Lecture: Approaches Used in Qualitative Research Design

APPROACHES USED IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS Qualitative Research Designs

Slide 1 Transcript

This module will focus on qualitative research designs, which fall mostly into the nonexperimental category. Qualitative research is found in nearly all the academic disciplines. Often, this is how a line of inquiry begins. When little is known about a subject, and variables are unknown or a related theory base is undeveloped, a qualitative study helps to identify what needs to be studied that is important.

Characteristics of Qualitative Research

Designs Share Two Things in Common

Five Designs Commonly Used

May be arranged by descriptive methodologies

Expect to Find Multiple Layers or Facets

Studies complexity without simplifying

Usually does not try to manipulate any variables

Studied in natural settings

May use historical records

May involve meta-analysis

Slide 3 Transcript

Qualitative approaches share two things in common. The main interest is on phenomena that are happening now or previously, usually in real-world, or natural, settings. Another aspect is that they attempt to capture and study the complexity of those phenomena. From the outset, qualitative researchers expect to find multilayered, multi-faceted observations and do not try to simplify, or control for, them. So, it is essential that you know what qualitative research entails and what it sets out to accomplish. Typically, there are five recognized qualitative designs that are in use, although the number varies depending on how writers arrange the approaches. For instance, they may separate approaches into descriptive designs, use existing or historical information, or work with a meta-analysis which combines results from several studies.

Types of Qualitative Designs

Case Study

Content Analysis Systematic examination of material for patterns

Ethnography Group with common cultureParticular person,

program, event

Phenomenology Perceptions about particular situation

Grounded Theory Develop theory

Slide 5 Transcript The names for the most used types of qualitative designs are the case study, which is also known as idiographic research, and studies a particular person, program, or event in depth for a specified time period. An ethnography, which is where the researcher looks, not at an individual, but at a group that shares a common culture over time. A phenomenology study seeks to understand perception among people about a particular situation. Grounded theory study begins with data collected in the field, not from literature, to develop a theory. The final design in use is content analysis, probably one of the most used types of qualitative design, which identifies a body of material from several sources and performs a systematic examination to determine patterns. Now, a closer consideration of the five design approaches helps to understand when a researcher may be served best with what they seek to understand. First though, a few words about the context for a study.

Natural and Contrived Settings

Naturalistic Settings Contrived Settings

Appears similar to the natural environment of interest

Validity

Limits manipulation

External validity typically high Events occur naturally

Allows for selectivity in variables or conditions present Enhances reliability and internal validity

May be limited within region studied

Generalization is limited Internal validity low since no control over variables

Slide 7 Transcript

Qualitative studies are accomplished in naturalistic settings, which are places where the researcher expects to observe behaviors or events as they occur naturally. Usually, there is limited or no manipulation of conditions. The external validity values are high as a result, since nearly all factors present in actual settings would be present and broader generalization can be made. If selection criteria vary, though, this can limit the ability to generalize findings beyond the observed setting which means the external validity may be low. However, for most naturalistic studies, interpretations can be generalized within the area where observations are made and where external validity is higher. Reliability is another matter, though. Since conditions cannot be replicated, reliability will be low. In some qualitative studies, it is not possible to observe in natural circumstances, so an environment is constructed that contains as much as possible what would be in the natural setting. In this way, as many of the potential factors or variables are available so the behaviors will be close to what would otherwise occur. Also, some of the variables that may complicate the study can be absent or controlled. This enhances the reliability since some of the confounding variables may be absent. It also enhances internal validity but dilutes the external validity because of the manipulations made.

Case Study and Ethnography

Case Study Ethnography

Particular individual or event studied over time Examines entire group in depth Data from observations, interviews, records, audiovisuals Extended time on site Provides learning about poorly understood situation Not able to generalize findings

Takes several months or years Identifies norms, patterns, beliefs, structures Participant observer Can be overwhelming for novice

Slide 9 Transcript A case study is where a particular individual, program, or event is studied in depth for a defined period of time. You will find them in nearly all academic disciplines. Extensive data is collected and might include observations, interviews, a variety of documents, past records, and audiovisual materials. The researcher will likely be on site for an extended time, taking notes, noting changes, and recording details about the physical environment and other factors like social, economic, or historical influences. The advantages of a case study are to learn more about a poorly understood situation, or how a situation changes over time as a result of conditions, which can help generate more focused hypotheses to study. A limitation, of course, is that the findings are not very generalizable. While a case study is focused on a singular event, an ethnography examines an entire group in depth, especially one that shares a common culture. These studies often run for several months or years. The focus is on everyday things, usually about people, to identify norms, patterns, beliefs, social structures, and cultural patterns including those that are implicit (that is, not observed directly). This design is used extensively in cultural anthropology and requires prolonged engagement in the natural setting. It generally takes time for researchers to develop relationships with key individuals who can provide very valuable insights, and sometimes the researcher serves as participant observer and becomes immersed in the daily life of the people. This design requires patience and flexibility. It can be overwhelming for a novice, who might become distracted by less important details.

Phenomenology and Grounded Theory

Phenomenology Grounded Theory

Conscious perceptions that reflect meaning Use data to develop theory Uses unstructured interviews extensively May seem like a conversation Researchers suspend preconceptions (epochѐ)

Focus is on a process Data must include perceptions of participants Early data used to establish categories Achieve conceptual density

Slide 11 Transcript Phenomenology is about conscious perceptions, especially with respect to meaning Understanding perspectives that people have in a particular situation here searchers understand what an experience is like. The study interest often comes from a personal experience of the researcher, and the approach uses unstructured interviews almost exclusively with a carefully selected sample, usually not of great size. Listening in one might hear more of what seems like a conversation, with occasional sidetracks. Researchers try to suspend preconceptions (known as bracketing or ee poch eh - epoche) but it presents a very difficult challenge for some. The goal of the phenomenology study is to provide a sense that “I understand better what it is like for someone to experience that.”

Grounded theory approaches seldom have much of a theoretical underpinning. Rather, the intent is to begin with data and then develop a theory. Grounded refers to data being taken from the field rather than the literature. The focus is usually on a process. Data are from several collection methods, like interviews, documents, and so on, and like other qualitative designs must be flexible and likely to morph over time. A restriction is that data collected must include perspectives of the people being studied. Speaking of data collection, this must begin immediately for grounded theory studies since the researcher has to create categories to classify the data and then saturate those categories with as much learning as possible. Ideally, this would include disconfirming evidence as well and would achieve what Schramm called conceptual density. There is not a consensus among researchers about the extent of prior literature review to perform since it could sway the views of the researcher during data collection and influence the new theory foundations.

Content Analysis

Detailed and systematic examination

Wide variety of sources used

Focus on particular material to identify patterns

Substantial front end planning required

Attempts as much objectivity as possible

May be part of another type design

Likely to have a quantitative component

Slide 13 Transcript Content analysis involves a detailed and systematic examination of particular material to identify themes or patterns. The sources are varied and include books, newspapers, personal journals, legal records, movies, television, art, music, videos, transcripts, blogs, bulletin boards, and just about any other type of human communication. This design requires a lot of front end planning by the researcher and a specific research question right from the beginning. Also, the researcher will attempt to be as objective as possible by focusing on a specific body of material, create precise characteristics to examine, break complex items into more manageable units, and may involve one or more judges to help determine categories. Sometimes, content analysis might be part of another design, e.g., a phenomenological study or with mixed methods. Most content analyses will have a quantitative component, typically descriptive statistics.

Making Observations

Qualitative observations are unstructured and free-flowing

Strategies to enhance validity and reliability

Reflexivity – identify researcher biases and try to minimize

When unable to record entire period of observations use

Time samplingFocus may shift as potentially significant events present Triangulation – multiple forms of

data to identify consistencies Data and memos – observations separate from interpretations

Event sampling Field notes, video capture, and digital recording used

Individual sampling

Seek contradictions – search for disconfirming evidence Time on site – extensive data collection in the field is best

Slide 15 Transcript Quantitative studies have limited, prespecified focus and procedures, whereas qualitative studies may use an emergent design. This is where early data obtained may influence the kinds of subsequent data gathered and adjustments are made. Such a shift would, of course, disrupt continuity in a statistical analysis but is acceptable here. In this respect, the researcher is a data collection instrument who can actively, which is to say during the observation period, discover underlying patterns and dynamics that affect the type of information gathered. Sometimes, the researcher may not know what to look for initially and is guided as the observation period plays out. Related to this is that the selection of sources from which to record or observe information is actually a form of sampling from the total possible sources available. When not able to use technology or to record notes, three variant sampling strategies are available:

• Time – the researcher may divide the total observation period into several segments, perhaps with alternating intervals, or • Event sampling – which, similarly, divides observation periods but differs by highlighting and recording different behaviors within each interval, or Individual sampling – which,

again, divides time into smaller intervals and this time focuses on a different individual during each interval segment. When making observations during a qualitative study, there are strategies available for enhancing validity and reliability. The most representative of these are: Reflexivity – which identifies researcher biases and makes conscious effort to minimize the effects or influences. Triangulation is where the researcher collects multiple forms of data from various sources to identify consistencies or inconsistencies. Distinguishing between data and memos – that is, keep observations, the data, separate from and interpretations or explanations recorded. Seek contradictions – the researcher should actively seek disconfirming evidence to combat biases, which can occur during the actual data collection experience. Time on site – the more time actually on site for extensive data collection in the field is best since it permits more of the variations and variables to manifest themselves.

Using Existing Data

May include written, video, audio, electronic, or image

Content analysis – existing data to analyze and interpret

Provides for unobtrusive observation

Cautions to consider Selective deposit – choice of documents used among all available

Archival research – existing historical documents include

Newspapers, books, magazines, public records, government docs

Selective survival – documents may have been removed/destroyed Can limit generalizability of results

Meta-analysis – comparisons among several similar studies

Effect size used less frequently in qualitative studies

Slide 17 Transcript As you would expect, existing data means it is already there in some form and you do not need to create or produce it. The data may be written in journals or documents, on video, in some form of audio, within electronic formats, or in images using various media. This saves the researcher funds which can be applied elsewhere. Using existing data also allows researchers to consider information without other active participants having knowledge of what is being examined. But, there also are some limitations and cautions to be aware of. These are described in the textbook and refer to selective deposit, which describes what the researcher chooses to include in their portfolios taken from all the existing data available. Clearly this introduces subjectivity in the assessment process. The second caution is selective survival and means that some documents may have been removed from the archives or files because of privacy, security, transfer, or some other reason such as degraded videotapes. Related to these cautions is that the strength of generalizing results beyond the immediate circumstances is limited. There are various ways to categorize existing data research designs, but three will be mentioned here. Archival research can be conducted with any recorded document, such as newspapers, books, magazines, medical reports, public records, receipts, government data bases, or historical files. Content analysis, described previously, differs from archival research in that the information is analyzed to interpret a designated topic or issue, rather than just to describe it. Finally, meta-analysis takes several studies with similar or related questions to compare their results, particularly when the studies have produced results that do not agree. In medical research, meta-analysis sometimes compares the range of confidence intervals and means. But, it also can be like comparing apples and oranges. Statistical significance is a cornerstone of quantitative research. With meta-analysis, the typical statistical measure is effect size which indicates magnitude of the results as they apply within a population and is recommended by the APA to always be reported in a study. Effect size is not widely used in qualitative studies since it is based on variations in standard deviations. You are more likely to see meta- analysis used in quantitative designs, however, they have a place in qualitative designs as well and are being reported more frequently in recent studies.

Evaluating Qualitative Research

Standards used to evaluate qualitative studies include

Biases and assumptions – identified by researcher as influencing data

Purposefulness – research question determines types of data to collect

Rigor – use thorough methods to objectively collect and analyze data

Open-minded – modify initial interpretations with new/conflicting data

Completeness – allow time to understand nuances and complexities

Coherence – multiple data sources converge with consistent conclusions

Persuasiveness – logic suggests best interpretation that excludes others

Usefulness – conclusions prompt interventions/improved understanding

Consensus – participants and scholars agree with explanations

Slide 19 Transcript

Collecting data and interpreting meaning is the basis for qualitative research. To understand how well the research meets objectives and to assess the worth of a study, guidelines or standards might be applied. Some of these are:

1. Purposefulness which focuses on how the research question drives collection methodologies and analysis of the data generated. Or 2. How explicit the assumptions and biases are? This is where the researcher relates any beliefs, values, or assumptions that might affect data collection and interpretation, or 3. Using rigorous, precise, and thorough procedures to collect, record, and analyze data, with the researcher establishing practices to help be as objective as possible, and 4. Being open-minded, that is, demonstrating willingness to modify interpretations when new information coming in conflicts with something previously collected, or 5. Completeness – this is where the researcher shows the object of study in all of the complexity involved, which means spending as much time as possible in the field to describe the setting, what occurs, and perceptions among participants so that all the nuances and facets are captured. 6. The data must hang together in a coherent way so that multiple sources come together in consistent conclusions and contradictions can be reconciled. 7. Persuasiveness is about presenting logical explanations, so the weight of the evidence indicates one interpretation makes more sense than any others, and 8. When other individuals, like participants in the study and knowledgeable scholars agree with the researcher’s interpretation a consensus exists. 9. The last standard is about how useful the conclusions may be in promoting a better understanding of what was studied, perhaps enable better predictions about future events, or allow for interventions that might enhance quality of life. So, that wraps up the review of qualitative research designs and some of the characteristics with each type. From here you are on to the discussion and activities, so have a good week and stay well.