularly concerning intelligence. Charles Darwin’s Origin of Species, with its focus on genetic variation and evolution and thus individual differences, was used as a case for testing human differences. The study of intelligence increased, given its links to discussions of evolution at the time. In the late 1800s, experimental psychologists—primar- ily Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920), Sir Francis Galton (1822–1911), and James Cattell (1860– 1944)—revolutionized the way intelligence and ability were measured. They focused on quantifi able measures of sensory processes (e.g., visual and auditory processes, reaction time) using brass instruments in human laboratories to indicate intelligence. Wundt, one of the founders of modern psychology, studied mental processes and was able to highlight that individual differences do exist (even though his interests were more in understand- ing general features of the psyche). Galton, Charles Darwin’s half-cousin, was considered a prolifi c scholar and creator of several signifi cant mathematical and scientifi c concepts, such as correlation, regression, and central tendency statistics; meteorology; fi ngerprint- ing; hearing loss; and heredity. He is considered the founder of eugenics, claiming genetics was the determinant of genius and mental competence differences. Galton is also referred to as the founder of mental tests; he demonstrated that individual cognitive differences do exist and can be measured. Although Galton’s tests are now considered simplistic, in the 1880s and 1890s he tested over 17,000 individuals on physical (e.g., height, weight, head size, length of middle fi nger) and behavioral (e.g., hand squeeze tests, lung capacity, visual acuity, reaction time) domains to indicate intelligence (Forrest, 1995). Cattell, who studied with both Wundt and Galton, coined the term mental test and articulated 10 mental tests (presence of each indicates intelligence) similar to Galton’s. Examples include strength of hand squeeze, rate of hand movement, degree of rubber tip on forehead pressure needed to cause pain, weight differentiation of identical-appearing boxes, reaction time for sound, and number of letters repeated upon hearing them.

Thus, in the early 20th century there was increased interest in what was called mental testing—now referred to as intelligence testing. Work in the medical community, where there was an increasing distinction between emotional problems and intellectual disabili- ties (i.e., mental retardation), set the stage for more formalized intelligence assessment. In Paris, France, two physicians—Jean Esquirol (1772–1840) and Edouard Sequin (1812– 1880)—studied language use, identifi ed various levels of verbal intelligence, and exam- ined motor function in patients to initially conceptualize performance intelligence. Sequin was particularly instrumental in performance tests, with the development of the Sequin form board. This board is still used today in neuropsychological tests and involves fi tting 10 blocks within designated slots on an upright board (DuBois, 1970).

The fi rst intelligence test was developed by Alfred Binet (1857–1911), who as minister of public instruction in Paris introduced the 1905 Binet–Simon scale in collaboration with his Sarbonne colleague Theodore Simon (1972–1961). They were commissioned by the French government to assess children with intellectual disabilities. They developed a scale that contained 30 tasks and was designed to assist in educational placement; the scale relied on

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11 Use of Assessment in Counseling •

a general factor of intelligence, versus lower level sensory processes, and it relied heavily on verbal ability (Goodenough, 1949). Sample tasks included following a movement with eyes, repeating three spoken digits, repeating a sentence of 15 words, putting three nouns (e.g., Paris, river, fortune) in a sentence, reversing the hands of a clock, and defi ning abstract words by distinguishing between them (e.g., boredom and weariness).

In 1908 Binet and Simon revised the scale and dropped many of the simpler tasks (used previously to classify those with severe intellectual disabilities) and added higher level tasks. The revised scale contained 58 tasks. The concept of mental level was developed for this scale, later referred to as mental age. Using a standardization sample of 300 children ages 3–13, Binet and Simon were able to calculate the number of items passed by a majority of children of a certain age. In the 1911 scale revision, mental level was further refi ned, whereas each age level had fi ve associated tasks. Ultimately, mental age was compared against chronological age, and others suggested that an intelligence quotient (IQ) be developed.

The 1908 Binet–Simon scale was signifi cantly misused, particularly in the United States at the Vineland Training School in New Jersey—a school for “feebleminded” children. Hen- ry Goddard, the fi rst American psychologist to translate the Binet–Simon scale, tested 378 school residents, classifying 73 as “idiots,” 205 as “imbeciles,” and 100 as “feebleminded.” He then tested 1,547 “normal” children and noted that 3% of the sample could be classifi ed as feebleminded. Goddard was invited in 1910 to Ellis Island to assess intelligence among immigrants. Through his assessments he increasingly emphasized that the rate of feeble- mindedness was much higher among immigrant populations (Gould, 1996). Specifi cally, he found feeblemindedness for his small immigrant samples at the following rates: 83% of Jews, 80% of Hungarians, 79% of Italians, and 87% of Russians (see Goddard, 1917). These fi ndings were used to make the case that feebleminded individuals were a threat to social order, and thus low IQ immigrants should be deported. Unfortunately, Goddard’s writ- ings heavily infl uenced immigration restrictions (Gould, 1996). Fortunately, Howard Knox developed several performance tests to be used with immigrants and was able to debunk some of Goddard’s conclusions (see Figure 1.1). Knox’s work highlighted the necessity of future intelligence tests containing performance or nonverbal parts (Richardson, 2003).

In 1916 Lewis Terman (1857–1956) and colleagues at Stanford University revised the scale (i.e., Stanford Binet Scale) and suggested that IQ be calculated by dividing an

Figure 1.1 Knox Administering Performance Tests to Ellis Island Immigrants, 1912–1916

Note. From “Howard Andrew Knox and the Origins of Performance Testing on Ellis Island, 1912– 1916,” by J. T. E. Richardson, 2003, History of Psychology, 6, p. 153. Copyright 2012 by the American Psychological Association (APA). Reprinted with permission. The use of APA information does not imply endorsement by APA.

Hays, D. G. (2013). Assessment in counseling : A guide to the use of psychological assessment procedures. American Counseling Association. Created from waldenu on 2023-09-16 12:12:07.

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12 • Foundations of Assessment in Counseling

individual’s mental age by his or her chronological (actual) age and multiplying that frac- tion times 100. For example, if a 10-year-old child performs at the level of an 11-year-old (mental age), his IQ would equal 110. The Stanford Binet Scale was the gold standard in in- telligence testing for several decades and is now in its fi fth edition. In 1927 Charles Spear- man (1863–1945) conceptualized a general and specifi c factor theory of intelligence, and in 1941, Raymond Cattell (1905–1998) coined the terms fl uid and crystallized intelligence, in- fl uencing how future assessments were constructed and interpreted. Other developments, including the Wechsler scales (Wechsler, 1949, 1955), are discussed in Chapter 9.

Developments in Group Intelligence Assessment

Although individual intelligence tests had made signifi cant contributions in a short time— including a beginning understanding of the misuse of testing—test administrators learned quite quickly that group testing was more time-effi cient. The use of group tests became increasingly warranted when during World War I there was a need to screen new recruits. Robert Yerkes (1876–1956), while president of the American Psychological Association (APA), developed the fi rst two group tests: the Army Alpha and Army Beta intelligence tests. The Army Alpha measured verbal ability, numerical ability, ability to follow direc- tions, and knowledge of information. The Army Beta was a nonverbal counterpart to the Army Alpha and was used to evaluate illiterate or non-English-speaking recruits. During World War I over 1.5 million recruits were administered these tests for placement pur- poses. Figure 1.2 provides sample items from these tests.

Developments in Ability Assessment

Eventually group tests were used to assess more than just intelligence. Group aptitude tests were developed after World War II, as more specialized careers (e.g., fl ight engineers, pilots, navigators) required more stringent selection for fl ight schools, and previous intel- ligence tests (i.e., Army Alpha, Army Beta) were not suffi cient (Goslin, 1963). In essence, it was clear that previously developed intelligence tests were limited because not all impor- tant job functions were covered.

With greater attention paid to education after World War I, ability testing fl ourished in public schools and higher education. The Army Alpha and Beta tests were released for public use and became the model for future ability tests. Edward Thorndike (1874–1949) spearheaded the development of several standardized achievement tests in public schools, including rating scales, spelling tests, arithmetic reasoning, and handwriting assessments, to name a few. These tests were distinguished from earlier ones by a more reliable ad- ministration format. The College Entrance Examination Board (CEEB) was established in 1900 to regulate group test use in colleges and universities. In 1926 the CEEB developed the fi rst aptitude test for college admissions, the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT; Goslin, 1963). Functions of the CEEB were subsumed under the Educational Testing Service (ETS) in 1948, creator of modern-day assessments such as the Graduate Record Examination (GRE), Law School Admissions Test (LSAT), Praxis, and Test of English as a Foreign Lan- guage (ToEFL). In addition, Terman and his colleagues in 1923 developed a standardized achievement test, the Stanford Achievement Test (SAchT). So, as a student in the 1930s and 1940s, you certainly would have had signifi cant exposure to testing!

Developments in Career Assessment

Upon reading about major developments in intelligence and ability testing, it may be evi- dent to you that there was some focus on vocational assessment at the same time. Similar to how intelligence and ability assessments developed from societal needs (e.g., educa- tional reform and placement, military screening), career assessment developed in response

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13 Use of Assessment in Counseling •

Figure 1.2 Sample Army Alpha and Army Beta Items

Note. Retrieved from http://offi cial-asvab.com/armysamples_coun.htm. Available in the public domain.

Army Alpha

1. A company advanced 6 miles and retreated 2 miles. How far was it then from its fi rst position?

2. A dealer bought some mules for $1,200. He sold them for $1,500, making $50 on each mule. How many mules were there?

3. Thermometers are useful because a. They regulate temperature b. They tell us how warm it is c. They contain mercury 4. A machine gun is more deadly than a rifl e

because it a. Was invented more recently b. Fires more rapidly c. Can be used with less training

For these next two items, examinees fi rst had to unscramble the words to form a sentence, and then indicate if the sentence was true or false.

5. happy is man sick always a 6. day it snow does every not

The next two items required examinees to determine the next two numbers in each sequence.

7. 3 4 5 6 7 8 ___ ___ 8. 18 14 17 13 16 12 ___ ___

A portion of the Army Alpha required examinees to solve analogies.

9. shoe—foot. hat—kitten, head, knife, penny

10. eye—head. window—key, fl oor, room, door

In these next two examples, examinees were required to complete the sentence by selecting one of the four possible answers.

11. The apple grows on a shrub, vine, bush, tree

12. Denim is a dance, food, fabric, drink

Other portions of the test required examinees to follow instructions in performing paper-and-pencil tasks.

Answers: 1. 4 miles; 2. 6 mules; 3. B; 4. B; 5. False (A sick man is always happy); 6. True (It does not snow every day); 7. 9, 10; 8. 15, 11; 9. Head; 10. Room; 11. Tree; 12. Fabric

Army Beta

In the items below, examinees were asked to identify what was missing from each picture.

Answers: 1. Mouth; 2. Eye; 3. Nose; 4. Hand; 5. Chimney; 6. Ear; 7. Filament; 8. Return address; 9. Strings; 10. Corkscrew; 11. Trigger; 12. Tail; 13. Claw; 14. Shadow; 15. Ball; 16. Net; 17. Arm; 18. Speaker; 19. Arm in mirror; 20. Diamond

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14 • Foundations of Assessment in Counseling

to societal changes of the Industrial Revolution, beginning in the late 1800s. With econom- ic development came both positive and negative social conditions with major vocational implications. Frank Parsons developed in 1908 the Boston Vocational Bureau to address social conditions through vocational guidance. Specifi cally, the bureau assisted schoolchil- dren with career selection, a process involving career assessment. Parsons’s work evolved to create over 900 programs in high schools across the United States by 1918.

In addition to Parsons’s trait and factor assessments, some of the earlier vocational as- sessments were interest inventories. Miner (1922) is credited with the fi rst formal interest inventory to assist high school students with career selection. E. L. Thorndike (1912/1923) studied the interests of 100 college students, leading to the development of several interest inventories, such as the Carnegie Interest Inventory, the Strong Vocational Interest Blank (Strong, 1927), and the Kuder Preference Record and its revisions (see G. F. Kuder, 1934, 1966; G. F. Kuder & Diamond, 1979; Zytowski, 1985), to name a few. Special aptitude tests were developed for use in vocational counseling to test things such as mechanical, cleri- cal, and artistic aptitudes. As aptitude tests evolved in vocational counseling, the need for multiple aptitude tests became more evident. For example, the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB) is the most widely used multiple aptitude assessment in the world; it is used for military service qualifi cation (discussed further in Chapter 11).

Developments in career assessment highlight the specifi c role counselors have played in the assessment world. That is, during the early days of the profession, counseling and test- ing were virtually synonymous. In fact, many of the counseling centers established during the 1930s and 1940s were called counseling and testing centers.

Developments in Personality Assessment

After World War I, society saw an increased interest in personality assessment as well. Personality assessment has its roots with Galton (1883), Kraepelin (1892), and Jung’s (1910) use of free association tasks for psychiatric patients and normal populations to assess per- sonality. Essentially, individuals would respond with the fi rst word (or several words, de- pending on the assessment) that came to mind for a stimulus word. Personality assessment began to fl ourish in the early 1900s.

World War I saw the development of the fi rst personality questionnaire to screen re- cruits, the Woodworth Personal Data Sheet (DuBois, 1970). The Personal Data Sheet con- tained 116 yes–no items to detect mental health problems. Sample items include “Do you have a strong desire to commit suicide?” “Do ideas run through your head so that you can- not sleep?” and “Are you bothered by a feeling that things are not real?” (Gregory, 2011). Building from the Personal Data Sheet, other psychometricians (e.g., Allport & Vernon, 1931; Thurstone & Thurstone, 1930) developed personality assessments with multiple di- mensions or scales to understand personality. One of the most famous personality assess- ments—the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), which is now in its second edition—includes methodology similar to its predecessors, comparing responses from normal and mentally disturbed individuals across various scales. In addition, it in- cludes several validity scales to assess for “faking good” and “faking bad.” The MMPI-2 is discussed further in Chapter 13.

With the increased attention on objective personality assessment, several test develop- ers were interested in different methods for assessing personality. Projective techniques of assessment were developed as a means for understanding associations and responses to stimuli; for example, Hermann Roschach (1884–1922) developed a tool using 10 inkblots (Rorschach Inkblot Test). Infl uenced by the works of Jung and other psychoanalytics, Ror- schach believed these stimuli could reveal something about an individual’s unconscious. Other projective techniques were developed during the early 1900s, including the The- matic Apperception Test (TAT) and the House–Tree–Person (Buck, 1948). Projective tests

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15 Use of Assessment in Counseling •

are discussed in more detail in Chapter 13. Informal assessment methods, including the clinical interview, became more evident with the advent of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) in 1952. The DSM is discussed in more detail in Chapter 7.

Assessment Today

Today, there are tests or other assessment tools for everything. Counselors’ roots in voca- tional guidance certainly highlight their infl uence on career assessment. Today, counselors interact with intelligence and ability test results as they work with clients and also admin- ister, interpret, and apply data from vocational and personality assessments to help clients make important decisions and gain self-awareness. Such test results also help counselors screen and classify clients as well as identify or refi ne programs and interventions. Increas- ingly, counselors are engaged in all categories of assessment.

Assessment Usage in Counseling Settings

With counselors interacting with assessment data from a variety of assessment tools, there are varying types of and ways assessments are used. Researchers have examined testing practices over the past several decades for helping professionals in counseling (Bubenzer, Zimpfer, & Mahrle, 1990; Frauenhoffer, Ross, Gfeller, Searight, & Pitrowski, 1998), psychol- ogy in general (Hogan, 2005; Lubin, Larsen, & Matarazzo, 1984), vocational rehabilita- tion (Donoso, Hernandez, & Horin, 2010), clinical psychology (Camara, Nathan, & Puente, 2000; Watkins, Campbell, Nieberding, & Hallmark, 1995), neuropsychology (Camara et al., 2000), and school psychology (Hutton, Dubes, & Muir, 1992; Kennedy, Faust, Willis, & Piotrowski, 1994; Wilson & Reschly, 1996). Some tests have remained popular across disci- plines and decades, with the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Test (WAIS) and MMPI-2 remain- ing the top choices. Since 1969, the top fi ve projective tests have been stable and include the following: Rorschach Inkblot Test, TAT, Sentence Completion Test, House–Tree–Person, and Draw-a-Person Test (Donoso et al., 2010).

However, there are several variations in assessment usage. There are many reasons why helping professionals select the instruments they do: professional discipline, type of cli- ent issue (Piotrowski, 2007), referral question, previous testing experiences, a test’s psy- chometric properties, test administrators’ graduate training experiences, agency or setting requirements, test availability, and therapists’ theoretical orientation (Watkins et al., 1995). Although preferences for particular assessments have changed somewhat over the years, counselors continue to make extensive use of them for a variety of purposes. Counselors identify benefi ts of assessment for personal and career counseling. In regard to personal counseling, they emphasize the importance of assessing the client’s potential for harm to self and others, the client’s movement toward counseling goals, and the extent of a client’s psychological dysfunction. In regard to career counseling, counselors stress the impor- tance of test results for client decision making (Loesch & Vacc, 1993). In Assessment in Ac- tion 1.1 (see pp. 17–18), counselors across settings discuss their use of assessment.

Mental Health Counseling

Counselors often work in mental health agencies with other professionals to assess and treat clients encountering a variety of personal problems. In addition to an assessment interview, Frauenhoffer et al. (1998) found that mental health counselors were most likely to use the MMPI-2, Beck Depression Inventory, Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC), WAIS, projective tests, and the Wide Range Achievement Test as assessment pro- cedures. Many of the instruments mental health counselors administer, score, and/or interpret require additional training.

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16 • Foundations of Assessment in Counseling

Career Counseling

Career assessment and counseling are pursued by counselors in a broad range of settings, including employment services, Veterans Affairs hospitals and mental health agencies, re- habilitation centers, and school and college counseling offi ces. Counselors in these settings benefi t from a wide variety of career assessment instruments from which to choose for career counseling purposes. Whitfi eld, Feller, and Wood (2009) described more than 300 instruments used to measure different factors important in career assessment.

Popular instruments designed specifi cally for career assessment include interest mea- sures such as the Strong Interest Inventory or one of the Kuder interest inventories, apti- tude tests such as the Differential Aptitude Tests or the ASVAB, and values measures such as the Work Values Inventory (Watkins, Campbell, & Nieberding, 1994). Because of their widespread use in career counseling over a number of years, these three types of measures (interest, aptitude, and values—sometimes called “the Big Three”) have been looked on as the most crucial ones to take into account in career assessment (Swanson & D’Achiardi, 2005). Other measures pertinent to career counseling include measures of career choice and development, such as the Career Maturity Inventory and Career Decision Scale. The different career assessment measures have been used to (a) increase client self-knowledge, (b) help clients make career choices, and (c) encourage client participation in career coun- seling (Watkins et al., 1994).

School Counseling

Counselors in elementary, middle, and high school settings frequently are involved with assessment activities in their work with students, parents, and teachers. A survey of mem- bers of the American School Counselor Association found that school counselors fre- quently performed the assessment activities shown in Table 1.3 (Ekstrom, Elmore, Schafer, Trotter, & Webster, 2004). At least 75% of the counselors in the survey indicated that they performed these 12 activities often or occasionally. School administrators and teachers typically consider school counselors to be “test experts,” whom they will consult in test matters such as those listed in Table 1.3 (Impara & Plake, 1995).

Surveys have indicated that school counselors are most likely to use tests that measure cognitive abilities, such as the WISC or the SAT (Elmore, Ekstrom, Diamond, & Whittaker, 1993; Giordano, Schwiebert, & Brotherton, 1997). In addition to these tests, the surveys indicated that the counselors use a variety of other instruments, including achievement, aptitude, interest, personality, and substance abuse measures. Approximately two thirds of the school counselors in one survey indicated that testing was an “important” or “very important” part of their work (Elmore et al., 1993). Nearly all of the respondents in this survey said that they were responsible for interpreting test results to students. In many cases, school counselors do not administer standardized tests, but they are expected to be able to interpret the results from such tests to students, parents, and teachers (Blacher, Murray-Ward, & Uellendahl, 2005; Giordano et al., 1997).

School counselors are also likely to be exposed to behavioral assessment procedures, which are often used by school psychologists to evaluate students for developmental dis- orders. School psychologists frequently use instruments such as the Behavior Assessment System for Children, Achenbach Child Behavior Checklist, or Conners’ Behavior Rating Scale for this purpose (Zaske, Hegstrom, & Smith, 1999). Although school counselors may not administer these instruments themselves, they can work more effectively with stu- dents if they are familiar with the instruments, both for referral purposes and for under- standing and implementing recommendations based on their use.

Most of the specifi c tests mentioned above that are used in the different types of coun- seling settings are discussed in this book. It is important for counselors to learn about these tests so that they can use them successfully in their own practices and so that they

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17 Use of Assessment in Counseling •

can interpret scores from tests for clients referred to them by other professionals. Some of these instruments require advanced training beyond that obtained in most master’s degree counseling programs.

Assessment in Action 1.1

Assessment Across Counseling Settings

For the last ten years in the career-service fi eld, I have strongly advocated for the descriptive versus the prescriptive interpretation of psychometric-measurement in- struments. Given the controversy about the validity and reliability of self-reported psychometric data, I believe that the power of these instruments lies in the theories behind them and the opportunity we have to help our students and alumni to esti- mate and test their results based on engaging or experiential applications of the op- erational defi nitions of the constructs. I thus focus on their recall of most meaningful experiences, regardless of their type or proximity, and briefl y review with them the theory until they can grasp it refl ectively and experientially, generate their preferred result, and apply it to their experiences. The outcome of this exercise is our collabora- tive ideation of the career or relational-dynamic applications of their estimate and its eventual comparison to their reported result.

—Daniel Pascoe Aguilar, PhD, MDiv Co-Director of the University of Oregon Career Center

Table 1.3 Frequent Assessment Activities of School Counselors

Assessment Activity Frequencya(%)

Referring students to other professionals, when appropriate, for additional assessment/appraisal 98

Interpreting scores from tests/assessments and using the information in counseling 91 Reading about and being aware of ethical issues in assessment 86 Reading about and being aware of current issues involving multicultural assessment,

the assessment of students with disabilities and other special needs, and the assessment of language minorities 84

Synthesizing and integrating test and nontest data to make decisions about individuals 84

Reading a variety of professional literature on topics such as use of testing and assessment in school counseling, school counseling research, and career counseling research 84

Communicating and interpreting test/assessment information to parents 81 Communicating and interpreting test/assessment information to teachers,

school administrators, and other professionals 80 Helping teachers use assessments and assessment information 80 Making decisions about the types of assessments to use in counseling groups

or for individual students 78 Using assessment information to evaluate student performance 78 Using assessment information to monitor student performance 78

Note. From “A Survey of Assessment and Evaluation Activities of School Counselors,” by R. B. Ekstrom, P. B. Elmore, W. D. Schafer, T. V. Trotter, & B. Webster, 2004, Professional School Counselor, 8, p. 27. Copyright 2004 by the American School Counselor Association. Reprinted with permission. No further reproduction authorized without written permission of the American School Counselor Association. aAssessment activities that at least 75% of responding school counselors reported as performing “often” or “occasionally.”

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18 • Foundations of Assessment in Counseling

Counseling assessments at the K-12 setting sometimes look different from assess- ments in other areas of counseling. Informal assessments (particularly at the elemen- tary level) may include procedures as simple as thumbs up, thumbs down, hands up, hands down, interviews, and/or questionnaires to show student understanding of subject matter. While doing classroom guidance lessons, I often ask students to raise their hands to show that they understand certain behaviors. For example, while doing a second-grade classroom guidance lesson on respect, I have had the students raise their hands to show which of the listed behaviors demonstrated respect. While it is very informal, it allows me to do a quick check to gain an understanding of which students actually grasped the concept of the lesson and have learned examples of what respectful behavior looks like. Oftentimes, informal and formal assessments are used to evaluate school needs, classroom needs, and individual needs.

Formal assessments in the K–12 setting are used for various reasons. When work- ing with students to create groups, to determine grade-level placement, and to assist with college preparation, school counselors in Virginia are able to utilize formal as- sessments such as the Phonological Awareness Literacy Screening (PALS), Standards of Learning (SOL), and Scholastic Aptitude Tests (SAT). Other formal assessments used to assist career education programs are the Virginia Education Wizard’s Career Assessment and the Naglieri Assessment Tests, which are used to assess students for Talented and Gifted (TAG) programs.

Because effectiveness in assessment and evaluation is critical to comprehensive school counseling programs, the American School Counselor Association’s (2004) National Standards state that assessment results be utilized in educational planning. Whether the assessment is informal or formal, it is important that school counselors have an understanding of their school’s needs and that the data are appropriately used to assist students.

—Brandy K. Richeson, PhD Professional School Counselor Newport News Public Schools

The University of Central Florida (UCF) Marriage & Family Research Institute (MFRI) utilizes both formal and informal assessments on a daily basis. Both in research and clinical practice, couples receiving services are assessed for relationship satisfac- tion, individual distress, relationship expectations, and intimate partner violence. We assess couples on the above-mentioned constructs because research indicates links between them and healthy relationships. Assessment results also help us determine how much improvement couples experience in counseling or relationship education workshops. The following formal assessments are utilized: (a) Dyadic Adjustment Scale—examines relationship adjustment, including satisfaction; (b) Outcomes Ques- tionnaire 45.2—examines individual distress; and (c) Marital and Relationship Ex- pectations Questionnaire—examines expectations couples hold of relationships. We utilize both informal and formal strategies to screen for intimate partner violence. Couples complete the Domestic Violence Screen (DVS), followed by informal ques- tions to assess for immediate danger as well as power and control issues. Couples are separated prior to completion of our formal assessments and then brought together to review total scores (with the exception of the DVS). We formally assess couples at repeated time intervals, while informal assessment is ongoing throughout services.

—Ryan G. Carlson, LMHC, NCC Director, Project TOGETHER

UCF Marriage & Family Research Institute

• • •

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19 Use of Assessment in Counseling •

Counseling Research

As counselors practice and use assessments in their work with clients, it is important they understand and contribute to current research for a particular assessment tool. Hogan and Rengert (2008) noted 410 assessments used in research, as cited in four journals published in the counseling fi eld for 2002–2005 (Journal of Counseling & Development, Journal of Coun- seling Psychology, Journal of Mental Health Counseling, and Professional School Counseling). Table 1.4 provides a list of the top 30 instruments used in research studies for these jour- nals; each of these instruments was used at least four times during the review period.

Although Table 1.4 may not be comprehensive, given that several counseling journals were omitted from the analysis, the fi ndings do highlight some differences between what tools practitioners say they use with clients versus those with which they conduct and publish research. Hogan and Rengert (2008) noted the following: The Strong Interest In- ventory (Harmon, Hansen, Borgen, & Hammer, 1994) was the only instrument to make both the self-report and published research lists; there were no projective techniques in- cluded in the research studies; the 16PF (Conn & Rieke, 1994) and the Bender Visual Motor Gestalt Test (Brannigan & Decker, 2003) did not appear in research studies; and there was only one use each of the WAIS (Wechsler, 1997), WISC (Wechsler, 2003), and Wide Range Achievement Test (WRAT; Wilkinson, 1993), with no other use of intelligence or ability

Table 1.4 Top Tests Used in Research Studies in Four Counseling Journals for 2002–2005

Test Times Used

Beck Depression Inventory Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale Experiences in Close Relationships Hopkins Symptom Checklist Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure Brief Symptom Inventory Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale Outcome Questionnaire–45 Perceived Stress Scale Asian Values Scale Career Decisions Scale Marlowe–Crowne Social Desirability Scale Session Evaluation Questionnaire Balanced Inventory of Desirable Responding Differentiation of Self Inventory Eating Disorder Inventory Strong Interest Inventory Adult Attachment Scale–Revised Child Behavior Checklist Clinical Vignettes Dynamic Adjustment Scale Global Assessment of Functioning Multidimensional Perfection Scale National Education Longitudinal Scale of 1998 Positive and Negative Affect Schedule Satisfaction With Life Scale Self-Construal Scale Self-Effi cacy Scale Social Connectedness Scale Symptom Checklist–90–Revised

18 12 8 8 8 7 7 7 7 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

Note. The four journals were Journal of Counseling & Development, Journal of Counseling Psychology, Journal of Mental Health Counseling, and Professional School Counseling. From “Test Usage in Published Research and the Practice of Counseling: A Comparative Review” by T. P. Hogan & C. Rengert, 2008, Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 41, 51–56.

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20 • Foundations of Assessment in Counseling

tests in the research studies. In sum, counselors need to be aware of the discrepancies in test use across disciplines and settings and among what is used in research.

Key Questions for Selecting Assessments Psychological assessment procedures differ from each other in a variety of ways. As indi- cated in the following paragraphs, these differences can be categorized by six basic ques- tions regarding the nature of the assessment method itself.

Who Is Making the Assessment?

Is the person making a self-assessment, or is another person making the assessment? Mea- surement specialists have differentiated between “S-data” based on self-reports and “O- data” based on the reports of others, such as teachers, supervisors, family members, and friends. Both types of data are needed to obtain a full appraisal of the individual. For exam- ple, a process known as 360° (full circle) feedback is sometimes used in business settings to evaluate employee performance from multiple points of view, including those of managers, peers, subordinates, customers, and self. Although not readily available, reports from others are particularly helpful in assessing conditions when self-reports may be distorted or lim- ited, such as substance abuse, personality disorders, and childhood disorders (Klein, 2003).

In general, self-reports and other-reports offer different perspectives regarding an individual. Research indicates that the two types of data can complement each other. For example, Oltmanns, Friedman, Fiedler, and Turkheimer (2004) found that the performance of recruits in the military was more effectively predicted by a combination of S-data (information from a self-report ques- tionnaire) and O-data (ratings made by fellow recruits) than by either type of data by itself.

What Is Being Assessed?

“What” here refers to the subject of the assessment procedure. Is the individual or the envi- ronment the subject of the assessment? Counselors have usually been interested in individ- ual assessment; however, instruments that evaluate the environment (e.g., classroom atmo- sphere or residence hall settings) can also provide important information for understanding or treating a problem (Chartrand, 1991; Friedman & Wachs, 1999). The client’s behavior de- pends on both individual and situational characteristics, so counseling can be most effective when psychological assessment includes both the individual and the environment.

If the individual is being appraised, does the content of the assessment deal primarily with affective (feeling), cognitive (thinking), or behavioral (doing) aspects of the individu- al? Affective characteristics may be subdivided into temperamental and motivational fac- tors (Guilford, 1959). Temperamental factors include the characteristics assessed by most personality inventories, for example, self-suffi ciency, stability, and impulsiveness. Motiva- tional factors refer to interests or values. According to Guilford (1959), temperament gov- erns the manner in which an individual performs, whereas motivation determines what activities or goals the individual will choose to pursue.

Cognitive variables may be based on learning that takes place in a specifi c course or learning that is relatively independent of specifi c coursework. This distinction describes a basic difference between achievement and aptitude tests. Achievement tests evaluate past or present performance; aptitude tests predict future performance. Behavioral mea- sures include responses that are voluntary or involuntary in nature. Voluntary responses may be assessed either by self-monitoring or by other-monitoring techniques. A sys- tematic record is kept of measurable items, such as calories consumed or hours spent watching television. In the case of involuntary responses (e.g., blood pressure or heart rate), various types of physiological measures are used to assess individual reactivity. Biofeedback devices, often used to teach relaxation methods, are a good example of the latter type of assessment measure.

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21 Use of Assessment in Counseling •

The question of what is being assessed also pertains to the variables chosen for the assessment process. Individuals can be assessed by common variables that apply to all people or by unique variables that apply only to the individual. In the fi rst case, sometimes referred to as nomothetic assessment, emphasis is placed on variables that show lawful or meaningful distinctions among people. The group provides a frame of reference for de- termining which variables to assess and how to interpret the results. In the second case, sometimes referred to as idiographic assessment, emphasis is placed on those variables that can be most helpful in describing the individual. The individual serves as the reference point both to identify relevant variables and to interpret data.

Most psychological tests, such as interest and personality inventories, use the nomothet- ic approach. These tests use the same scales to describe all clients. Scores are interpreted in regard to a set of norms. In contrast, many of the informal assessment procedures, such as the interview, case study, or card sorts, use an idiographic approach. A different set of variables is used to describe each client. Nomothetic techniques can be more readily inter- preted, but they may not be as relevant or as penetrating as idiographic methods, which have been designed to measure variations in individuality (Grice, 2004; Neimeyer, 1989).

Where Is the Assessment Taking Place?

The location where the assessment takes place is important in the sense that it helps to dif- ferentiate between test results obtained in laboratory settings and those obtained in natural settings. Many psychological tests must be administered under standardized conditions so that the test results can be interpreted properly. For these tests, a testing room or laboratory is usually used. If the circumstances of test administration differ from person to person, differ- ences in the testing conditions can infl uence test results. Some measures, such as employee ratings, are obtained in natural settings under conditions that may vary considerably for dif- ferent individuals. Variations in job circumstances can greatly affect the ratings. Interpreta- tions of the results must take into account the setting in which they were obtained.

When Is the Assessment Occurring?

The question of when an assessment takes place is of value in distinguishing between assessments planned in advance (prospective) and those based on recall (retrospective). Self-monitoring techniques are usually planned in advance. For example, students may be asked to keep track of the number of hours that they studied or the number of pages that they read during a study period. In contrast, biographical measures such as life history forms are recorded to the best of the individual’s recollection after the event has occurred.

Why Is the Assessment Being Undertaken?

The question of “why” pertains to the reason for administering the test rather than to the nature of the test itself. The same test can be used for a variety of purposes, such as counsel- ing, selection, placement, description, and evaluation. When tests are used in counseling, all data obtained must be regarded as confi dential. Such private data may be contrasted with public data—data originally obtained for another purpose, such as selection or place- ment. Examples of public data include academic grades, educational level, or occupational status. Counselors use public as well as private data in helping clients to address certain issues, because the public data can provide a great deal of information about the client’s past performance under various circumstances.

How Is the Assessment Conducted?

“How” here refers to the manner in which the test material is presented, how the data are analyzed, and how the score for the assessment procedure is obtained. First, is the type of

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22 • Foundations of Assessment in Counseling

behavior that is being assessed disguised or undisguised? Projective techniques (described in Chapter 13) are designed so that the respondent is typically unaware of the true nature of the test or of any “preferred” answer. Because the intent of the test is disguised, it is more diffi cult for respondents to fake their answers to produce a particular impression.

Second, is the information obtained in the assessment analyzed in a quantitative or qualitative fashion? Quantitative procedures, which include most psychological tests, yield a specifi c score on a continuous scale. Qualitative procedures, such as card sorts, work samples, or structured exercises, produce a verbal description of a person’s behav- ior or of a situation that can be placed into one of several categories (e.g., outgoing vs. reserved personality type). By their very nature, quantitative procedures have been more thoroughly studied in terms of reliability and validity. Qualitative procedures, however, are more open-ended and adaptable for use in counseling, especially with a diverse clien- tele (L. Goldman, 1992; Okocha, 1998).

Finally, are scores arrived at objectively, free of individual judgment, or subjectively, based on the scorer’s best judgment? Tests that can be scored by means of a scoring stencil are objective. That is, different individuals using the same scoring stencil with an answer sheet should obtain the same score if they are careful in counting the number of correct answers. In contrast, rating scales are subjective—the score assigned will often vary de- pending on the individual rater.

Chapter Summary

Assessment has a long history in counseling and serves several functions that ultimately assist to transform lives and improve interventions. The chapter reviewed foundational in- formation about assessments, including key terminology, assessment use and purpose, and developments in intelligence, ability, vocational, and personality assessments throughout history. The next chapter discusses the assessment process and types of methods used with clients to measure individual and counseling outcomes.

Assessment refers to the process of integrating and interpreting client information from a broad range of evaluation methods. This process can be improved by adhering to the basic principles of psychological assessment outlined in this chapter. Tests have been criticized for both their limitations and their misuse. Counselors need to be aware of test limitations and must obtain appropriate training and supervision in regard to the tests that they plan to use. The process of assessment can be described as both a science and an art. Many of the instruments used in assessment have been developed by means of empirical research and improved over time; however, the process of interpreting the assessment data often depends on the counselor’s best judgment. In addition to learning about different evalu- ation procedures, counselors need to consider how they can improve the judgments they make in the assessment process. Please review the Tip Sheet below to understand guiding principles of assessment in counseling.

Tip Sheet

Principles of Assessment in Counseling

✓ Know the purpose of the assessment to assist you both in selecting and in interpreting assessments.

✓ Include the client as a collaborator in selecting topics for assessment and in interpret- ing the results.

✓ Be aware of the strengths and limitations of the assessment procedures used in coun- seling, including information about the psychometric properties of tests and the psy- chological fi ndings regarding the behavior being assessed.

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23 Use of Assessment in Counseling •

✓ Understand the theoretical construct or condition being measured by a test, such as attention-defi cit/hyperactivity disorder, and recognize whether or not the test adequately measures this construct.

✓ Be well versed in all aspects of test use, including selection, administration and scor- ing, interpretation, and the communication of results.

✓ Use several methods of assessment for an overall assessment in order to provide a broader view of an issue and corroborate the results of any one assessment method. Be sure to use both quantitative and qualitative tools.

✓ Assess more than a single variable at a time. A multidimensional approach enriches the assessment process by providing additional information that can be helpful in forming assessments. It presents a “big picture” of the client’s situation that can be important in viewing a client’s concerns from different angles.

✓ If possible, use instruments that include validity checks, such as “fake good,” “fake bad,” and “random responding” scales. Make sure that a client’s test responses are valid before attempting to interpret the test results.

✓ Consider the possibility of multiple problems, such as depression coupled with substance abuse, anxiety, or physical problems. Clients with mental disorders often meet the criteria for more than one disorder at the same time (Kessler, Chiu, Demler, & Walters, 2005).

✓ Assess the situation as well as the client. Avoid attribution bias, which indicates a predisposition to attribute the cause of problems to the individual rather than to the situation. Environmental factors interact with individual characteristics in affecting a person’s behavior in a particular situation (Galassi & Perot, 1992).

✓ Consider alternative hypotheses. Counselors need to be watchful for confi rmatory bias, that is, a tendency to look only for evidence that will support a favorite hypoth- esis. Seek data that may support an alternative hypothesis as well as data that may prove a preestablished hypothesis. For example, a counselor who believes that a stu- dent is failing in school because of lack of ability should also consider other factors, such as health, personal or family problems, and study skills, that may be affecting academic performance.

✓ Treat all assessments as tentative. As additional data become available, the counselor should be ready to revise the assessment.

✓ Keep in mind the regression effect when interpreting very high or very low scores, all of which are infl uenced to some extent by chance factors. On retesting, a client’s scores tend to regress toward the mean of the population that the client represents. That is, clients who obtain unusually high or low scores on a test the fi rst time usu- ally will not score as high or low on an equivalent form of that test the next time they take it. For this reason, it is often helpful to test a client more than once.

✓ Become familiar with the condition or issue being assessed. Make use of base rates (frequency of occurrence of a particular behavior or diagnosis within a given popu- lation) in undertaking and forming an assessment. For example, because of the fre- quency of problem drinking among college students, counselors should routinely assess college clients for alcohol abuse (Knight et al., 2002).

✓ Consider the infl uence of individual factors, such as age, gender, educational level, and ethnicity, on test results. Use separate norms that take such factors into account when they are available.

✓ Be aware of common cultural or personal biases that may infl uence assessment deci- sions. Studies show that race bias, social class bias, and gender bias may affect clini- cal judgment.

✓ Identify, interpret, and incorporate cultural data as part of the assessment process. Use measures of acculturation, such as number of generations in new culture and language preference, to help determine whether a client fi ts the population on which a test was developed and normed.

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24 • Foundations of Assessment in Counseling

✓ Consult with other professionals regarding assessment procedures and outcomes. Continue learning about assessments and the underlying constructs they measure.

✓ Use the assessment results to provide feedback to clients as part of the therapy process. Assessments should include an evaluation of a client’s strengths as well as limitations.

Review Questions

1. What are the fi ve functions of assessment, as identifi ed in the problem-solving model? 2. What are some of the ways assessments should not be used? 3. Who are the key players in the development of intelligence, ability, vocational, and

personality assessment? 4. How have historical events infl uenced how tests were developed and used over the

past 100 years? 5. What are the primary assessments used in the counseling setting?

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