5 page literature review

Assignment 4 – Literature review

Wilderness Therapy Research

Wilderness therapy can be a very effective tool in the world of juvenile delinquent treatment.

This form of treatment involves a combination of counseling and outdoor survival and social

interaction. Research shows that it may be useful in changing the way juveniles react to certain

situations and may impact their social responses in a positive way (Bandoroff & Scherer, 1994).

Another key factor in utilizing wilderness therapy is that, in many situations, it has a significant

impact on juveniles’ relationships with their families (Harper, Russell, Cooley, and Cupples,

2007). More research into this field should be done however, as nearly all studies show

significant improvements in juvenile wellbeing, though the jury is still out on what role the

wilderness therapy plays in that (Russell, 2001). More research is especially important for this

field in order to gain more valid results. This research is necessary because many studies have

shown the ineffectiveness of treating juvenile delinquents similarly to adult offenders. Many

studies of wilderness therapy have been plagued by bias in many regards, ranging from non-

representative samples, to ineffective measurement tools (Bruyere, 2002).

Impacts of Wilderness Therapy on Mental Health

Wilderness therapy can play an important role in the treatment of juveniles with mental

health problems (Clark, Marmol, Cooley and Gathercoal, 2004). It has been shown to have

marked improvements in mental health, with its effects lasting for years after treatment has taken

place (Davis-Berman and Berman, 1989). Wilderness therapy teaches juveniles how to deal with

stress in non-destructive ways, and teaches them better decision-making skills, allowing them to

resist participating in delinquent or risky behaviors (Margalit and Ben-Ari, 2014).

The major factor of mental health affected by wilderness therapy is the juveniles’ feelings

of self-efficacy – feeling as though they do not need to rely on others. Wilderness therapy shows

a marked improvement in almost every case, leading juveniles to make better decisions and take

charge of their lives (David-Berman and Berman, 1989; Margalit and Ben-Ari, 2014). Studies

have also seen a marked increase in self-esteem following wilderness therapy, with some

juveniles feeling proud of themselves for the first time (Davis-Berman and Berman, 1989). Due

to a combination of these factors, juveniles tend to significantly improve in regard to problem

behaviors and diagnosable mental health conditions (Clark et al., 2004). The efficacy of these

mental health improvements due to wilderness therapy is seen well after treatment has concluded

as well; increases in self-efficacy and self-esteem are still evident as much as five months after

treatment has ended (Margalit and Ben-Ari, 2014).

While mental health may not be the only factor in juvenile delinquency, it may still play

an important role. The presence of mental health disorders was not shown to be a predictor of

recidivism in some studies, though mental health influences on decision-making plays an

important role (Wierson and Forehand, 1994). According to Wierson, the most significant

predictors of recidivism are: age of first arrest, severity of crime, and substance abuse (1994). If

wilderness therapy can be used to impact the self-efficacy of juveniles and change their decision-

making processes, there is a chance that they may choose to withhold from participating in

delinquent acts in the future.

Wilderness Therapy and the Family

Juveniles’ relationships with their families play a very important role in diminishing the

amount of delinquent behavior the juvenile will participate in. The theory of social bonding can

be used to explain much of the juvenile delinquency that exists (Bruyere, 2002). Juvenile

delinquents tend to have weak relationships with positive role models and poor relationships

with their parents.

The best way to encourage stronger family relationships while fostering a sense of self-

image and self-efficacy, is to include families in the wilderness therapy process. Studies show

that this inclusion can have significant positive impacts on family strength and communication

skills (Harper et al., 2007). Through combining family therapy and wilderness therapy, while

maintaining a wilderness setting, both parents and juveniles report better relationships and less

delinquent behavior (Bandoroff and Scherer, 1994). This inclusion leads to a long-term decrease

in delinquent behavior and police contact, and a marked improvement in juvenile self-worth and

family bonds (Harper et al., 2007). Parents view their children in a better light and see them as

less delinquent after completion of wilderness therapy, showing its effectiveness at improving

family relationships (Russell, 2001).

Juvenile Recidivism

Juvenile delinquency rates have been falling since a dramatic rise from the 1980s to the

mid-1990s, however, recidivism rates of juvenile delinquents have remained extremely high

(Jones, Lowe and Risler, 2008). Studies show that roughly 50-70% of juveniles who receive

incarceration as a punishment to juvenile delinquency are arrested again within two years of their

release (Jones et al., 2008). The causes of this recidivism are not readily apparent however, and

unlike adults, it is extremely difficult to predict (Wierson and Forehand, 1994). Despite the

difficulty in prediction, the recidivism rate may be controlled by increasing juvenile decision

making skills and self-efficacy (Jones et al., 2008). In order to do this, juveniles need a chance

to get away from the lives they are accustomed to, where they have an opportunity for

introspection and the ability to develop new sets of skills (Jones et al., 2008). These new skills

may lead to a lower chance of juveniles participating in delinquent behaviors in the future

(Harper et al., 2007).

Difficulties of Wilderness Therapy Research

Due to the nature of wilderness therapy, it can be very difficult to gather a representative

sample. Many wilderness therapy programs are located in more remote regions that lack in both

population size and diversity. Further, wilderness therapy is often treated as an optional

alternative to other forms of adjudication for juvenile delinquents, or a last resort when nothing

else has worked (Clark et al., 2004). This leads to small sample sizes of individuals that are

often not chosen through random sampling (Bruyere, 2002). The studies that do manage to

achieve larger sample sizes tend to utilize convenience sampling, using only those individuals

who have been admitted to wilderness therapy programs (Clark et al., 2004; Harper et al., 2007;

Russel, 2001). This leads to a selection bias of the sample potentially not being representative of

the population due to the likelihood of having certain traits leading to them being selected. A

severe lack of diversity in many studies also suggests a strong possibility of bias affecting the

validity of the studies. Many studies’ samples consisted of mostly white males, a sample that

can hardly be generalized to the entire population.

Another major problem with many studies of wilderness therapy is the lack of control

groups. This issue is hard to combat due to the nature of the research. There is no ability to

forgo treatment in the majority of cases, and would be unethical to withhold it from some due to

its potential benefits (Davis-Berman & Berman, 1989). The best way to get around this hurdle is

to have all individuals of the sample subjected to general therapy and have varying degrees of

wilderness therapy mixed in, ranging from none to a mix to a group with only wilderness

therapy; this ensures that a control group can be used to measure the effectiveness of wilderness

therapy against (Margalit and Ben-Ari, 2014).

The data measured for studies regarding wilderness therapy can be very hard to

operationalize. There are not concrete measures of mental health that are consistent in all cases,

and these measurement tools change often over time. This leads to results that are often

anecdotal and do not carry much validity or reliability (Bruyere, 2002). Bruyere (2002) says it

best: “Anecdotal support for these variables exist, but the outdoor industry would be well served

by the investment of time and resources to determine empirically if programs are actually

meeting the needs of juvenile offenders.” Without having empirical evidence of a change in

behavior and recidivism, it is difficult to claim many of these studies have merit in regard to

validity or reliability.

Conclusion

All past research points toward wilderness therapy having numerous benefits for all

juveniles. It increases overall mental health of the juveniles that have participated in the studies

done so far (Clark et al., 2004). Wilderness therapy has an impact on juveniles’ decision making

processes, making them less likely to commit delinquent acts (Margalit and Ben-ari, 2014).

However, past studies have been limited in validity and reliability for a variety of factors

(Bruyere, 2002). In order to have more concrete proof of the effectiveness of wilderness therapy

in reducing juvenile delinquency and recidivism, more research is needed in this field. There are

many benefits to be gained from wilderness therapy, all that is needed is empirical data in order

to increase its effectiveness and availability.

References

Bandoroff, S., Scherer, D. (1994). Wilderness family therapy: An innovative treatment approach

for problem youth. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 3(2) 175-191.

doi:10.1007/BF02234066

Bruyere, B. (2002). Appropriate benefits for outdoor programs targeting juvenile male offenders.

Journal of Experiential Education, 25(1), 207-213. doi:10.1177/105382590202500104

Clark, J. P., Marmol, L. M., Cooley, R., Gathercoal, K. (2004). The effects of wilderness therapy

on the clinical concerns (on axes I, II, and IV) of troubled adolescents. Journal of

Experiential Education, 27(2), 213-232. doi: 10.1177/105382590402700207

Davis-Berman, J. & Berman, D. S. (1989). The wilderness therapy program: An empirical study

of its effects with adolescents in an outpatient setting. Journal of Contemporary

Psychology, 19(4), 271-281. doi: 10.1007/BF00946092

Harper, N. J., Russell, K. C., Cooley, R., & Cupples, J. (2007). Catherine Freer Wilderness

Therapy Expeditions: An exploratory case study of adolescent wilderness therapy, family

functioning, and the maintenance of change. Child & Youth Care Forum, 36, 111–129.

doi:10.1007/s10566-007-9035-1

Jones, C. D., Lowe, L. A., Risler, E. A. (2008). The effectiveness of wilderness adventure

therapy programs for young people involved in the juvenile justice system. Residential

Treatment for Children & Youth, 22(2), 53-67. doi:10.1300/J007v22n02_04

Margalit, D., Ben-Ari, A. (2014). The effect of wilderness therapy on adolescents’ cognitive

autonomy and self-efficacy: Results of a non-randomized trial. Child & Youth Care

Forum, 43(2), 181-194. doi:10.1007/s10566-013-9234-x

Russell, K. (2001). Assessment of Treatment Outcomes in Outdoor Behavioral Healthcare. 1-38.

Retrieved from http://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/wrc/pdf/tech_report_27final.pdf

Russell, K. C. (2006). Evaluating the effects of the Wendigo Lake Expedition program on young

offenders. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 4(2), 185-203.

doi:10.1177/1541204006286317

Wierson, M., Forehand, R. (1994). Predicting recidivism in juvenile delinquents: The role of

mental health diagnoses and the qualification of conclusions by race. Behaviour Research

and Therapy, 33(1), 63-67. doi:10.1016/0005-7967(94)E0001-Y