Assessment Tool Analysis

25

The Assessment Process

chapter

2

Assessment, no matter the setting in which it is used, serves to provide clinical informa- tion that assists both counselors and clients. This chapter provides information about the types of assessment methods available to counselors. Then, two types of assessment are discussed: the assessment process with clients and assessment of counseling outcomes.

Test Your Knowledge

Match the items in the right column with the most appropriate component of the assessment process in the left column:

1. Test Selection

2. Test Administration

3. Test Interpretation

4. Communication of Findings

5. Outcome Assessments

Types of Assessment Methods In Chapter 1 four major assessment categories were discussed: intelligence, ability, career, and personality assessment. There are several types of assessment methods that can be found within those categories. This section fi rst outlines three major distinctions in assessments: group versus individual assessment, standardized versus nonstandardized assessment, and

a. A counselor reviews and applies scoring procedures.

b. A counselor presents a conprehensive picture using several assessment data sources.

c. A client completes a satisfaction form at the end of a comprehensive session.

d. A counselor and client consider various assessment methods.

e. A counselor attends closely to testing conditions.

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26 • Foundations of Assessment in Counseling

speed versus power tests. Then, specifi c assessment types are described: rating scales, projec- tive techniques, behavioral observations, interviews, biographical measures, and physiologi- cal measures. Some assessment categories, such as intelligence and ability, typically involve standardized power tests. Other categories, such as career and personality, are more likely to contain a wider range of assessment methods.

Group Versus Individual Assessment

Some assessments are designed to be administered to one individual at a time by a trained examiner; others can be administered to a group of people. Group assessments allow in- formation to be obtained from many people within a short period of time at relatively little cost, whereas individual assessments permit counselors to adapt the test administration to the needs of the client. Individual assessments must be used with certain populations, such as young children or people with particular disabilities. Individual assessments per- mit observational data, such as the client’s language profi ciency and level of cooperation, to be obtained in addition to test scores.

Standardized Versus Nonstandardized Assessment

As discussed in Chapter 1, standardization is a defi ning feature of a test; thus, standard- ized tests must meet certain standards during the testing process. These standards include uniform procedures for test administration, objective scoring, and the use of representa- tive norm groups for test interpretation. Most standardized tests have clear evidence of their reliability and validity (see Chapter 5). Standardized tests can include the following assessment procedures, each of which is discussed in this book: intelligence tests, ability tests, personality inventories, interest inventories, and values inventories.

Nonstandardized assessments include rating scales, projective techniques, behavioral observations, and biographical measures, all of which are discussed below. Nonstandard- ized techniques produce results that are less dependable (i.e., less reliable and valid) com- pared with standardized techniques; however, they allow counselors to consider aspects of behavior or the environment not covered by traditional psychological tests. Counselors must be concerned not only about the dependability of test results, but also about the exhaustive- ness of the results (Cronbach & Gleser, 1965). Tests that provide highly dependable informa- tion often describe only a small part of the information a counselor needs. Nonstandardized assessments provide less dependable information but can nonetheless aid counselors in ob- taining information on topics that would be missed by formal testing procedures.

Some researchers have conceptualized nonstandardized techniques in assessment as qualitative assessment. Qualitative assessment involves informal and fl exible procedures often used in individual and group counseling. This type of assessment focuses largely on increasing client self-awareness within a session. Some examples of qualitative assessments include simulation exercises, projective techniques, and card sorts. L. Goldman (1992) and Okocha (1998) provide more specifi c examples of qualitative assessment methods.

Speed Versus Power Tests

Some ability tests place a heavy emphasis on speed of response and are known as speed tests. These tests are homogenous in content and often consist of a large number of easy items that a person must complete quickly. Examples of speed tests with relatively short time limits include fi nger and manual dexterity tests and clerical speed and accuracy tests. In contrast, power tests contain items of varying diffi culty, most of which the person is expected to complete within the time limits. If 90% of the people for whom the test is de- signed can complete the test within the time limits, the test can be described as a power test. Although speed can still be a factor for some students on power tests, speed would not

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27 The Assessment Process •

have much infl uence on the total score for most students. Most intelligence tests, scholastic aptitude tests, and achievement tests are basically power tests.

Rating Scales

Rating scales, which provide subjective estimates of various behaviors or characteristics based on the rater’s observations, are a common method of assessment. Rating scales include self-ratings, ratings of others, and ratings of the environment. They often provide a series of items and scoring criteria and are frequently useful as pre- and posttest evaluations of some behavior or attitude.

Because of their subjectivity, rating scales have a number of disadvantages. Three com- mon errors associated with rating scales are (a) halo effect, (b) error of central tendency, and (c) leniency error. In the case of the halo effect, raters show a tendency to generalize from one aspect of the client to all other aspects. For example, if a person is friendly, that person may also be rated highly in unrelated areas such as intelligence, creativity, lead- ership, and motivation. The error of central tendency describes the tendency to rate all people as “average” or near the middle of the rating scale. The leniency error refers to the tendency to rate the characteristics of people more favorably than they should be rated.

To control for such errors, raters are sometimes asked to rank individuals relative to another on each rating scale. As an alternative, raters may be forced to distribute their ratings across the entire rating scale according to the normal curve or a similar system. When these techniques are applied to a large number of people, they prevent ratings from bunching up in the middle of the distribution or at the top end of the distribution. Kenrick and Funder (1988) offered the following suggestions for improving the validity of ratings: (a) use raters who are thoroughly familiar with the person being rated, (b) require multiple behavioral observations, (c) obtain ratings from more than one observer, (d) use dimensions that are publicly observable, and (e) identify behaviors for observation that are relevant to the dimension in question. These sugges- tions can help counteract limitations posed by the various sources of invalidity.

Examples of rating techniques include the semantic differential and situational tests. The semantic differential technique requires raters to rate concepts (e.g., “my job”) by means of a series of bipolar scales, or rank-order scales, where raters or clients assign numbers to items by priority level or relevance. Situational tests require the person to perform a task in a situation that is similar to the situation for which the person is being evaluated. For ex- ample, the in-basket technique requires candidates for an administrative position to respond to the daily tasks of an administrator by means of an in-basket (work assignment basket) that simulates the actual work assignments of administrators. Situational tests can often meet the conditions suggested by Kenrick and Funder (1988). For this reason, they often are benefi cial in predicting performance in a situation similar to that of the test. Situational tests are fre- quently used to assess leadership or management skills.

Projective Assessments

Projective assessments use vague or ambiguous stimuli to which people must respond. Because the stimuli (e.g., inkblots, ambiguous pictures, and incomplete sentences) are vague, people tend to make interpretations of the stimuli that reveal more about them- selves than about the stimuli. They “project” their own personality onto the stimuli. Re- sponses are usually scored subjectively. Common projective techniques include the Ror- schach Inkblot Test, TAT, and Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank. The use of projective techniques in counseling is discussed further in Chapter 13.

Behavioral Observations

Behavioral observations refer to behaviors that can be observed and counted. The obser- vations are planned in advance or based on recent events. The behaviors, which usually

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28 • Foundations of Assessment in Counseling

occur in a natural setting, are monitored by the client, by an observer such as a partner or parent, or both. The observer usually records the frequency of a discrete behavior, for example, the number of “I” statements made in an interview or the number of conversa- tions initiated. Frequently, the duration of the response and the intensity of the behavior (as rated by the observer) are also recorded. Behavioral observations have the advantage of pertaining directly to a behavior that a client is concerned about. The behavior can usu- ally be included as part of a goal. The measure is directly related to the client’s treatment.

Interviews

Interviews can be structured, where a more standardized set of questions is used to solicit client data, or unstructured, where there are no preset list of questions and the counselor– client interaction guides future questions and probes. Structured interviews offer some standardization—and thus likely provide stability or reliability in test administration—yet they do not allow the counselor to probe responses for more detail. Unstructured inter- views generally allow for greater counseling rapport and further follow-up; however, the counselor may miss key assessment areas or spend more time on an irrelevant topic. Semi- structured interviews combine elements of both structured and unstructured interviews and can therefore address some of the disadvantages of each. Interviews are an important part of clinical assessment and are discussed further in Chapters 8 and 9.

Biographical Measures

Biographical measures refer to accomplishments or experiences as reported by the client or as refl ected in historical records. For example, a résumé, college application form, or work portfolio usually provides an extensive amount of biographical information. Biographi- cal measures differ from behavioral measures in that the observations are not planned in advance. They differ from rating scales in that the information is usually a matter of fact rather than a matter of judgment. Biographical data (biodata) include information maintained in cumulative records by schools or in personnel records by businesses, such as academic grades, extracurricular achievements, job promotions, hobbies, and volunteer work experiences. Biodata are usually collected by means of a written form or during the course of an initial interview with a client. Although this information is most often used in a qualitative manner, it can also be quantifi ed for assessment purposes (Dean, 2004; Os- wald, Schmitt, Kim, Ramsay, & Gillespie, 2004).

The value of biographical measures in assessment is expressed in the well-established psychological maxim: “The best predictor of future performance is past performance.” As a rule the best single predictor of college grades for an individual is usually that person’s high school grades. A person who has functioned well in a particular job in the past will probably perform well in related types of activities in the future.

On the one hand, biographical measures are both economical and effi cient. They can pro- vide information on topics such as leadership experiences or creative accomplishments that may be diffi cult to assess by other means. On the other hand, they may be inappropriate or diffi cult to interpret if the person’s experiences have been unusual or severely limited. Bio- graphical measures yield a broad range of information, but the meaning of the information requires additional interaction with the client or others familiar with the situation.

Physiological Measures

Physiological measures can be particularly helpful in understanding and monitoring cli- ent behavior because of the unique information that it provides. It enables a client’s con- dition, such as anxiety, to be assessed at a more basic level than that made possible by traditional assessments such as standardized tests and behavioral observations (Berntson

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29 The Assessment Process •

& Cacioppo, 2006). Measures such as heart rate, breathing rate, muscle contractions, and blood pressure, which are primarily involuntary in nature, can reveal information regard- ing a client’s condition that might otherwise be missed (Lawyer & Smitherman, 2004). Advances in instrumentation and procedures (e.g., biofeedback devices, cardiac monitor- ing systems, and alcohol biomarkers) and collaboration with other professionals in a team approach make it feasible to include such variables in the assessment process.

An Overview of the Assessment Process

With a basic understanding of the assessment methods that can be used in the assessment process, let’s discuss the assessment process itself. The assessment process is synonymous with the counseling process (see Figure 2.1). Both processes involve the continual dialogue between counselors and clients about presenting and underlying issues, the use of vari- ous tools to understand more fully those issues as well as attributes that may assist clients to address those issues, and the ongoing interpretation, refl ection, and communication of changes as new data enter the counseling relationship. To this end, counselors need to begin counseling with the end in mind: How do they see themselves communicating (and intervening) effectively with clients? How do early decisions about the types of tools selected affect the counseling relationship? In sum, assessment should be seen as a part of the counseling process and not as an interruption of it.

Before beginning the process of selecting assessment tools, counselors need to deter- mine a client’s readiness for change. Clients differ in their readiness for counseling and in their expectations of counseling. In their work with individuals with addictive behaviors, Prochaska, DiClemente, and Norcross (1992) noted fi ve stages of change experienced by a client: precontemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, and maintenance. These same stages of change pertain to clients with a wide variety of problems (Petrocelli, 2002). Furthermore, these stages relate to the overall assessment process.

In the precontemplation stage, individuals are not especially aware of their problems and have no plans to change their behavior in the foreseeable future. Thus, they typically seek counseling at the insistence of someone else who is concerned about their problems. Re- search indicates that such individuals benefi t less from counseling and perceive their coun- seling relationship less favorably than do those in more advanced stages of change (Rochlen, Rude, & Baron, 2005). For the contemplation stage, individuals are aware of their problems but have not yet made a serious commitment to do anything about them. Individuals in this stage are considering making changes in their behavior sometime within the next six months; however, it may be much longer before they actually do make changes.

Figure 2.1 The Assessment Process

Communication of Findings

Test Selection

Client Readiness for Change

Counseling Relationship

Test Interpretation

Test Administration

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30 • Foundations of Assessment in Counseling

In the preparation stage, individuals have begun to make small changes in their prob- lematic behaviors, with the intention of making more complete changes within one month. Individuals reach the action stage when they successfully change their behavior for short periods of time. If changes persist for longer than six months, the client enters the mainte- nance stage, in which the goal is to maintain the behavioral and attitudinal changes that have occurred.

If a client is in one of the earlier stages of change (i.e., precontemplation or contempla- tion), the counselor may have diffi culty selecting appropriate tools as the client may not discuss problems accurately and may exhibit resistance during test administration, inter- pretation, and communication. As clients become more aware of their problems and begin making incremental changes, the assessment process becomes richer and increasingly uses multiple assessment methods to communicate data to facilitate treatment planning and intervention. Assessment of the client’s stage of change is crucial for determining the most effective treatment technique. As noted by Prochaska et al. (1992), different approaches should be used for clients in different stages.

Most clients recycle through some or all of the stages several times before successfully achieving long-term changes. Although recycling is the norm, most clients learn from their previous attempts so that they make faster progress through the cycle in subsequent at- tempts to resolve their problems. The University of Rhode Island Change Assessment, a 32-item questionnaire that assesses attitudes and behaviors associated with different stages of change, can be used to help determine a client’s readiness for change (P. J. Cohen, Glaser, & Calhoun, 2005).

Test Selection

Test selection refers to the decision-making process counselors use throughout the coun- seling relationship to aid in client evaluation and treatment planning, using a wide range of assessment methods. If at all possible, clients should actively participate in selecting the tests that will be used in counseling. From a therapeutic point of view, clients should col- laborate in deciding what questions they wish to answer by the use of tests or other assess- ment procedures. If convinced of the tests’ usefulness, clients may be more motivated to do their best on ability tests and to be accurate and truthful in responding to items on interest and personality inventories. By having participated in the decisions to use the tests, clients are also more likely to accept the results and interpretations with less defensiveness. They can be more objective in their perception of the test results.

Individuals often approach tests with some anxiety, particularly aptitude and achieve- ment tests where they may fear failure. Anxiety regarding testing can infl uence the en- tire counseling process. Even interest and personality inventories can reveal aspects of a person’s character that may indicate weaknesses or undesirable features. To reduce the threatening aspects of tests, you should make clear to clients that the purpose of testing is to provide self-understanding, not evaluation or judgment. It is important to convey to clients the feeling that they will be accepted whatever the test results happen to be.

In the case of academic or career counseling, clients often feel dependent on tests. They perceive the counselor as an expert who will select tests that will tell them what to do. Active participation by clients in test selection helps to counteract overreliance on the counselor.

Generally, the client does not select specifi c assessment tools. That is a technical mat- ter that counselors must decide on the basis of their knowledge of assessments. Instead, the client helps to decide the types of assessments that can provide the information most useful for whatever actions or decisions are going to be made. Clients are not nearly as interested in specifi c characteristics of assessments as they are in the implications the re- sults will have for them. The types of tests are therefore described in a general fashion. For example, you should describe the Strong Interest Inventory to a client simply as “an inter-

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31 The Assessment Process •

est inventory that enables you to compare your likes and dislikes with those of people in different occupations.” You should not overwhelm the client with a detailed description of the instrument itself.

After you and a particular client have agreed on the type of test, you must decide which specifi c test would be best to use. In particular, you want to consider the test’s reliability, validity, normative data, and practicality for its intended purpose. Does the test possess suffi cient reliability and validity to answer the questions posed by the client and his or her situation? Does the test provide appropriate normative data for the client? Is the test easy to administer and score? How expensive is it? Is the reading level appropriate? Is this assessment procedure culturally appropriate for the client? Counselors can best answer these questions, which require specialized knowledge regarding the technical quality of different assessments.

When a client states a need for a test, the counselor should not necessarily take that statement at face value. For example, if a client requests a personality inventory, the coun- selor should explore the meaning of the request, not simply accept it. A particular client may be experiencing a signifi cant problem, such as anxiety or depression, that should be explored before tests are assigned. The client may be asking for help regarding a particular problem but having diffi culty revealing the problem or asking for help directly. The re- quest for tests serves as an avenue to get at the major problem.

Tests should not be used unnecessarily. Other sources of data in addition to tests should also be explored. In a college counseling center, little is gained by selecting scholastic ap- titude tests when records of college entrance tests, high school grades, and college grades are readily available. Other counseling agencies, of course, often start with no previous information. Nevertheless, counselors can fi rst attempt to explore with clients self-descrip- tions and previous experiences that may provide relevant information. Clients’ recall of previous experiences can provide a great deal of information either to supplement test results or to eliminate the need for particular tests.

At this stage of the assessment process, particularly at the beginning of counseling, tests are not the only assessment method to consider. For example, you may be interested in us- ing an initial clinical interview or preexisting biographical data. It is important to involve clients in this process if possible or at least to explain briefl y the purpose for collecting data using these methods. Now, let’s discuss how we obtain information about assessments to guide the selection process.

Sources of Information About Assessment Procedures After you understand a client’s orientation toward problem solving and thus assessment purpose, the test selection process now involves selecting the actual assessment tools. This section provides key information sources for locating and obtaining assessments. Your university library will likely have many of these sources in print or online format. After you review this section, complete Activity 2.1.

Mental Measurements Yearbook. The best general source of information about commercial tests is the Mental Measurements Yearbook (MMY) series. The MMY, now in its 18th edi- tion (Spies, Carlson, & Geisinger, 2010), provides access to information about commercially published tests and test reviews. The MMY also provides a reference list for each test. Oscar Buros, its fi rst editor, developed the MMY in 1938. The MMY is published every few years, and online access is available for MMY reviews 1985 to present. A key inclusion criterion for a test to appear in the MMY is that the test must be new or revised since the previous MMY edition. Critical reviews are not published for each test in each yearbook because each new volume is designed to add to, rather than replace, information found in prior volumes.

There are many ways to search for a test. If you have some information about a specifi c test, such as the TAT, you can search by its full name (i.e., Thematic Apperception Test), acronym, publisher, or author. If you do not have a specifi c test in mind, or do not have

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32 • Foundations of Assessment in Counseling

adequate information, you can search by test purpose, category, or intended population (age, grade level, gender); by individual versus group administration; by publication date; by MMY volume number; by number of available reviews; or by many other search fi elds. There are several indexes (e.g., test title, classifi ed subject, publisher, names of authors, publisher directory) as searchable options if you decide you would like to search the print version of the MMY (or Tests in Print, described next).

Tests in Print. Published initially in 1961 by the Buros Institute of Mental Measurements, Tests in Print (TIP, 8th ed.; Murphy, Geisinger, Carlson, & Spies, 2011) is designed to serve as a comprehensive index of all tests in the Buros system (and appearing in previous MMYs and other materials). The TIP provides descriptions and references of all tests in print, including those for commercial use. Specifi cally, for any test, TIP indicates test purpose, acronym, in- print status, cost, publisher and author information, intended population, administration and scoring information, and publication date. TIP also includes a list of tests that have gone out of print since its last edition. However, you will not fi nd test reviews such as in the MMY. Searching for a test is done in a manner similar to how you search in MMY.

Tests and Test Critiques. There are two other resources you may fi nd useful as you are searching for tests. Tests is a more concise reference to test descriptions for thousands of tests in psychology, education, and business. Tests are arranged alphabetically by category. It is updated annually and contains similar information to the previously discussed references, with the exception of psychometric data and test reviews. Test Critiques is designed as a sup- plement to Tests and provides more extensive test descriptions, helpful information about the testing process, and test reviews. These resources are available from ProEd Publishers.

Other Test Information Resources. In addition to the four major references above, follow- ing are some other ways to locate test information:

• ETSTestLink (http://www.ets.org/test_link/about): This site lists the Education Testing Service’s (ETS’s) collection of 25,000 tests since 1900, with about 1,000 tests available for purchase directly from ETS.

• Buros Test Reviews Online (http://unl.edu/buros/): This site contains test reviews as they appear from the MMY 9th edition to the present. Thus, this is an online re- source for the MMY and TIP.

• Directory of Unpublished Experimental Mental Measures (B. A. Goldman & Mitchell, 2007): Volume 9 of the directory provides information on noncommercial psychologi- cal measures used in research from the fi elds of psychology, sociology, and education.

• A Counselor’s Guide to Career Assessment Instruments (Whitfi eld et al., 2009): This resource provides descriptions and publisher information of over 300 career as- sessment instruments, including comprehensive reviews of more than 50 widely used instruments.

• Journals: Counselors are most likely to fi nd information about assessment procedures pertinent to their work in the following counseling-related journals: Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, Counseling Outcome Research and Evaluation, Journal of Counseling & Development, The Career Development Quarterly, Journal of Counseling Psychology, Psychological Assessment, Journal of Personality Assessment, Journal of Career Assessment, and Assessment.

Locating Specifi c Assessments Once you have reviewed several of the above resources, you will need to contact a test publisher or author to obtain a specifi c commercially published assessment. Although there are a vast number of tests available in the United States and there is a constant stream of new tests and revisions of old tests on the market, most of the tests are pub- lished by a few large publishers, such as Psychological Assessment Resources, Consult- ing Psychologists Press, and Pearson Assessments. All major publishers list their prod-

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33 The Assessment Process •

ucts through catalogs and update test information regularly, including costs, ancillary materials, and alternate test forms. For a fee, most test publishers will provide qualifi ed test users with a specimen set of a test that includes the test itself, answer sheets, scor- ing keys, and a test manual. See Appendix A for links to commonly used tests, listed by publisher. For unpublished tests and other assessment methods, you will likely need to contact directly an author in a journal or book.

Activity 2.1 Locating Assessments Select a topic of interest and testing purpose and use at least two of the sources described above to uncover information about assessments for that topic and purpose. What sources did you use? What information did you fi nd in each? How do the sources compare with one another? Discuss in small groups the benefi ts and challenges of various assessment sources.

• • •

Test Administration

Test administration, or administration of assessment tools in general, will vary as a pro- cess depending on the audience, purpose, and format. For example, administering an in- dividual test as opposed to a group test assumes a greater degree of familiarity with the test instructions and procedures and increased interaction with a client. With group tests, greater test anxiety may be a factor.

With respect to purpose, standardized tests must be administered in a specifi ed man- ner under controlled conditions with uniform instructions and materials. Counselors who administer the test must be familiar with the instructions and other aspects of the admin- istration. The knowledge necessary for administering a test differs greatly depending on the test. On the one hand, standardized scholastic aptitude tests can be administered with relatively little training. On the other hand, the knowledge and skill needed to administer individual intelligence tests require extensive coursework and practicum experience.

Furthermore, various test formats (paper and pencil versus computer based) yield unique administration considerations. Computer-based testing allows greater fl exibility in test administration, briefer test administration time, and a greater degree of test standard- ization. However, some individuals may have trouble using the computer. Students have reported diffi culty in responding to items presented on the computer where they cannot easily go back to check previous answers or leave an item blank for later consideration. Computer anxiety may interfere with some people’s performance on computer-adminis- tered tests, especially older people, women, and individuals from a lower socioeconomic background (Bozionelos, 2004; Meloun, 2005). A study of eighth-grade students found that familiarity with the computer was signifi cantly correlated with performance on comput- er-based mathematics and writing tests after controlling for paper-based performance in these subjects (Sandene et al., 2005). Counselors should make certain that examinees are familiar and comfortable with using the computer. Clients should be given the opportu- nity to practice responding to computer-based items prior to testing.

Inexperienced test administrators often do not fully appreciate the importance of the test administrator’s role. Irregularities identifi ed in test administrations in school settings in- clude timing the test inaccurately, altering answer sheets, coaching, teaching the test, scoring tests incorrectly, recording test data incorrectly, and cheating by students (Gay, 1990). Most test manuals provide detailed instructions for administering a particular test, and such in- structions should be followed exactly. It is the standardization of instructions that makes it possible to compare one person’s scores with those of another or with different groups.

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34 • Foundations of Assessment in Counseling

In addition, counselors need to be aware of the expectancy effect or Rosenthal effect during test administration. This effect relates to the notion that data sometime can be af- fected by what the administrator expects to fi nd. On a related note, counselors who seek to confi rm negative stereotypes, intentionally or unintentionally, during test administration infl uence test performance. This effect is known as stereotype threat and is likely a con- tributing factor to long-standing racial and gender gaps in academic performance (Steele & Aronson, 1995; Steele, Spencer, & Aronson, 2002). Stereotype threats can be a factor when individuals of a minority status (e.g., women, racial/ethnic minorities) are instructed that a test’s purpose is to assess a construct (e.g., math skills, intelligence) they internalize as lacking in themselves, or when those individuals are simply in a testing environment with others who possess positive stereotypes for a particular construct.

Thus, in administering tests counselors must elicit the interest and cooperation of the test taker. In obtaining rapport, counselors attempt to convince test takers that the results will be useful and that they are not wasting their time in a task that will be of little consequence or value to them. Usually clients are cooperative if they have voluntarily sought counseling. If they are being tested against their will, perhaps because of a court order or because they feel that the test information is not important, good rapport may be diffi cult to establish.

Individuals should be informed prior to testing about conditions that may improve their performance on aptitude or achievement tests, such as taking a practice test or re- viewing certain material (American Counseling Association [ACA], 2005). During the test administration itself, counselors should encourage clients to follow instructions carefully and to perform as well as they can. With small children, tests may be presented as a game. For interest or personality inventories, clients should be encouraged to answer honestly and frankly in order to preclude invalid results. Counselors should be familiar with the test being administered so that clients do not doubt the administrator’s competence. Self- confi dence, together with a warm and friendly manner, should be exhibited.

The testing environment should be suitable for test administration, with adequate seat- ing, lighting, and ventilation and an appropriate temperature. It should be free from noise, interruptions, and other distractions. Time limits should be followed exactly, and measures should be taken to prevent cheating. Factors, even minor ones, that can alter test perfor- mance should be recognized and minimized. These factors contribute to the error variance in test scores. Any problems in administering the test should be noted and taken into ac- count when interpreting the test results.

At times test administration procedures may need to be altered to take into account such matters as a client’s disability or language problems (AERA, APA, & NCME, 1999). Ac- commodations in test administration, such as additional time or the use of an interpreter, should be made if they can improve the opportunity for the client to demonstrate his or her abilities but not if they provide that client with an advantage over other test takers. Sometimes it is diffi cult to make this distinction, but the test administrator must make the best decision possible. Any alterations in administration procedures should be noted and included in the report of test results.

Test Interpretation and Communication of Findings

Although test interpretation and communication of fi ndings is discussed in more detail in Chapters 6 and 15, respectively, it is important to mention these components briefl y in an overall discussion of the assessment process. Test interpretation, which includes evalua- tion of data from a variety of methods, is much more than simply scoring an assessment tool. The more intentional counselors are about infusing interpretation in the general coun- seling process, the more therapeutic the assessment process can be. The manner in which tools can aid in self-awareness and decision making can ultimately provide greater insight in counseling and save time and money for clients.

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35 The Assessment Process •

Communication of fi ndings can occur both during and after test interpretation. In fact, when counselors communicate with clients as they interpret assessment data, the process can yield a richer dialogue and better treatment planning. Communication can occur in- formally, such as during a counseling interaction, or more formally, such as the case with a written report for individual or group settings. During the communication process, it may become apparent that additional assessment is needed. If so, counselors may opt to cycle through the assessment process again.

There are a few general considerations related to test interpretation, specifi cally related to scoring procedures. Tests can be scored by hand or by computer. Tests that are scored by hand often involve the use of a scoring template that can be placed over the answer sheet to identify incorrect responses. In some cases, clients score their own tests by the use of “self-scorable” answer sheets that reveal the correct answers behind a seal on the reverse side of the answer sheet. Examples of measures for which clients score their own answer sheets include the Myers–Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) and the Self-Directed Search. If more than a few tests or scales are involved, hand scoring can become time consuming, tedious, and subject to error. If at all possible, hand-scored tests should also be scored by another person to ensure accuracy of results.

Compared with hand scoring, computer scoring is more rapid, accurate, and thorough. The computer makes it possible to undertake elaborate test-scoring programs such as those required for the Strong Interest Inventory and the Campbell Interest and Skill Survey that would be virtually impossible to do by hand. For the most part, the computer is an exceed- ingly effi cient scoring machine and at times may appear to be infallible; however, it is im- portant to remember that scoring errors can and do occur, especially at the programming level. In one large statewide testing operation, a number of schools received inaccurate test reports, which led to demoralization of teachers and students until the errors were de- tected and corrected (Tareen, 2005). In a national testing program, thousands of SAT exams were found to have been scored incorrectly (after two students asked to have their tests rescored) during one examination period, possibly because of wet weather conditions that affected the accuracy of the computer scoring program (Setoodeh, 2006).

If test results appear questionable, they should be rechecked. In addition to specifi c scores, computers can also generate test interpretations by means of scoring rules, or al- gorithms, stored in the computer’s memory. Computer-based test interpretations (CBTIs), such as those that have been developed for the MMPI, provide a second opinion that counselors can use both to create and to test hypotheses about clients. Compared with counselor interpretations, CBTIs that have been derived from extensive databases by test experts can be more comprehensive, objective, consistent, and reliable (Sampson, Purgar, & Shy, 2003). Despite their apparent advantages, CBTIs can also pose a number of prob- lems. In some cases, the developers of CBTIs lack appropriate qualifi cations. In other cases, the interpretations can be too general (e.g., they may be statements that are true for just about everybody) or they may contradict one another. Frequently, they are accorded “un- realistic credibility” because of their computer origin (Sampson et al., 2003). To prevent misuse of CBTIs, a counselor should not rely on them unless he or she possesses suffi cient knowledge about the assessment instrument itself to be able to evaluate independently the accuracy of the interpretations. In addition, clients should not be expected to be able to use CBTI reports without the aid of a counselor unless the reports have been specifi cally validated as “self-interpreting” (National Career Development Association, 1997).

A test can have well-established validity for various uses, but that does not necessarily ensure the validity of a CBTI derived for that test. The scoring rules on which the CBTIs are based are often a trade secret so that it is diffi cult to evaluate how adequately they have been developed. Counselors must examine CBTIs in light of other information that they have been able to collect about the client. They should use their best professional judgment to take into account any individual or situational factors that could alter the CBTI for a

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36 • Foundations of Assessment in Counseling

particular client. As with any test data, the results should be viewed as hypotheses that need to be confi rmed or revised on the basis of other information that is collected regard- ing the particular client.

Now that you have reviewed the assessment process components, it’s time to consider how you might approach a hypothetical client at each phase. Review Case Example 2.1, the Case of Jeffrey, and respond to the accompanying questions. First, consider some tips in the assessment process.

Tip Sheet

The Assessment Process

✓ Successful testing is being prepared. Have a script (written or memorized) for ev- ery part of the assessment process to minimize any negative effects assessment may have on the counseling process.

✓ Involve clients in the test selection process as much as possible. ✓ Explore with clients ways that assessment data can be useful to increase intrinsic

motivation. Remind them that the primary purpose of assessment is not evaluation and judgment but, rather, a tool for client exploration to assist in making decisions.

✓ Review several sources of information before selecting an assessment tool. Ensure that the tool serves an appropriate function, possesses relevant support, and is suit- able for your clientele.

✓ Gain knowledge about an assessment tool, including familiarity with test content, purpose, psychometric properties, and test administration and scoring procedures.

✓ Use multiple assessment methods to create a more comprehensive picture for the client.

✓ Present to clients the assessment purpose and description in the most clear, concise, and interesting manner.

✓ For administration of individual tests, memorize the exact verbal instructions if pos- sible. Have materials ready for use and easy to reach.

✓ Maintain the security of testing materials before and after test administration. ✓ In group testing double-check that you have all materials (e.g., answer sheets,

pencils, test booklets) available for the testing day. ✓ Administer and interpret an assessment tool exactly as stated in the manual unless there is

an empirically supported reason for altering (e.g., test bias, accommodations for disability). ✓ Consider testing conditions that may infl uence test scores before administering the

test. Conditions may include location of room, noise level, seating arrangement, lighting, work space, quality of instructions, rapport between counselor and client, and amount of time needed to complete assessment.

✓ Refl ect on how cultural and other demographic differences impact the assessment relationship. Such issues may include how familiar individuals are with a test ad- ministrator, differences among test takers, stereotype or expectancy effects, presence of a disability, or experience with different testing formats.

✓ When introducing an assessment, show enthusiasm and interest in the process and motivate clients to respond as best as they can. Reiterate the value and purpose of assessment in general as well as the particular tool being used.

✓ Evaluate scoring procedures carefully and assess for strengths and limitations. ✓ Communicate assessment data in an empowering way, discussing assessment

strengths and limitations for aiding a particular client. ✓ Present assessment data in the context of other available information about a par-

ticular client, highlighting that data are just one type of client data to consider. ✓ In addition to communicating overall fi ndings to clients, the counselor should also

process with clients their reactions to the assessment data.

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37 The Assessment Process •

Case Example 2.1

Jeffrey

Jeffrey is a 16-year-old White male in 11th grade. He lives with his father James (age 49), his mother Linda (age 48), an older brother Keith (age 18), and a younger brother Max (age 14). His parents are both teachers in the same high school as Jeffrey.

Jeffrey’s parents made the appointment with you, a professional school counselor at the same school as Jeffrey and his parents. Jeffrey is currently in danger of failing 11th grade, with grades of mostly Ds and Fs, except for a B in computer class. His parents are frus- trated because they do not know how to motivate him.

In addition, a teacher found a notebook with written song lyrics with references to guns and dying. Asked for an explanation, Jeffrey just shrugged and said he was bored in class.

Jeffrey previously saw a counselor during elementary school after he seemed to be hav- ing trouble fi tting in socially in class.

Refl ect on the following:

• How might you begin the assessment process? Who would you involve, and how would you involve them?

• What are assessment methods you might consider during the test selection phase? • How and when might test administration occur? • What factors may be salient for communication of fi ndings? • How do you think the assessment process in general might benefi t Jeffrey?

• • •

Assessing the Assessment Process: Evaluating Counseling Outcomes

At the conclusion of counseling, as well as at intervals throughout counseling, it is important to evaluate its effectiveness. Has counseling achieved the purposes for which it was sought? As the last step in the problem-solving model in Chapter 1 indicated, counselors need to determine whether a particular client’s problem has been resolved or reduced. Engaging in outcome assessment in counseling helps to determine if counseling was effective for the client. Furthermore, outcome assessment can yield important information about the general effi cacy of a counseling intervention, adding to counseling scholarship in general.

Outcome assessments should be related to the purpose of counseling, appropriate for the client’s development level, valid and reliable for the purpose for which they are used, and sensitive enough to show change at the level expected (Whiston, 2008). Counselors should use well-established instruments with adequate normative data to aid in the inter- pretation of a client’s scores (Leibert, 2006). When feasible, outcome assessments should use more than one source of feedback (e.g., client, counselor, and observer) and consider more than one outcome variable (e.g., changes in knowledge, understanding, and behav- ior). Counseling outcomes should take into account immediate, intermediate, and ulti- mate goals—such as a more positive attitude toward school, improved grades, and school graduation—and should include evaluations taken at different points in time. As a practi- cal matter, outcome assessments should be brief, be easy to administer and score, and be cost-effective.

Typical outcome assessment instruments include client satisfaction forms, client self- report scales, client interviews, and rating scales. Outcome instruments vary in their degree of specifi city. Global measures focus on such matters as general well-being or career maturity. Specifi c measures assess particular factors such as level of depression or career planning diffi culties. Some examples of the different types of outcome measures are provided below.

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38 • Foundations of Assessment in Counseling

Client Satisfaction Forms

Client satisfaction forms assess the degree to which counseling fulfi lled the client’s expecta- tions. A number of client satisfaction scales or rating forms have been developed for local use, especially in medical or mental health settings. These forms provide valuable feedback for administrators and professionals; however, they pose diffi culties in interpretation because they lack standardization.

Two standardized measures of client satisfaction—one global and the other specifi c—have been developed at the University of California, San Francisco (UCSF). The UCSF Client Sat- isfaction Questionnaire–8 (CSQ-8) provides a global measure of a client’s satisfaction with mental health services received (Attkisson & Greenfi eld, 2004). The UCSF Service Satisfaction Scale–30 (SSS-30), which uses 30 items rather than the 8 items used by the CSQ-8, provides a more detailed measure of client satisfaction. The SSS-30 yields scores on several subscales— such as counselor manner and skill, offi ce procedures, and access to services—as well as an overall satisfaction score (Greenfi eld & Attkisson, 2004). These instruments have extensive norms that can be used to interpret the results. They can be supplemented with open-ended questions regarding the client’s reaction to treatment.

Client satisfaction can also be inferred by means of therapeutic relationship scales, such as the Working Alliance Inventory, that measure the degree to which the client and the counselor agree on counseling goals and tasks and the extent to which they have bonded together for counseling purposes (Horvath & Greenberg, 1989). As a rule, the strength of the therapeutic alliance—as rated by the client, counselor, or observer—correlates signifi cantly with progress in counseling (Martin, Garske, & Davis, 2000).

Client Self-Report Scales

Client self-report scales are used to evaluate changes in a client’s status or functioning as perceived by the client. Many of the self-report inventories used in the initial stages of coun- seling to identify a client’s problems, such as Symptom Checklist–90 and Brief Symptom In- ventory discussed in Chapter 8, can also be used later in counseling to evaluate progress in resolving these problems. In many ways, these instruments are ideal for outcome assessment because they provide comparable information at different points in time that can be used to show changes that occur during the course of counseling. Because of their brevity and broad focus, results from these instruments should not be relied on exclusively, but they can be used informally to judge progress and to guide the counseling process.

Several self-report measures have been designed specifi cally to assess the outcomes of coun- seling or therapy. These measures include the Outcome Questionnaire–45 (Lambert, Gregersen, & Burlingame, 2004), revised Behavior and Symptom Identifi cation Scale (Eisen, Normand, Be- langer, Spiro, & Esch, 2004), and Treatment Outcome Package (mental health symptoms and functional modules; Kraus, Seligman, & Jordan, 2005). All of these measures are short self-report questionnaires with several subscales that are sensitive to changes in a client’s symptoms or be- haviors. They all provide reliable and valid measures of a client’s functioning and normative data to aid in interpretation of scores.

Depending on the issues involved, other brief measures such as the Beck Depression In- ventory (Beck, 1996), Beck Anxiety Inventory (Beck & Steer, 1993), and Holland’s My Voca- tional Situation (Holland, Daiger, & Power, 1980) can be used to assess progress in specifi c areas. These instruments are each discussed in chapters dealing with these particular topics. Self-monitoring of one’s behavior, such as alcohol drinking, can also be helpful in assessing counseling outcomes (W. R. Miller & Muñoz, 2005).

Client Feedback Interviews

Client feedback interviews can also be used to obtain feedback regarding a client’s prog- ress. Talmon (1990) described a brief telephone interview that he used routinely with cli-

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39 The Assessment Process •

ents who had been seen for brief counseling. Clients were asked in the intake process for permission to contact them by telephone sometime about three months after the end of counseling. At that point, they were asked 12 questions regarding such matters as their satisfaction with counseling (5-point scale), change in the problem they presented at coun- seling (5-point scale), what they found to be most helpful or harmful, and what recom- mendations they wished to make to the counselor for improvement of counseling. This procedure lets clients know that the counselor cares about them and their situation and provides counselors with helpful information (both quantitative and qualitative in nature) regarding their counseling procedures.

Ratings by Counselors and Other Observers

In addition to feedback from the client, evaluation of a client’s functioning can also be sought from the counselor or others in a position to judge the client’s behavior, such as parents, spouses, teachers, supervisors, coworkers, or trained observers. Counselors can provide a more detailed, specifi c description of client outcome by the use of instruments such as the Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale for major psychopathology (Lachar, Espadas, & Bailley, 2004) or the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale, a measure of depression based on interview data (Hamilton, 1967). Teachers, parents, or others can use observer rating forms such as the Conners’ Rating Scales–Revised for Teachers and Parents to evaluate problem behavior in children (Conners, 1997). Observation of a client’s behavior by someone close to the client is important in obtaining information regarding the progress of clients who cannot accurately or consistently report this information themselves.

In some situations, counselors are required to complete the Global Assessment of Func- tioning (GAF) Scale (Axis V on the DSM-IV-TR) for every client they see, often at both the beginning and end of counseling. This measure provides a single score, ranging from 1 to 100, regarding the client’s psychological, social, and occupational functioning (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). The GAF scale is anchored with behavioral descriptions at each 10-point interval; for example, ratings in the “71 to 80” range indicate transient symptoms (such as diffi culty concentrating after a family confl ict) or slight impairment in functioning (such as falling behind in one’s work on a temporary basis).

Tailor-Made Measures

Some outcome measures, such as Goal Attainment Scaling (GAS) or the Target Complaints (TC) procedure, are designed specifi cally for individual clients to assess their progress in therapy. With GAS, the counselor or other expert judges establish specifi c goals for a cli- ent based on his or her concerns (Kiresuk et al., 1994). The judges then rate on a 5-point scale the client’s success in attaining these goals at the end of counseling. This measure is a reliable and valid measure of progress for clients receiving time-limited psychotherapy (Shefl er, Canetti, & Wiseman, 2001).

The TC measure requires clients (with the help of a counselor) to identify three specifi c complaints that they wish to address in counseling and then to rate these complaints ac- cording to their severity (Battle et al., 1966). Counseling outcomes are assessed in terms of reductions in the severity of a client’s complaints. This method has been used effectively to evaluate the success of clients in resolving problems during counseling (Kivlighan, Multon, & Patton, 2000).

Use of Outcome Measures

Outcome measures can be helpful at three levels: (a) individual, (b) agency, and (c) profes- sion. At the individual level, both the client and counselor can benefi t. Clients can profi t by seeing progress in resolving issues and improvement in well-being. Counselors can use feedback from clients to learn what counseling approaches are most effective with different

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40 • Foundations of Assessment in Counseling

types of clients. At the agency level, information obtained from clients can help in establish- ing and modifying counseling programs and in gaining support from those who fund the programs. Finally, for the profession as a whole, outcome studies can lead to more successful evidence-based treatments and strengthen its viability and credibility overall (Leibert, 2006).

When outcome studies are undertaken by the combined resources of a professional orga- nization or a counseling agency, it is possible to conduct a much more thorough and compre- hensive evaluation of counseling effectiveness than would otherwise be possible. Although it may not be feasible for all counselors to be involved in a comprehensive outcome study, some effort should be undertaken to evaluate the effectiveness of all counseling interven- tions. If only one outcome measure can be obtained, it is probably best to obtain it directly from the client, possibly at the conclusion of counseling or shortly thereafter. As an informal procedure, counselors can readminister a client self-report form such as the Inventory of Common Problems or the Beck Depression Inventory–II to note changes. They can also ask clients at that point what was most helpful, what was least helpful, and what recommenda- tions they would make for future counseling. The use of a brief, semistructured interview such as that proposed by Talmon (1990; see above) can be especially productive for counsel- ors evaluating the effectiveness of their counseling on an individual basis.

Chapter Summary

The assessment process in counseling relates to engaging and collaborating with clients throughout the counseling relationship as well as evaluating the counseling relationship and interventions themselves. In this chapter several assessment methods were discussed and their use in the assessment process was presented. These methods include group and individual assessments, standardized and nonstandardized assessments, speed and power tests, rating scales, projective assessments, behavioral observations, interviews, biographi- cal measures, and physiological measures. Then, assessment process components were presented (test selection, test administration, test interpretation, and communication of fi ndings). Clients will be motivated to participate in assessment (and counseling) depend- ing on the stage of change in which they identify as well as the quality of the counseling relationship. In addition, there are several considerations at each phase of the assessment process that affect how clients receive and use assessment data. The chapter concludes with a brief discussion on outcome assessment and various assessment methods that may be useful to counselors.

Review Questions

1. How might the various assessment methods presented in this chapter infl uence the assessment process?

2. How does a client’s stage of change benefi t and limit each phase of the assessment process?

3. Compare the major sources of information for tests. What do you see as the most useful for you? How do they complement one another?

4. How do paper-and-pencil and computer assessments compare in terms of the as- sessment process? When might one be more useful than the other?

5. In what ways are outcome assessments helpful for clients? Counselors? The scien- tifi c community?

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