a critical review

European Journal of Training and Development The effect of soft skills and training methodology on employee performance Rosli Ibrahim, Ali Boerhannoeddin, Kazeem Kayode Bakare,

Article information: To cite this document: Rosli Ibrahim, Ali Boerhannoeddin, Kazeem Kayode Bakare, (2017) "The effect of soft skills and training methodology on employee performance", European Journal of Training and Development, Vol. 41 Issue: 4, pp.388-406, https://doi.org/10.1108/EJTD-08-2016-0066 Permanent link to this document: https://doi.org/10.1108/EJTD-08-2016-0066

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The effect of soft skills and training methodology on employee performance

Rosli Ibrahim and Ali Boerhannoeddin Faculty of Economic and Administrations, University of Malaya,

Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, and

Kazeem Kayode Bakare Department of Educational Foundation, Al-Madinah International University,

Shah Alam, Malaysia

Abstract Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to investigate the effect of soft skill acquisition and the training methodology adopted on employee work performance. In this study, the authors study the trends of research in training and work performance in organisations that focus on the acquisition of technical or “hard skills” for employee training and evaluating work performance. This study was conducted to redirect the focus of employee training and development goals to the acquisition of soft skills, which have a very high and lasting impact on improving employee performance. Design/methodology/approach – This study adopted a quantitative research approach. Questionnaires were administered to selected managers and executives of a few Malaysian private companies. The questionnaire was specifically designed to examine the competencies of various Malaysian-based company managers, executives and supervisors who had undergone a soft skills training programme over a period of a few weeks or months. These soft skills training programmes were not conducted consecutively, but rather with a break or “time-space” in between each session. The target population in this study consisted of 810 employees from nine companies. The sample size was 260 trainees who were selected from the population with a 95 per cent confidence level within 0.05 risk of sampling error. Findings – Using regression analysis, this study estimated the relationships between employees’ acquisition of soft skills, the training methodology adopted by the trainer, and work performance. The results indicate that the two predictors – soft skill acquisition and training methodology – significantly predict employee performance. The authors propose the need for employers to redesign the methodology for training employees in soft skills. Based on the findings, “time-spaced learning” is highly potent in undermining the hindrance associated with training transfer. Practical implications – The findings of this study help to raise the awareness of employers, human resource managers, professional and industrial experts and the government to rethink the need to improve soft skills training methodologies. Specifically, this can be achieved by giving the trainees “space” or breaks to practice, apply and internalise what they have learnt intermittently during the training programme. This will enhance employee performance, and consequently, organisational performance. These findings also inform company managers that the time-spaced learning method enables employees to acquire soft skills more effectively, which will invariably bring about positive behaviour changes in employees towards their work and co-workers. Originality/value – The originality of this research is based on the fact that the results are peculiar to Malaysia, whereas most of the literatures on training methodology especially the time-space and soft skill have focused on developed countries. Furthermore, the study emphasised that time-space learning training methodology helps employees in transferring knowledge acquired during training to their work. The research also emphasised that soft skills acquisition brings about increase in employee work performance. This research shows 14.5 per cent increased employee work performance in the selected companies because of their employees’ acquisition of soft skills and a 27.9 per cent increase in employee performance is based on time-space training methodology. This makes the investigation on the effects of

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Received 17 August 2016 Revised 6 January 2017 27 January 2017 27 February 2017 Accepted 29 March 2017

European Journal of Training and Development Vol. 41 No. 4, 2017 pp. 388-406 © Emerald Publishing Limited 2046-9012 DOI 10.1108/EJTD-08-2016-0066

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soft skills acquisition and the training methodology adopted on employee performance very important for organisational survival.

Keywords Training, Culture, Work performance, Soft skills, Time-Spaced learning, Training methodology

Paper type Research paper

Introduction To survive in the current competitive and dynamic business world, employees need to possess both soft skills and hard skills. Accordingly, most present-day employers expect workers to demonstrate and excel in many “softer” skills such as teamwork and group development (Rothwell and Arnold, 2007). Employers are interested in tapping into vital soft skills obtained by employees during study and periods of work experience, rather than just degree-specific knowledge (Raybould and Sheedy, 2005). Maniscalco (2010), refers soft skills to “cluster of qualities, habits, personality traits, attitudes and social graces”, which everyone tends to possesses in varying degrees, and are needed for everyday life as much as they are needed required for work. Similarly, Lorenz (2009) refers to soft skills as “a cluster of personal qualities, habits, attitudes and social graces that make someone a good employee and a compatible coworker”. Gibbons and Lange (2000) maintain that the term “soft” skills are synonymous with core skills, key competencies and personal skills. Empirical studies have been carried out in several areas in Asia, specifically Malaysia. For instance, a study by Shariffah (2013) revealed soft skills in Malaysian tertiary education being a major concern of Malaysian higher school of learning. Furthermore, Staffan’s (2010) study on enhancing individual employability found that hard formal and technical vocational skills were considered to be of declining importance. Generally, these hard skills are considered less important in relation to individual employability and performance compared to different forms of soft skills. This indicates a connection between employees’ soft skills and performance. A study on the importance of soft skills in the workplace, found that the soft skills gap caused the high unemployment statistic of graduates Seetha (2014). Soft skills played an important role in determining the success of a project or work performance, and they are required for the success of organisation.

To achieve a high work performance culture, an organisation must provide its employees training and development programmes designed specifically to instil, build and change their attitudes and/or behaviours towards several organisational functions. As stated by Heathfield (2008), training is an important element in creating a high work performance culture.

The fact that training is one of the solutions that enable organisations to achieve a high work performance culture, it is important to know the kind of training and development programme that organisations need to use to change the culture, that is, the attitude and/or behaviour of all the employees in the organisation. This attitude will depict the values and practices of the workers and enhance their work performance. In the current business world, the skills training for employees can be generally divided into two main categories: hard skills and soft skills. The term “hard skills” normally refers to technical or administrative procedures related to an organisation’s business (Maniscalco, 2010). On the other hand, the term “soft skills” refers to the personal qualities, habits, attitudes and social graces that make someone a good employee and a compatible co-worker (Lorenz, 2009). To be competitive in the business world presently, one needs to possess soft skills in addition to hard skills. It is often said that hard skills get one a job but soft skills keep one in the job. According to Gibbons and Lange (2000), the term “soft skills” is synonymous with core skills, key competencies and personal skills.

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Hard skills are typically easier to observe, quantify and measure. They are also easier to train, acquire and deal with because, most of the time, the skill sets are not brand new to the learner and no unlearning or behavioural change is involved. On the other hand, soft skills are typically difficult to observe, quantify, measure and to deal with (Yen et al., 2001). For example, skills such as communicating, listening, dealing with people, managing people, etc. play a large role in relating to people. Some people make friends easily, for instance, which would be considered a valuable skill in the world of sales. In fact, soft skills include competencies that span a wide range: self-awareness, one’s attitude towards managing one’s career, handling critics and not taking criticism personally, taking risks, getting along with people, etc. (Marci, 2008). Most employers currently expect workers to demonstrate and excel in many “softer” skills, such as teamwork and group development (Rothwell, 1998).

Statement of the problem The decision makers and management of many organisations, both government and private, must ensure that their employees meet certain requirements in terms of academic and technical competencies in various knowledge areas. These hard skills include technical subjects such as engineering, computers, accounting, finance, marketing, operations, etc. However, it is not clear whether the “softer” skills are seen as significant factors in employee competency, and if so, which soft skills are considered vital to the employees’ work performance within the organisation. The identification of various skill sets is becoming necessary in differentiating high potential and non-high potential employees in the present global market (Boyatzis, 2006; Hopkins and Bilimoria, 2008).

Meanwhile, managers and executives of many companies across many industries are yet to fully recognise the importance of soft skills training on employee performance. In fact, some managers have misconceptions about soft skills itself. Many lament the huge amounts of money spent on such training; they cannot really account for its return because of the inability of the trainees to transfer what they have learnt to their jobs. Many companies place greater emphasis on professional certification programmes and training that constitute technical skills, that is, “hard skills”, than on human skills, that is, soft skills because hard skills are more directly relevant to the employees’ daily job functions and activities. This has become the norm for most companies to resist investing in soft skills training and development for their employees.

Consequently, over-reliance on technical and managerial skills at the expense of human skills or soft skills, which are deemed critical to the success of a company’s management, may jeopardise the company’s mission in the long run (Muzio et al., 2007). In addition, developing only the hard skills of employees makes them more task-oriented and rule adherent but less relationship- and initiative-driven. A study conducted by Bailly and Léné (2013), found an increase in the demand for soft skills for recruitment and recognition by the employer. They further cautioned that this increment in demand for softer skills may cause the service labour process to become highly personified. Many CEOs and managers of companies nowadays are spending significant time and energy on designing programmes, attending to details and monitoring the execution of routine tasks only. As a result, they neglect to address emotional issues in a timely fashion, and sometimes create unnecessary stress and unhealthy working relationships with their co-workers and clients. We conclude that to be competitive in the present business world, one needs to possess soft skills, which, according to Gibbons and Lange (2000), are synonymous with core skills, key competencies and personal skills.

To ensure that employees, upon receiving the soft skills training programme, acquire the skills taught and change their behaviour and attitude to depict their values and practices, the

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manner in which the programme is conducted, that is, the training methodology, should also be reviewed. According to Mandakini (2002), training methodology includes the methods, materials, techniques and resources used to implement the training or workshop and transfer new knowledge, skills and attitudes to participants. Various training methodologies have been used to develop soft skills, such as demonstrations by the trainer, discussions and debates, lecture presentations, role-playing, case studies, game activities and electronic media such as TV, video and film. It is estimated that more than US$30bn is spent on classroom (off-the-job) training programmes every year (Jacob, 2003; Noe, 1999). The lecture or classroom approach has also been described as the most frequently used training methodology (Noe, 1999). The pattern of trials used during training, if distributed over time (spaced out across the entire learning process), are superior at generating long-term memories than if they are presented at very short intervals (on consecutive days) (Sutton et al., 2002). According to Simone and Nale (2010), the method of spacing out the training, known as “time-spaced learning”, is superior to massed training, which is conducted consecutively, in terms of transfer quality, self-reported sales competence and organisational outcomes. Although the time-spaced learning method has been in existence for a long time, its application in the business training industry has been minimal compared to other training methods, as current literature about spacing out the learning is built more on education and architectural embodiments of educational philosophies (Monahan, 2002).

Objectives Many organisations are now slowly realising the importance of soft skills development for their employees. They have begun to invest heavily in the training and development of their workforce to develop their critical skills, attitude/behaviour and knowledge and to change the existing organisational culture to a higher work performance culture. The objective of this research, therefore, is to examine the influence of soft skills and training methodologies, specifically using “time-spaced learning”, on employee performance.

Literature review Soft skills According to Maniscalco (2010), soft skills refer to “[a] cluster of qualities, habits, personality traits, attitudes and social graces” that everyone possesses in varying degrees and are needed for everyday life as much as they are needed for work. Lorenz (2009) refers to soft skills as qualities that make someone a good employee and a compatible co-worker’. Nevertheless, according to Gibbons and Lange (2000), the term “soft skills” is synonymous with core skills, key competencies and personal skills. Therefore, soft skills are the non-cognitive abilities that are innate in individuals and are necessary for good social relationships at the workplace. Soft skills are typically difficult to observe, quantify and measure. Others are extremely punctual or able to make rational decisions under pressure. A person may also have the ability to work with co-workers from other cultures or learn a new language quickly. According to Zedeck and Goldstein (2000), soft skills such as dealing with conflict and gathering and sharing information are highly sought after by organisations. Leigh et al. (1999) assert that workplace competencies include problem-solving, communication skills, personal qualities and work ethics, which are soft skills categories.

Studies conducted by Campbell (1990) proposed eight dimensions of job performance taxonomy which are job-specific proficiency non-job-specific proficiency, core technical proficiency, general soldiering proficiency, effort and leadership, personal discipline physical fitness and military bearing. Through the process of sorting out critical incidents, Borman and Brush (1993) agreed upon categories of management performance. Stevens and Campion (1999) developed a taxonomy that describes five dimensions of soft skills:

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communication, problem-solving, conflict resolution, goal setting and planning and task coordination. Studies on financial success conducted by the Carnegie Foundation of Advance Teaching, and later confirmed by the Carnegie Institute of Technology, discovered that 15 per cent of a person’s financial success is because of the knowledge that he/she gained, and 85 per cent of his/her success is because of skills in “human engineering”, such as the individual’s personality and ability to lead people, i.e. soft skills (Carnegie, 1981). Developing the soft skills of an organisation’s personnel is very crucial for the effectiveness of companies. Effective teamwork requires mastering specific abilities, such as leadership, coordination and conflict management. This implies that if higher education institutes want to meet the requirements of their students’ future professional lives, they must address the acquisition of such soft skills and provide the technology to support them (Rugarcia et al., 2000).

Many studies have been carried out on how the personal managerial skills of a project manager can affect the performance of a project. These studies allowed clients to have a better understanding of project managers, thus enabling them to select the appropriate project manager for their proposed project. For instance, Fryer dated back to 1985 listed social skills, decision-making skills, problem-handling skills, opportunity recognition skills and management of changes as personal attributes that affect project success. Acquisition and usage of skills as well as provision of training effects an area of the economy that is predicted to have massive jobs growth (Nickson et al., 2003). Pinto and Slevin (1988) reported that the critical success of a project depends on 10 factors. These are project mission, top management support, project schedules, client consultation, personnel recruitment, technical tasks, client acceptance, monitoring and feedback, communication and trouble-shooting. Soft skill acquisition among the executives stimulates the discovery of effective approaches and solutions and innovation with increasing potential to improve the organisation wellbeing (Massaro et al., 2016). Soft skills enable employees to propel change in organisations (Massaro et al., 2016).

Nilsson (2010) found that competence, interpersonal skills and personal characteristics significantly influence the employability of individuals. Sail and Alavi (2010) assert that interpersonal skills increase the knowledge of employees after they receive training. Olivier et al. (2009) mention that the structuring and awareness features of room-based collaborative platforms can enhance the learning experience of soft skills (communication and leadership skills) courses. Shyamala et al. (2009) second that the infusion acquisition of soft skills remains highly concentrated on specific items/skills for both coursework and training. Pilar et al. (2009) assert that the skills that assure the success of teamwork, such as communication, leadership, negotiation or team management. Evidence shows that there are links between performance and skills and that relationship is the main impetus to increase skills, as well as one of the main forces legitimising them (Grugulis and Stoyanova, 2011). Thus, it is clear from the abovementioned literature that communication skills, problem-solving skills, leadership, teamwork and interpersonal skills are some of the categories of soft skills that have been empirically tested and proven to improve employee performance and project success.

Work performance Work performance has always been an important issue in any organisation. Many organisations, as a result of a competitive global business environment (Neely, 1999), have made training and development programmes a routine exercise to maintain high work performance. Notably, the overall effectiveness and productivity of an organisation have always been attributed to high work performance, because it has been regarded as a core

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concept. Thus, the assessment and monitoring of work performance have contributed largely to organisational outcomes and success (Eccles, 1991). That is why an organisation, at all times, needs to develop a strong organisational performance culture while also maintaining their goals and objectives.

Bacharach and Bamberger (1995) argue that work performance is not only influenced by individual performance but also by situational constraints. The situational perspective, according to Sonnentag and Frese (2001), refers to factors in the individuals’ environment that stimulate, support or hinder performance; it encompasses approaches that focus on workplace factors. Arguably, there is a link between knowledge skills, effort and job performance; this has to be taken into consideration in the situational perspective in the models of job performance. These links may be moderated by certain situational factors, such as soft skills training (Izadikhah et al., 2010). However, on the empirical level, the conceptualisation of situational constraints is based on the factors that are relevant to the constraints (Bacharach and Bamberger, 1995).

According to Weisenger (1999), more empirical data are coming out all the time to show that soft skills is another variable to reckon with when it comes to an organisation’s performance. Recent developments in the interest in soft skill competencies appeared to be connected to work success. It is no wonder, then, that organisations are more willing to invest in soft skills development for better work performance, especially at top executive levels (Homer, 2001). However, some researchers have questioned performance improvement programmes, such as soft skills competencies, as to whether it does in fact lead to significant improvements in an organisation’s performance (Robert and Donald, 2001). It was argued that the provision of information and feedback about business activities and customer-related issues are now the focus of managers. This information is believed to solve performance-related problems (Lawler, 1998; Dean and Evans, 1994).

In addition, Spencer and Spencer (1994) stated that the success of work performance improvement programmes depends on the system that the management set up in an organisation that can improve employee performance. Blackburn and Rosen (1993) and Heneman and Judge (2000) support this view: they share the opinion that employees should be given more say and decision-making opportunities in an organisation if job performance must improve. Even if all the required information is given to employees, work performance in an organisation will still depend on the ability of the employee to use the given information to improve his job performance (Anderson et al., 1994). Moreover, for employees to retain and transfer skills acquired during training for performance improvement, the training method and style adopted by the trainer also play a vital role. The problem of the inability to transfer training by the trainee might not really lie in the training approach in itself, but in the learning style embedded in the training methodology (Rogers, 1996).

Training methodology Several stages must occur before training methods are selected. First, needs analysis should be conducted to define the problem that the training is expected to solve. Training is used to address knowledge, skill or attitude deficiencies. There are several learning activities that take place within the workplace training. Off-the-job training is giving the high relevance and validity of the training to the individual. However, the review of literatures on training methodologies such as adult learning showed that adults as learners have specific characteristics that set them apart from children. These characteristics vary from author to author; however, there seems to be a consensus in the literature (Brookfield, 1986; Knowles, 1990; Rogers, 1996, Jarvis, 1995; Cross, 1981) on some common characteristics that have an

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impact on learning efficacy and the overall classroom experience. Maria and Elena (2008) summarised the various characteristics as follows:

• adults participate in the learning process with specific intents, goals and expectations; • adults already have certain knowledge and experience as well as fixed perspectives; • adults have already developed personal styles of learning; • adults are bound to self-directed activities throughout their lives; and • adults have to deal with certain obstacles in their learning process.

Space learning is an adult learning method. The significance of the “spacing effect”, first discovered over a century ago, describes the observation that humans and animals are able to remember things more effectively if learning is distributed over a long period rather than all at once. Brown and Philip (2005) define learning spaces as spaces that encompass the full range of places in which learning occurs, from real to virtual, from classroom to chat room. Hence, we can describe or define “time-spaced learning” as the time and opportunity given for the participants to apply, practice and internalise what is learnt in the classroom into their real-workplace environment. Nevertheless, at this point, no single definition captures all of the nuances of technology-impacted learning spaces. This effect is believed to be closely connected to the process of memory consolidation, whereby short-term memories are stabilised into long-term ones, yet the underlying neural mechanism involved has long remained unclear.

The extent to which trainees have sufficient time and resources available to practice and internalise what they have learnt determines the extent to which the training content will be used or constrained on the job (Noe, 1986; Russ-Eft, 2002). These opportunities to use training on the job has been defined as “the extent to which a trainee is provided with or actively obtains work experiences relevant to the tasks for which he or she was trained” (Ford et al., 1992). The training method adopted has been reported to have a significant impact on the transfer of both hard skills and soft skills (Arthur, 1996). Simone and Nale (2010) argued that the space training method helps in transferring quality aspects of training. However, current literature on learning spaces is built on education and architectural embodiments of educational philosophies (Monahan, 2002). In this study, the “time-spaced learning” approach will be favoured as a variable of interest for training methodologies. Although space learning has been in existence for a long time, its application in industry has been minimal compared to other training methods. Further, the “space effect” of this approach on the transfer of the acquired skills during training has not been critically articulated in literature. Cannon’s (1988) extensive synthesis of research on the impact of the environment on learning provides a starting point for the space learning discussion.

Various studies had discovered that spacing learning over time helps people learn more quickly and remember better and it has been found to be very effective in various areas, from sales training to language learning to medicine (Logan et al., 2012). In practice, this means that a training or learning programme with “spaced learning” in mind, will educate the learners with a concept or learning objectives and then allow a period of time (days, weeks or months) for the trainees to experiment what they have learnt (Kolb, 2005). Then the trainees or learners come back to reinforce the previous learning, and perhaps to share their positive experiences with the trainer. The trainer then encourages to continue applying the new concepts, while continuing with the subsequent training learning objectives. This might involve a few or many repetitions, depending on how complex and detailed the content is.

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Active participation of the learners and opportunity to experiment what had been learnt, will have an impact in changing the learners old habits to new desired habits (Rogers, 2002). Giving “time space break” to experiment what trainees had learnt as opposed to massed learning (straight consecutive days learning style) will impact on the skills and invariably increase employees’ work performance. This claim is supported by Kolb’s model of experiential learning; “a process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience”. Kolb articulates that “active experimentation” create new experiences to the learners. In addition, this learning style is further supported by Sutton et al. (2002), who asserts that “spaced learning” is more superior than “massed learning”. Space effect is one of the most reliable methods of learning and behaviour change. However, it is one of the least used learning methods in the workplace (Thalheimer (2006)). Studies have shown that spacing learning over a period of time produces substantial learning benefits resulted from different mechanisms, including those based on repetitions and on other factors. Spaced learning repetition effects deserve attention because there is an enormous research literature supporting its use.

For instance, a one-day workshop to be delivered by a trainer in a classroom could be spaced out by adding additional repetitions of key learning points either before or after the workshop. This could be done by having the learners read the training modules or chapters before coming to the workshop and after the workshop to have them practice in their real workplace after the training. This will augment different types of primary learning events and facilitate long-term retention and transfer (Thalheimer, 2006).

The research gap between this present study and the previous studies is the “time space learning” training methodology approach which has not been critically articulated in previous literatures. Therefore, “spaced learning” method, will be favoured as the variable of interest in this study.

Conceptual framework Work performance is influenced by many different factors, including incentives, remuneration, the training content or curriculum delivered to the trainees, the training methodology adopted and the trainer’s effectiveness in conducting the training (Jacob, 2003). To provide a clear framework for the research, some of the soft skills commonly referred in this study are self-confidence or self-assurance (The Gallup Organisation, 2011), interpersonal or human relations (Strang, 2003; Katz, 1991; Honey, 1988), communications (Mantel et al., 2004; Leigh et al., 1999; Lussier, 2003), attitude (Mueller and Klein, 2011), leadership (Mantel et al., 2004; Rosenau and Czempiel, 1998), management skills (Boyatzis, 1982), creative thinking (Rosenau and Czempiel, 1998) and problem-solving (Leigh et al., 1999; Lussier, 2003). In this paper, training methodology refers to the methods, materials, techniques and resources used to implement the training or workshop and to transfer new knowledge, skills and attitudes to the participants (Mandakini, 2002). Thus, developing employees’ soft skills, coupled with the adoption of a suitable training methodology, will improve employee performance. Figure 1 shows the conceptual model of the relationship between the various variables.

As previously mentioned, organisation’s performance culture has to do with its employees’ behaviour and attitudes. Soft skills is an independent variable that must be incorporated in the training and development curriculum to enhance individual work performance. This independent variable is connected to a dependent variable: work performance. In addition, the training methodology of time-space plays a significant role in the transfer of the soft skills learnt to a new desired behaviour and attitude, which, in turn,

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enhances work performance. Based on the postulated model, the following hypotheses were tested:

H1. Soft skills training influences employee performance.

H2. Training methodology adopted influences employee performance.

To verify these hypotheses, the researchers used a quantitative methodology research design in the form of a survey to invite responses from participants who had gone through a soft skills training programme that adopted the time-spaced learning methodology at a Malaysian private company.

Research design and methodology This research was designed to accommodate regression analysis. Thus, the questionnaires were constructed based on the theories and previous researches. There were 55 questions to address three factors namely: soft skills, training methodology and work performance. Demographic variables were also included, covering information on gender, age, work experience and the employee’s position.

Instrument validation A panel of expert judges reviewed the questionnaire for content validity. Professionals and academicians in Human Resource Training & Development, including specialists in the fields of evaluation, education and business scrutinised the survey and conducted a series of revisions. First, the experts were asked to provide suggestions on how the researchers could improve the items. To establish the validity index, the researcher used the formula and the input from the expert to establish the content validity index for each item. The validity index was established for each item in the questionnaire and for the instrument to be accepted as valid, with the condition that the average index of all items should be 0.7 or above (Amin, 2005). Second, the questionnaire was piloted with 98 trainees (respondents) from a few Malaysian private organisations in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. The reliability test Cronbach’s Alpha (1960) was estimated to be 0.88, which is considered acceptable.

Soft skills scale (Independent variable) The questionnaire for the soft skills scale was adapted from different professional training programmes on soft skills, which are all backed by academic literature and years of experience in the business training industries. The trainer gave the trainees 25 items on the 5-point Likert scale questionnaire to test their competency level in many areas of soft skills to be covered in the training programme. The researcher collects the completed questionnaire from the employees (trainee), their team members (peers and/or subordinates) and their immediate supervisor; the researcher then takes the average score for each item in the questionnaire to eliminate bias in assessing individual soft skill competencies. This is also

Soft skills SS

Training methodology TM

Work performance WP

Figure 1. Conceptual model of the soft skills training, training methodology and work performance

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done to identify the existing soft skills competency level they possess at the start of the training process.

Work performance scale (Dependent variable) The researcher informed trainees that their supervisor would be evaluating them on their performance at the workplace after approximately two months of the learning process to see if there are improvements in each of them. The work performance instrument contained 18 items and were adopted from Griffin et al. (2003), which was validated using factor analysis by Griffin et al. (2003). The work performance questionnaires were given to each trainee’s supervisor for evaluating the staff (trainee) on their work performance areas after going through the soft skills training. The scale used in this study was 1 � strongly disagree, 2 � disagree, 3 � neutral, 4 � agree, 5 � strongly agree.

Training methodology scale (Independent variable): evaluated by trainees only on the “Time-Spaced learning” method At the end of the training process, which spanned over two months, the researcher gave the trainees a 16-item questionnaire that used a 5-point Likert scale to test the effect of “time-spaced learning” on their transferability of the soft skill. The questionnaire was self-developed with the support of the literature and professionals; it was also validated and confirmed to have high validity. The questionnaire consisted of four main parts. The first part measured the demographic of the respondent, such as the years of experience and the highest degree earned. This was followed by questions eliciting information on training methodology, of which “time-spaced learning” methodology stands as the targeted variable. The scale used in this study was a 5-point Likert scale (1 � strongly disagree, 2 � disagree, 3 � neutral, 4 � agree, 5 � strongly agree), and the Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficient for these 16 items on the training methodology scale was 0.913, that is, very good and reliable. The total item correlation and square multiple correlation for each item is above 0.5. This indicates that the mean of individual item score is perfectly correlated with the sum of the item scores. Mean score or sum of items score can represent variable to conduct regression and correlational analysis (Earl Babbie, 2012). A content validity test was also conducted on these training methodology instruments. The average content validity index (CVI) for the overall instruments for this training methodology was calculated; the result gave a CVI value of 0.875, that is, high validity.

Data analysis procedure The statistical package for social science version 16.0 (SPSS Inc., 2006) was used to compute the descriptive statistics, and perform reliability as well as regression analyses. Score for each variable were calculated by totalling the scores of items under specific factor. This was followed by regression analysis to examine the influence of the two independent variables, that is, soft skills and training methodology, on the dependent variable, that is, trainees’ work performance.

Results The sample consisted of 260 employees from a few Malaysian private organisations in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. The respondents were the participants or trainees selected by their company to attend the soft skills training and development before the sampling was taken. The trainees were manager and executive level from nine Malaysian-based organisations (i.e. private, state government, government link and multinational organisations). The trainees were a mix of gender, multi-racial and varied in age range, years of work experience,

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thus enriching the data as much as possible with diverse responses. The distribution along the demographic of the respondents is shown in Table I below.

Using the 5-point Likert scale (1 � strongly disagree, 2 � disagree, 3 � neutral, 4 � agree and 5 � strongly agree), Table II reveals the distribution of the mean score ranging from 3.2610 to 3.8789 for the items representing soft skills training. These overall average scores show the employees’ soft skill competency levels at the start of the training process. The lowest mean score (M � 3.2610) is represented by the item or question: “Express ideas with gestures and voice energy effectively when presenting/briefing”. This indicates that the soft

Table I. Demographic characteristics of the respondents

S/N Demographic variables of the respondents Categories (%)

1 Gender Male 64.3 Female 35.7

2 Age 18-29 42.9 30-49 57.1

3 Qualification Certificate 3.6 Diploma 21.4 Degree 64.3 Postgraduate 10.7

4 Position Executives 84.6 Managers 15.4

Table II. Mean score and standard deviations of soft skills

Item Mean SD Skewness Kurtosis

ss1 3.7539 0.45810 0.118 �0.513 Ss2 3.4606 0.40332 0.335 0.238 Ss3 3.7476 0.37514 0.329 0.419 Ss4 3.6435 0.38553 0.002 �1.184 Ss5 3.7579 0.35037 �0.020 �0.962 Ss6 3.5965 0.38334 �0.313 �0.658 Ss7 3.4061 0.46421 �0.312 �1.063 Ss8 3.2610 0.47494 �0.059 �0.929 Ss9 3.6877 0.31276 �0.534 �0.647 Ss10 3.6444 0.40393 0.146 �1.112 ss11 3.5934 0.42389 0.035 �0.810 ss12 3.4911 0.37816 0.237 �0.486 ss13 3.4509 0.40704 0.119 �0.233 ss14 3.6070 0.36557 �0.139 �0.455 ss15 3.8789 0.41274 �0.322 �0.743 ss16 3.7332 0.40545 �0.436 �0.827 ss17 3.5596 0.38645 �0.498 �0.221 ss18 3.7106 0.38215 �0.458 �0.244 ss19 3.5986 0.46160 �0.796 0.559 Ss20 3.7545 0.32994 �0.219 0.657 Ss21 3.6847 0.39534 �0.778 0.213 Ss22 3.4186 0.40689 0.119 �0.011 Ss23 3.4013 0.47155 �0.443 �0.458 Ss24 3.3602 0.35501 �0.030 �0.582 Ss25 3.4183 0.37253 �0.455 �0.047

Note: SS � soft-skill

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skills level, to some extent, enables employees to effectively present and express their ideas concerning their job. The highest mean score (M � 3.8789) is represented by item or question: “Is open-minded and can easily discuss things with”. This response highlights the employees’ soft skills competencies level in interacting with their co-workers, welcoming others’ ideas and listening to others and/or their superiors. Based on the descriptive data, it can be concluded that most of the employees’ (trainees) in these Malaysian private organisations do have the soft skill competencies in the beginning and will benefit more from the soft skills training.

Regression analysis A multiple regression analysis was used to predict employees’ work performance. The independent variables were soft skills training and training methodology. Prior to the analysis, the data were subjected to normality tests to determine whether it was normally distributed. The normality assumption tests include the P-P plot and the scatter plot. Both the former and the latter indicated that the data were normal, as most of the data seemed to lie on the straight diagonal line. Based on the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, it was also found that all the items were normally distributed at a significance level of 0.05. To test for the autocorrelation among variables, the homoscedasticity test was conducted. The output of the homoscedasticity test shows that all variables are not significant at a confidence level of 5 per cent, meaning that all data had equal variance, which meant that the data were normally distributed and free from the problem of heteroscedasticity of variance.

However, the independent variables did not seem to be free from violating the assumption of collinearity, that is, the independent variables somehow had a high correlation. This was revealed in the tolerance value. This is quite common with social science data (Hair et al., 2006). The value of the R-squared (R2) shows an acceptable value for explaining the variability of employees’ work performance. Analysis of the variance test statistics indicates that the model is significant at � � 0.05. Table III provides the information on the significance of the model, indicating a significant p-value of 0.021, the standardised regression coefficient and the model summary value. In examining the multiple regression model, the prediction equation following the regression analysis is:

Work performance � a � �1soft-skill � �2training methodology.

Therefore, work performance � a � soft skills (0.178) � training methodology (0.353). Table III indicates that the model explains 17.8 per cent of variation in employees’ work

performance, which is explained by the predictors training soft skills and training methodology. The remaining 83.2 per cent is explained by factors not captured in this model.

Table III. Regression analysis:

soft skills, training methodology and

work performance

Sources Df Sum of squares Mean square F Sig. R2 Adjusted R2

Regression 2 2.082 1.041 4.029 021 0.178 0.159 Residual 95 24.544 0.258 Total 97 26.626

Coefficient B Std. Error Standardized Beta t ANOVA

(Constant) 4.726 0.775 6.097 000. 000. TSS 0.178 0.172 0.145 0.455 0.050 0.050 TM 0.353 0.125 0.279 2.826 0.006 0.006

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However, this percentage will drop to about 15.9 per cent when a smaller sample is used, as indicated by the adjusted R2. Given that the p-value is less than 0.05, the model is significant for the prediction of the relationship between the predictors and criterion variable. Moreover, based on the standardised beta calculation (� � 0.279, p � 0.006), the training methodology has greater influence on work performance than other factor (soft-skills). Soft skills accounted for a standardised beta (� � 0.147, p � 0.05).

In summary, multiple regression analysis was used to test if soft skills training acquisition and training methodology (time-spaced learning) significantly predicted employees’ work performance in an organisation based on supervisors’ performance ratings. The results of the regression indicate that the two predictors explained 17.8 per cent of the variance (R2 � 0.178, F [2, 95] � 4.029, p � 0.05). It was found that training methodology significantly predicted work performance (� � 0.279, p � 0.006) and soft skills (� � 0.147, p � 0.05).

Discussion The present study investigates the effect of soft skills training, training methodology on work performance. The findings showed a strong empirical support for the causal relationship between soft skills acquired by employees and their work performance. An inspection of the model indicated that when trainees or employees acquire the necessary soft skills elements this led to increase in work performance. Putting it differently, if soft skills are broadly acquired and applied by employees, individual work performance will significantly increase (Homer, 2001; Kantrowitz, 2005). This finding is also in tandem with propositions of Weber et al. (2009), wherein they contend that soft skills contribute towards work performance of managers in terms of decision-making and problem-solving. Similarly, in the teaching profession particularly, the Tang et al. (2015) study suggested that soft skills should be imparted to all teachers in Malaysia to create a quality and effective teaching practice. On the other hand, this result contradict the findings of Robert and Donald (2001), in which soft skills competency indicated not to have really contributed greatly to organisational improvement.

However, researchers such as Spencer and Spencer (1994), Blackburn and Rosen (1993), Heneman and Judge (2000) as well as Ahmad and Schroeder (2003) are of the opinion that organisational success is a function of the system which the management set up to improve the employees’ work performance. As such, if all required and relevant soft skills are given to employees, work performance in organisations will improve; but it will still depend on the ability of the employees to use the given information to improve their job performance.

The findings also showed a strong empirical support for the causal relationship between training methodology – (“time space learning”) and employees’ work performance (i.e. training methodology has a direct influence on work performace of trainees). This indicates that the training methodology which uses “time space learning” method has directly contributed to the rate at which employees are able to transfer knowledge acquire during training to their job. This finding supports the findings of previous researchers; a suitable training methodology will improve employee performance (Mandakini, 2002); training modules that combine training programme and work encourages more practice in employees’ real workplace after the training (Thalheimer, 2006). Space effect is one of the most reliable methods of learning and employees’ behaviour change (Sutton et al., 2002).

In the present study, employee’s work performance was found to be explained by 15.9 per cent of its predictor soft skills acquisition and training methodology. This indicates that one unit increase in soft skills of an employee and training methodology, will lead to

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15.9 per cent increase in work performance. It can be concluded that the more the employees learn and use the soft skills acquired such as interpersonal or people skills, problem-solving skills, decision-making skills, communication skill, leadership skills and so forth, the more they develop positive behaviour and attitude towards their job, and hence increase in performance at work. Well-conducted soft skills training programmes will enhance work performance. Hence, there is a link between soft skills and job (Izadikhah et al., 2010).

Conclusion Returning to the original research question, it can be stated here that there is a positive relationship between training (soft skills and training methodology) and work performance. Although the researcher cannot claim absoluteness in the prediction of the criterion measure, both soft skills and training methodology appear to play an important role in employees’ performance on their job. The predictors of work performance – training methodology and soft skills training – were used to assess employees’ leadership skills, ability for teamwork, creativity, communication skills and problem-solving skills before and after the soft skills training programme was conducted by the trainer. In summary, work performance was predicted by soft skills and the training methodology adopted. It might be expected that the training methodology (time-spaced learning) has an impact on the employees’ transfer of the soft skills acquired during the training to their job, which invariably improves work performance.

Implications for research and practice The present research findings have highlighted several implications of soft skills training and thus extended the literature on soft skills and employee performance. It is a disagreeable disagreement, that the insights derived from this study about soft-skills, time-space training method and work performance will be sufficient by themselves to bring about transformations desire by managers in organisations as described in this study. Therefore, research and practice must be linked together to serve the interest of employees and that of management. In the context of this study, the research implications would focus on the establishment and use of theory-based time-space training for soft-skills.

Theoretical implications Even though studies have shown that all the employee’s work performance such as increase in productivity are mostly influenced by hard skills (technical and job-related skills), this study has proven that soft skills acquisition and training methodology will directly influence employee work performance. Theoretically, it can be concluded that if organisations plan to develop their employees in soft skills area, they should consider seriously adopting their soft skills training programme using the “time space learning” – training methodology as it will highly likely affect their work performance improvement positively. Furthermore, this study has established that the combination of the time-spaced learning training methodology and soft skills training directly influence work performance.

Implications for practice This study has highlighted the urgency of intervening into the patterns of employees’work performance and soft skills acquisition relationship, precisely the issue related to the use of “time space learning” – training methodology to enhance the soft skills acquisition and organisational employee development from the organisation’s training investment. It can be suggested that the research model implies that employees who had undergone soft skills

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training using “time space learning” – training methodology are better in terms of the performance at the workplace after the training. In the present context, the soft skills are represented by skills such as communication skills, decision-making and problem-solving skills, leadership skills, interpersonal or people skills and so forth as experienced by the trainees or employees during the training session.

In the real organisational context, employers should be able to seize the benefit inherent in the use of “time space learning” – training methodology, in lieu of other training methods. This will serve as a catalyst in expediting the employees’productivity by giving them the opportunity to apply, practice and experiment what they learnt in the classroom back into their job, and to evaluate their work performance enhancement while the training programme is still ongoing and after the programme ended. In addition, with an effective training methodology – (“time space learning”), employees will be able to experience in their real workplace environment what they had learnt in the classroom. The degree of utilisation and experience is determined greatly by their own attitude of willingness to improve and change, their workplace environmental factors, and support from their supervisors – not only after the training but also while the training is ongoing.

Policy implications Understanding employees’ orientations, experience of trainer’s effectiveness and training methodology – (“time space learning”), as well as the necessary elements of soft skills that will promote work performance, can be part of the policy or direction of an organisation. As for the soft skills syllabus/curriculum, the organisation can identify the soft skills areas that contribute most to the employees’ work performance rather than just focusing on the hard skills (technical or job-related) types of training. The focus should be on skill building, mindset, attitude and/or behaviour change development for the employees, and not just acquiring the knowledge.

Limitation and recommendations The limitation of this study is that the researcher only examined private companies. Also, the selected private companies were mainly in sales and service domains. To this end, the researchers are not able to generalise these findings to all kinds of firms or organisations; the positive outcomes linked to soft skills in this study are thus limited to private sales and service companies. Future research could explore soft skills training in other types of organisations, such as public/government organisations and manufacturing companies.

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p. 321, doi: 10.1007/s12564-010-9090-4. Kotter, J.P. and Heskett, J.L. (1992), Corporate Culture and Performance, Free Press, New York, NY. Lunenburg, F.C. and Ornstein, A.C. (2004), Educational Administration: Concepts and Practices, 4th ed.,

Wadsworth, Belmont, CA. Lussier, Y.A. and Li, J. (2004), “Terminological mapping for high throughput comparative biology of

phenotypes”, Pacific Symposium on Biocomputing, pp. 202-213, available at: www.ncbi.nlm.nih. gov/pmc/articles/PMC2891021/

Sonnentag, S. (2000), “Expertise at work: experience and excellent performance”, in Cooper, C.L. and Robertson, I.T. (Eds), International Review of Industrial and Organisational Psychology, Wiley, Chichester, pp. 223-264.

Corresponding author Kazeem Kayode Bakare can be contacted at: [email protected]

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