Memorandum 1

Symposium Introduction

John M. Bryson is the McKnight

Presidential Professor of Planning and

Public Affairs in the Humphrey School of

Public Affairs at the University of Minnesota.

He wrote Strategic Planning for Public

and Nonprofi t Organizations and co-

wrote, with Barbara C. Crosby, Leadership

for the Common Good. He received

the 2011 Dwight Waldo Award from the

American Society for Public Administration

for “outstanding contributions to the pro-

fessional literature of public administration

over an extended scholarly career.”

E-mail: [email protected]

Barbara C. Crosby associate professor

in the Humphrey School of Public Affairs at

the University of Minnesota, has taught and

written extensively about leadership and

public policy. She is author of Leadership

for Global Citizenship and coauthor,

with John M. Bryson, of Leadership for

the Common Good. As former academic

codirector of the University of Minnesota’s

Center for Integrative Leadership, she

conducted training for senior managers of

nonprofi t, business, and government organi-

zations in the United States and abroad.

E-mail: [email protected]

Laura Bloomberg is associate dean in

the Humphrey School of Public Affairs at

the University of Minnesota. Her teaching,

research, and publications focus on U.S.

education policy and administration,

cross-sector leadership, and program

evaluation. Previously, she was an urban

high school principal and executive director

of the University of Minnesota’s Center for

Integrative Leadership. She worked with

former U.S. Secretary of State Hilary Clinton

to launch the global Women in Public

Service Project.

E-mail: [email protected]

This article has been updated with minor copy-editing changes after fi rst online publication. 445

Public Administration Review,

Vol. 74, Iss. 4, pp. 445–456. © 2014 by

The American Society for Public Administration.

DOI: 10.1111/puar.12238.

approach. In this regard, the emerging approach reemphasizes and brings to the fore value-related concerns of previous eras that were always present but not dominant (Denhardt and Denhardt 2011; Rosenbloom and McCurdy 2006). Th is renewed attention to a broader array of values, especially to values associated with democracy, makes it obvious why questions related to the creation of public value, public values more generally, and the public sphere have risen to prominence. Th is article highlights some of the key value-related issues in the new approach and proposes an agenda for the future.

First, we outline what we believe are the main con- tours of the emerging approach. Next, we clarify the meaning of value, public value, public values, and the public sphere; discuss how they are operationalized; and summarize important challenges to the concepts. We then discuss how public value and public values are used in practice. Finally, we present an agenda for research and action to be pursued if the new approach is to fulfi ll its promise.1

An Emerging View of Public Administration Public administration thinking and practice have always responded to new challenges and the short- comings of what came before (Kaufman 1969; Peters and Pierre 1998). Table 1, which builds on a similar table in Denhardt and Denhardt (2011, 28–29), presents a summary of traditional public administra- tion, the New Public Management, and the emerg- ing approach. Th e new approach highlights four important stances that together represent a response to current challenges and old shortcomings. Th ese include an emphasis on public value and public values, a recognition that government has a special role as a guarantor of public values, a belief in the importance of public management broadly conceived and of service to and for the public, and a heightened emphasis on citizenship and democratic and col- laborative governance. Th ese concerns, of course, are not new to public administration, but their emerging combination is the latest response to what Dwight

A new public administration movement is emerging to move beyond traditional public administration and New Public Management. Th e new movement is a response to the challenges of a networked, multisector, no-one-wholly- in-charge world and to the shortcomings of previous public administration approaches. In the new approach, values beyond effi ciency and eff ectiveness—and especially democratic values—are prominent. Government has a special role to play as a guarantor of public values, but citizens as well as businesses and nonprofi t organizations are also important as active public problem solvers. Th e article highlights value-related issues in the new approach and presents an agenda for research and action to be pursued if the new approach is to fulfi ll its promise.

Creating public value is a hot topic for both public administration practitioners and schol-ars (Van der Wal, Nabatchi, and de Graaf 2013; Williams and Shearer 2011). Why is that? What is going on? We believe the answer lies with the continuing evolution of public administration think- ing and practice. Just as New Public Management supplanted traditional public administration in the 1980s and 1990s as the dominant view, a new movement is now under way that is likely to eclipse it. Th e new approach does not have a consensually agreed name, but many authors point to the need for a new approach and to aspects of its emergence in practice and theory (e.g., Alford and Hughes 2008; Boyte 2005; Bozeman 2007; Denhardt and Denhardt 2011; Fisher 2014; Kalambokidis 2014; Kettl 2008; Moore 1995, 2013, 2014; Osborne 2010; Stoker 2006; Talbot 2010). For example, Janet and Robert Denhardt’s excellent and widely cited book Th e New Public Service (2011) captures much of the collabora- tive and democratic spirit, content, and governance focus of the movement.

While effi ciency was the main concern of traditional public administration, and effi ciency and eff ectiveness are the main concerns of New Public Management, values beyond effi ciency and eff ectiveness are pursued, debated, challenged, and evaluated in the emerging

Public Value Governance: Moving Beyond Traditional Public Administration and the New Public Management

John M. Bryson Barbara C. Crosby Laura Bloomberg

University of Minnesota

446 Public Administration Review • July | August 2014

Table 1 Comparing Perspectives: Traditional Public Administration, New Public Management, and the Emerging Approach to Public Administration

Dimension Traditional Public Administration New Public Management Emerging Approach to Public Administration (e.g.,

Denhardt and Denhardt’s [2011] New Public Service)

Broad Environmental and Intellectual Context

Material and ideo- logical conditions

Industrialization, urbanization, rise of modern corporation, specialization, faith in science, belief in progress, concern over major market failures, experience with the Great Depres- sion and World War II, high trust in government

Concern with government failures, distrust of big government, belief in the effi cacy and effi ciency of markets and rationality, devolution and devolution

Concern with market, government, nonprofi t and civic failures; concern with so-called wicked problems; deepening inequality; hollowed or thinned state; “downsized” citizenship; networked and collaborative governance; advanced information and communication technologies

Primary theoretical and epistemologi- cal foundations

Political theory, scientifi c management, naive social science, pragmatism

Economic theory, sophisticated positivist social science

Democratic theory, public and nonprofi t management theory, plus diverse approaches to knowing

Prevailing view of rationality and model of human behavior

Synoptic rationality, “administrative man”

Technical and economic rationality, “economic man,” self-interested decision makers

Formal rationality, multiple tests of rationality (political, administrative, economic, legal, ethical), belief in public spiritedness beyond narrow self-interest, “reason- able person” open to infl uence through dialogue and deliberation

The Public Sphere or Realm

Defi nition of the common good, public value, the public interest

Determined by elected offi cials or technical experts

Determined by elected offi cials or by aggregating individual prefer- ences supported by evidence of consumer choice

What is public is seen as going far beyond government, although government has a special role as a guarantor of public values; common good determined by broadly inclusive dialogue and deliberation informed by evi- dence and democratic and constitutional values

Role of politics Elect governors, who determine policy objectives

Elect governors, who determine policy objectives; empowered managers; administrative politics around the use of specifi c tools

“Public work,” including determining policy objectives via dialogue and deliberation; democracy as “a way of life”

Role of citizenship Voter, client, constituent Customer Citizens seen as problem-solvers and co-creators actively engaged in creating what is valued by the public and is good for the public

Government and Public Administration

Role of government agencies

Rowing, seen as designing and imple- menting policies and programs in re- sponse to politically defi ned objectives

Steering, seen as determining objectives and catalyzing service delivery through tool choice and reliance if possible on markets, businesses, and nonprofi t organizations

Government acts as convener, catalyst, collaborator; sometimes steering, sometimes, rowing, sometimes partnering, sometimes staying out of the way

Key objectives Politically provided goals; implementation managed by public servants; monitor- ing done through bureaucratic and elected offi cials’ oversight

Politically provided goals; managers manage inputs and outputs in a way that ensures economy and responsiveness to consumers

Create public value in such a way that what the public most cares about is addressed effectively and what is good for the public is put in place

Key values Effi ciency Effi ciency and effectiveness Effi ciency, effectiveness, and the full range of democratic and constitutional values

Mechanisms for achieving policy objectives

Administer programs through central- ized, hierarchically organized public agencies or self-regulating professions

Create mechanisms and incentive structures to achieve policy objectives especially through use of markets

Selection from a menu of alternative delivery mechanisms based on pragmatic criteria; this often means helping build cross-sector collaborations and engaging citizens to achieve agreed objectives

Role of public manager

Ensures that rules and appropriate procedures are followed; responsive to elected offi cials, constituents, and clients; limited discretion allowed to administrative offi cials

Helps defi ne and meet agreed upon performance objectives; responsive to elected offi cials and customers; wide discretion allowed

Plays an active role in helping create and guide networks of deliberation and delivery and help maintain and enhance the overall effectiveness, accountability, and capacity of the system; responsive to elected offi cials, citizens, and an array of other stakeholders; discre- tion is needed but is constrained by law, democratic and constitutional values, and a broad approach to accountability

Approach to accountability

Hierarchical, in which administrators are accountable to democratically elected offi cials

Market driven, in which aggre- gated self-interests result in out- comes desired by broad groups of citizens seen as customers

Multifaceted, as public servants must attend to law, com- munity values, political norms, professional standards, and citizen interests

Contribution to the democratic process

Delivers politically determined objec- tives and accountability; competition between elected leaders provides over- arching accountability; public sector has a monopoly on public service ethos

Delivers politically determined objectives; managers determine the means; skepticism regard- ing public service ethos; favors customer service

Delivers dialogue and catalyzes and responds to active citizenship in pursuit of what the public values and what is good for the public; no one sector has a monopoly on public service ethos; maintaining relationships based on shared public values is essential

Sources: Adapted principally from Denhardt and Denhardt (2011, 28–29), with further adaptations from Stoker (2006, 44); Kelly, Mulgan, and Muers (2002); and Boyte (2011).

Public Value Governance: Moving Beyond Traditional Public Administration and the New Public Management 447

how to govern, not just manage, in increasingly diverse and com- plex societies facing increasingly complex problems (Kettl 2002; Osborne 2010; Pollitt and Bouckaert 2011). Natural disasters, failures of large parts of the economy, unevenly eff ective health care and education systems, a stagnant middle class, deepening inequal- ity, and bankrupt communities off er recent examples that have challenged not just governments but also businesses, nonprofi ts, and civil society generally. In the United States, these challenges are occurring at a time of historic distrust of a broad range of institu- tions (Gallup 2014).

The Emerging Approach Th e responses to these new challenges do not yet constitute a coherent whole, but the outlines of a new approach are becoming clear in, for example, Janet and Robert Denhardt’s (2011) widely cited framework called the New Public Service, as well as in Gerry Stoker’s (2006) public value management, Barry Bozeman’s (2007) managing publicness, Stephen Osborne’s new public governance (2010), and political theorist Harry Boyte and colleagues’ (Boyte 2011) new civic politics. Th ese scholars draw on diff erent theo- retical and epistemological foundations than traditional public administration or New Public Management. Citizens, citizenship, and democracy are central to the new approach, which harks back to Dwight Waldo’s (1948) abiding interest in a democratic theory of administration. Th e approach advocates more contingent, pragmatic kinds of rationality, going beyond the formal rationalities of Herbert Simon’s (1997) “administrative man” and the “eco- nomic man” of microeconomics. Citizens are seen as quite capable of engaging in deliberative problem solving that allows them to develop a public spiritedness of the type that Tocqueville saw in the American republic of the 1830s when he talked about the preva- lence of “self-interest rightly understood” (Tocqueville 1840; see also Mansbridge 1990).

Scholars arguing for the new approach see public value emerging from broadly inclusive dialogue and deliberation. Th e conversation includes community members from multiple sectors because, as Jørgensen and Bozeman note, “public values and public value are not the exclusive province of government, nor is government the only set of institutions having public value obligations, [though clearly] government has a special role as guarantor of public values” (2007, 373–74). Th is aspect of the approach has many precursors, including, for example, the work of Vincent and Elinor Ostrom (Ostrom 1973; Ostrom and Ostrom 1971), which also provides important underpinnings for understanding networked and col- laborative governance (McGinnis and Ostrom 2012; Th omson and Perry 2006). Th e approach encompasses what Boyte terms “public work,” meaning “self-organized, sustained eff orts by a mix of people who solve common problems and create things, material or sym- bolic, of lasting civic value” (2011, 632–33), while developing civic learning and capacity as part of the process. Th is work can engage many diff erent kinds of people, including public-spirited managers from across sectors and citizens. Citizens thus move beyond their roles as voters, clients, constituents, customers, or poll responders to becoming problem solvers, co-creators, and governors actively engaged in producing what is valued by the public and good for the public (Briggs 2008). Budd (2014) captures the importance of work in general for the creation of public value and the special role that labor unions have often played in its creation.

Waldo (1948) called the periodically changing “material and ideological background.” Whether the new approach can live up to its promise—and particularly its democratic promise—is an open question that we explore later.

Traditional Public Administration Traditional public administration (Stoker 2006; Waldo 1948) arose in the United States in the late 1900s and matured by the mid-twentieth century as a response to a particular set of condi- tions. Th ese included the challenges of industrialization, urbaniza- tion, the rise of the modern corporation, faith in science, belief in progress, and concern over major market failures. Mostly success- ful experience with government responses to World War I, the Great Depression, and World War II helped solidify support for traditional public administration and built strong trust in govern- ment as an agent for the good of all. In its idealized form, politics and administration were quite separate (Wilson 1887). Goals were determined in the fi rst instance by elected offi cials and only second- arily refi ned by technical experts in response to political direction. Government agencies were the primary deliverers of public value through the way they designed and implemented politically defi ned objectives (Salamon 2002). Effi ciency in government operations was the preeminent value. Citizens were viewed primarily as voters, clients, or constituents. Of course, traditional public administration in practice was always more deeply enmeshed in politics than its idealized form would suggest (Denhardt and Denhardt 2011, 6–7; Waldo 1948), and government agencies were themselves prone to failure (Wolf 1979).

New Public Management After a long gestation period, the New Public Management (Hood 1991) became the dominant approach to public administration in the 1980s and 1990s. In the United States, the change was marked by Osborne and Gaebler’s best-selling book Reinventing Government (1992) and the Bill Clinton administration’s National Performance Review (Gore 1993). New Public Management arose out of a con- cern with government failures, a belief in the effi cacy and effi ciency of markets, a belief in economic rationality, and a push away from large, centralized government agencies toward devolution and privatization.

In New Public Management, public managers are urged to “steer, not row.” Th ey steer by determining objectives, or what should be done, and by catalyzing service delivery, or how it should be done (rowing), through their choice of a particular “tool” or combination of tools (e.g., markets, regulation, taxes, subsidies, insurance, etc.) for achieving the objectives (Salamon 2002). Markets and competi- tion—often among actors from diff erent sectors—are the preferred way of delivering government services in the most effi cient and eff ective way to recipients seen as “customers,” not citizens. Public managers should be empowered and freed from constrictions so that they can be “entrepreneurial” and “manage for results.” In practice, of course, managers often face the worst of circumstances in which they are accountable for results but not allowed to manage for results (Moynihan 2006).

While the challenges that prompted traditional public adminis- tration and New Public Management have not disappeared, new material conditions and challenges have emerged. Th ey center on

448 Public Administration Review • July | August 2014

Th e emerging approach is partly descriptive of current and emerging practices, partly normative in its prescriptions regarding the role of government and public managers, and partly hopeful as a response to the challenges posed by a “changing material and ideologi- cal background.” In contrast to traditional public administration and New Public Management, however, the emerging approach often looks ambiguous, unevenly grounded theoretically, relatively untested, and lacking in clear guidance for practice. Yet what else can one expect in a shared-power, multisector, no-one-wholly-in- charge world? (Cleveland 2002; Crosby and Bryson 2005). Old approaches have their own problems, and the new approach is still emerging. One thing is clear, however, and that is the fundamental importance in the emerging approach of understanding what is meant by public value, public values, and the public sphere. Progress must be made on clarifying, measuring, and assessing these concepts if the new approach is gain added traction.

Value, Public Value, Public Values, and the Public Sphere Th e dictionary defi nition of value as “relative worth, utility, or importance” of something (Merriam-Webster, accessed online April 1, 2014) leaves open a number of questions that have troubled philosophers for centuries and reappear in the current debate over public values, public value, and the public sphere. Th ese questions concern at least the following: (1) whether the objects of value are subjective psychological states or objective states of the world; (2) whether value is intrinsic, extrinsic, or relational; (3) whether something is valuable for its own sake or as a means to something else; (4) whether there are hierarchies of values; (5) who does the valuing; (6) how the valuing is done; and (7) against what criteria the object of value is measured. We return to these questions as we discuss four major contributions to the public value literature and in our conclusions.

Th e public value literature distinguishes among (1) public values, which are many (e.g., Andersen et al. 2012; Bozeman 2002, 2007; Jørgenson and Bozeman 2007; Meynhardt 2009; Van Wart 1998); (2) creating public value, defi ned as producing what is either valued by the public, is good for the public, including adding to the public sphere, or both, as assessed against various public value criteria (Alford 2008; Alford and O’Flynn 2009; Benington and Moore 2011; Stoker 2006); and (3) the public sphere or public realm, within which public values and value are developed and played out (Benington 2011).

Barry Bozeman on Public Values Bozeman, a leading voice in the public value literature, focuses on the policy or societal level. He writes, “A society’s public values are those providing normative consensus about: (1) the rights, ben- efi ts, and prerogatives to which citizens should (and should not) be entitled; (2) the obligations of citizens to society, the state, and one another; and (3) the principles on which governments and policies should be based” (2007, 17). Although public values in a democ- racy are typically contested, a relative consensus is discernible from constitutions, legislative mandates, policies, literature reviews, opinion polls, and other formal and informal sources (Jørgensen and Bozeman 2007).

What Bozeman terms public value failure occurs when neither the market nor the public sector provides goods and services required

In the new approach, government agencies can be conveners, catalysts, and collaborators—sometimes steering, sometimes row- ing, sometimes partnering, and sometimes staying out of the way. In addition, the way in which government’s key objectives are set changes. In traditional public administration, elected offi cials set goals, and implementation is up to public servants, overseen by elected offi cials’ and senior administrators. In New Public Management, elected offi cials still set goals. Managers then manage inputs and outputs in a way that ensures economy and responsive- ness to customers. In contrast, in the new approach, both elected offi cials and public managers are charged with creating public value so that what the public cares about most is addressed eff ectively and what is good for the public is pursued. Th is change for public man- agers raises obvious questions of democratic accountability, an issue to which we will turn later. On the other hand, the change is essen- tially a recognition that managers have always played an important role in goal setting because of the advice they give to elected offi cials and the need to act in the face of often ambiguous policy direction.

As noted, in the emerging approach, the full range of democratic and constitutional values are relevant. Policy makers and public managers are also encouraged to consider the full array of alternative delivery mechanisms and choose among them based on pragmatic criteria. Th is often means helping build cross-sector collaborations and engaging citizens to achieve mutually agreed objectives (Agranoff 2006; Fung 2006; McGuire 2006). Public managers’ role thus goes well beyond that in traditional public administration or New Public Management; they are presumed able to help create and guide net- works of deliberation and delivery and help maintain and enhance the overall eff ectiveness, capacity, and accountability of the system.

Th e nature of discretion also changes. In traditional public admin- istration, public managers have limited discretion; New Public Management encourages wide discretion in meeting entrepreneurial and performance targets. In the emerging approach, discretion is needed, but it is constrained by law, democratic and constitutional values, and a broad approach to accountability. Accountability becomes multifaceted and not just hierarchical (as in traditional public administration) or more market driven (as in New Public Management), as public servants must attend to law, community values, political norms, professional standards, and citizen interests (Dubnick and Frederickson 2010; Mulgan 2000; Romzek, LeRoux, and Blackmar 2012). In the emerging multisector collaborative environment, no one sector has a monopoly on public service ethos, although government plays a special role; in addition, there is less skepticism about government and a less strong preference for mar- kets and customer service.

Finally, in this emerging approach, public administration’s contribu- tion to the democratic process is also diff erent. In both traditional public administration and New Public Management, managers are not very directly involved in the democratic process, viewed mainly as elections and legislative deliberation. In contrast, in the emerging approach, government delivers dialogue and catalyzes and responds to active citizenship in pursuit of what the public values and what is good for the public. Th e extent to which it is possible for dialogue and deliberation to do so in practice remains unclear, however, in systems that favor elites and are stacked against ordinary citizens (Dahl and Soss 2014).

Public Value Governance: Moving Beyond Traditional Public Administration and the New Public Management 449

arbiter of public value when collectively owned assets of government are being deployed. Second, collectively owned assets include not only government money but also state authority. Th ird, assessing the value of government production relies on an aggregation of costs and benefi ts broadly conceived, as well as on collective determina- tions concerning the welfare of others, duties to others, and concep- tions of a good and just society. Moore (2013, forthcoming) uses these philosophical premises to develop a public value account. On the benefi t side is the achievement of collectively valued outcomes, while on the cost side are the costs of using public authority and collectively owned assets.

Moore argues that public managers should use the strategic triangle (1995, 22–23). Strategy must be (1) aimed at achieving something that is substantively valuable (i.e., must constitute public value), (2) legitimate and politically sustainable, and (3) operationally and administratively feasible (see also Alford and O’Flynn 2009). Moore “equates managerial success in the public sector with initiating and reshaping public sector enterprises in ways that increase their value to the public in both the short and the long run” (1995, 10), which requires a “restless, value-seeking imagination” (Benington and Moore 2011, 3).

Moore is speaking primarily to current and prospective public man- agers in a democratic society and secondarily to their elected leaders. Like Bozeman, an implication of Moore’s work is the need for a healthy democracy with supporting institutions and the processes necessary to forge agreement on and achieve public values in practice.

For Moore, like Bozeman, public value generally refers to objective states of the world that can be measured. Also like Bozeman, Moore sees public value as extrinsic and also intrinsic to the functioning of an eff ective democratic polity. Again, like Bozeman, something being evaluated may be deemed to hold inherent value or may be seen as a means to something else. Unlike Bozeman, Moore does assume a hierarchy of values in which public organizational eff ectiveness, effi ciency, accountability, justness, and fairness in the context of democratic governance are prime values. For Moore, ultimately, elected offi cials and the citizenry do the valuing, but public managers also play an important role. Th e valuing can be shown through the public value account.

Rhodes and Wanna in particular have criticized Moore and his supporters. Not clear, they say, is whether their approach is “a paradigm, a concept, a model, a heuristic device, or even a story . . . [As a result,] it is all things to all people” (2007, 408). Th ey believe Moore downplays the importance of politics and elected offi cials, overly emphasizes the role of public managers, and trusts too much in public organizations, private sector experience, and the virtues of public servants (409–12).

Alford (2008; see also Alford and O’Flynn 2009) mounts a spir- ited defense of Moore and off ers refutations of each of Rhodes and Wanna’s points. He emphasizes Moore’s strategic triangle, which sees the authorizing environment as placing “a legitimate limit on the public manager’s autonomy to shape what is meant by public value” (Alford 2008, 177). Alford also believes Rhodes and Wanna operate out of an “old” public administration paradigm that draws a sharp distinction between politics and administration and thus ignore the

to achieve public values, which are operationalized in terms of a set of eight criteria, for example, political processes and social cohe- sion should be suffi cient to ensure eff ective communication and processing of public values, and suffi cient transparency exists to permit citizens to make informed judgments (Bozeman 2002, 2007; see also Kalambokidis 2014). Public value creation is the extent to which public values criteria are met, where these are some combi- nation of input, process, output, and outcome measures. Public values for Bozeman thus are measureable, although clearly there can be disagreements about how the values are to be conceptual- ized and measured. One implication is that analysts, citizens, and policy makers should focus on what public values are and on ways in which institutions and processes are necessary to forge agreement on and to achieve public values in practice (Davis and West 2009; Jacobs 2014; Kalambokidis 2014; Moulton 2009).

Note that Bozeman’s approach is both positive, when he asks what the normative consensus on values is, and normative, when he argues that public values failures should be corrected. Note, too, that Bozeman (2007) is silent on the role of the nonprofi t sector and, to a lesser extent, on the public sphere more generally; on the rights, responsibilities, or weights to be given to noncitizens; and on the role and importance of power in contests over public values. Regarding the eff ects of political power, Jacobs (2014) believes that in the U.S. context, Bozeman severely underestimates the extent of dissensus, the disproportionate infl uence of affl uent citizens and organized interests, and the extent to which governing structures favor inaction and drift.

Mark Moore on Creating Public Value Whereas Bozeman focuses on the policy or societal level, Mark Moore (1995, 52–55), another important voice in the literature, focuses on public managers. He, too, is concerned about devaluing of govern- ment and public managers in an era of economic individualism and market ascendency, and he initially conceived of public value as the public management equivalent of shareholder value. He seeks both a persuasive rhetoric and an approach to discerning, championing, and achieving public value—or what he calls creating public value. Public value primarily results from government performance, so his view of public value creation in this early book is narrower than that in much of the later literature.

Moore believes that citizens want from their governments some combination of the following that together encompass public value: (1) high-performing, service-oriented public bureaucracies, (2) public organizations that are effi cient and eff ective in achieving desired social outcomes, and (3) public organizations that operate justly and fairly and lead to just and fair conditions in the society at large. While Moore’s defi nition of public value is vaguer than Bozeman’s, it highlights reasonably specifi c public values: effi ciency, eff ectiveness, socially and politically sanctioned desired outcomes, procedural justice, and substantive justice. Like Bozeman’s, Moore’s defi nition of public value can encompass input, process, output, and outcome measures.

Moore (2014) develops the philosophical foundations of his approach to public value as a prelude to establishing what he calls “public value accounting.” He makes three assertions: First, a public collectively defi ned through democratic processes is the appropriate

450 Public Administration Review • July | August 2014

in individuals, constituted by subjective evaluations against basic needs, activated by and realized in emotional-motivational states, and produced and reproduced in experience-intense practices.

In contrast to Bozeman and Moore’s approaches, Meyhnardt’s is nonprescriptive; it is far more psychologically based; and it empha- sizes more the interpenetration of public and private spheres. Unlike the other two authors, he pays little attention to the institutions and supra-individual processes involved in public value creation. However, like Bozeman and Moore, Meynhardt also sees public value as measurable, in his case against the dimensions he outlines.

John Benington on the Public Sphere Beyond public values and creating public value, there is the public sphere. John Benington sees the public sphere as “a democratic space” that includes the “web of values, places, organizations, rules, knowledge, and other cultural resources held in common by people through their everyday commitments and behaviors, and held in trust by government and public institutions” (2011, 31). It is “what provides a society with some sense of belonging, meaning, purpose and continuity, and which enables people to thrive and strive amid uncertainty” (43). Like Dewey (1927), Benington believes that the public is not given but must be continuously constructed. Public value is necessarily contested, and it is often established through a continuous process of dialogue. For Benington, the public sphere is thus the space—psychological, social, political, institutional, and physical—within which public values and public value are held, cre- ated, or diminished. Public value includes what adds to the public sphere. While Benington himself is committed to democracy, note that his extended defi nition of the public sphere can apply to other forms of government.

Operationally, for both practitioners and scholars, determining who and what the “public” is can be problematic (Frederickson 1991). Nonetheless, Meynhardt sees the “public” is an “indispensable operational fi ction necessary for action and orientation in a complex environment” (2009, 205). In other words, as complexity increases the more “the public” becomes a social construct “necessary for act- ing, but hard to pin down” (204).

In practical terms, the public may already be known, may need to make itself known, or may need to be created. For example, Moore’s normative approach requires public managers to look to their “authorizing environments” for direction, although they may conclude that the public can be best served by working to change aspects of the authorizing environment. Moore also asserts that elected offi cials and the citizens (often through elections) are the arbiters of public value (1995, 38), even when political decision making is deeply problematic on moral grounds. In democratic societies, citizens and managers can challenge these questionable decisions, but not ignore them (Moore 1995, 54–55). For Dewey (1927), a public is “created” when citizens experience the nega- tive consequences of situations beyond their control (resulting, for example, from market or governmental activities). In other circum- stances, public administrators may need to “call a public into being” (Moore 2014), for example, when designing and managing a public participation process (Cooper, Bryer, and Meek 2006; Fung 2006; Nabatchi 2012).

fact that political appointees and civil servants often have consider- able leeway to infl uence policy and decisions.

Dahl and Soss (2014) also level sharp criticism at Moore’s concep- tion of creating public value. In their view, by posing public value as an analogue to shareholder value, seeing democratic engage- ment in primarily instrumental terms, and viewing public value as something that is produced, Moore and his followers actually mimic the very neoliberal rationality they seek to resist and run the risk of furthering neoliberalism’s de-democratizing and market-enhancing consequences. Public managers might unwittingly be agents of “downsizing democracy” (Crenson and Ginsberg 2002). Th e cau- tions that Dahl and Soss raise are serious and should be addressed by those seeking to advance the public value literature.

In addition, Jacobs (2014) believes that Moore’s hopeful view of public management can be Pollyannaish, at least in the United States, given sharply divided public opinion on many issues, intensely partisan politics, the power of organized interests, and the many veto points built into governance arrangements. Clearly, public managers are constrained in a democratic society—and rightly so—but there are also many examples of enterprising, public value–producing activities that demonstrate that public managers can, in fact, be active agents in creating public value. Th e public value literature thus will need to explore much further the concep- tual, political, organizational, managerial, and other limits on public managers seeking to create public value in particular circumstances.

Timo Meynhardt on Public Value Timo Meynhardt, in an important but far less well-known approach, believes that public value is constructed out of “values characterizing the relationship between an individual and ‘society,’ defi ning the quality of the relationship” (2009, 206). Th e relation- ship’s quality is assessed subjectively by individuals, but when there is intersubjective weight attached to these assessments, they become objective and might reach Bozeman’s requirement of a reasonable normative consensus. Meynhardt believes that public value is for the public when it concerns “evaluations about how basic needs of the individuals, groups, and the society as a whole are infl uenced in relationships involving the public” (212). Public value is also about value from the public, when it is “drawn from the experience of the public.” Public value for Meynhardt, too, can refer to input, process, output, and outcome measures.

Meynhardt posits four basic dimensions (or content categories) of public value closely connected to a widely cited psychological theory of basic needs (Epstein 1989, 1993, 2003) and related to categories in traditional welfare economics. Th e categories are moral-ethical, political-social, utilitarian-instrumental, and hedonistic-aesthetical. Th e “value” that an individual attaches to an experience is based on how well the experience satisfi es his or her basic needs as assessed against these dimensions. Note that the assessment is a subjec- tive, emotional-motivational, and valenced reaction to an experi- ence of some sort involving the “public,” such as an encounter with a government program, an election, or visit to a public space. Intersubjectively equivalent assessments are a broad measure of the extent to which public value has been created or diminished. To summarize, Meynhardt (2009, 212) sees public value creation as situated in relationships between the individual and society, founded

Public Value Governance: Moving Beyond Traditional Public Administration and the New Public Management 451

identifi cation with a republican or democratic government narrows the defi nition, while the common foundations of public life are more closely related to the idea of the public sphere.

How the Ideas of Creating Public Value and Policy-Level and Societal Public Values Are Used in Practice and Research Th e diff erent strands in the public value literature clearly can be linked. Specifi cally, Moore’s managerially focused idea of creating public value involves producing what the public values or is good for the public, the merits of which can be assessed against a set of more specifi c public values. Th ese can include Bozeman’s and others’ societal or policy-focused public value criteria, Meynhardt’s psycho- logically focused criteria, Benington’s idea of enhancing the public sphere, and other important values in the public administration fi eld and literature. All may or should be considered when assessing value creation in specifi c instances.

Uses of the Creating Public Value Idea in Practice and Research Th e idea of creating public value has been used as a paradigm, rhet- oric, narrative, and kind of performance (Alford and O’Flynn 2009, 178–85). Stoker (2006) proposes “public value management” as a new paradigm that is better suited to networked governance than traditional public administration or the New Public Management. He is thus moving beyond Moore’s primary focus on public manag- ers at the top of a public bureaucracy delivering services or obliga- tions to a focus on networked interorganizational and cross-sector relations and governance.

Stoker makes the case that traditional public administration and New Public Management are not up to the job of managing in a networked public environment, but he only vaguely considers how leaders and managers in specifi c instances would achieve effi ciency, accountability, and equity, along with broader democratic values (O’Flynn 2007; Williams and Shearer 2011). Nor does he explain how leaders and managers should cope with a democracy having problems with low voter turnout, divided government, competing organized interests, and competing conceptions of what public value might be in any situation (Davis and West 2009; Jacobs 2014).

Critics of public value argue that it has been used as a rhetorical strategy to protect and advance the interests of bureaucrats and their organizations (Roberts 1995). Th e criticism unquestion- ably has merit in particular cases. As noted earlier, Dahl and Soss (2014) highlight the potential of public value rhetoric to under- mine democratic processes. Smith, however, believes that a “focus on public value enables one to bring together debates about values, institutions, systems, processes and people. It also enables one to link insights from diff erent analytical perspectives, including public policy, policy analysis, management, economics, and political science” (2004, 68–69). Similarly, Fisher (2014) off ers a narrative that contrasts an oppositional approach to public decision making ( public/private, black/white, right/wrong, mine/yours) with an “opposable” or integrative approach wherein public managers can link seemingly unrelated, or contradictory, and sometimes paradoxi- cal constructs to achieve a higher level of public value across sectors. Th e stories that managers create thus can be self-serving rhetoric but also a public-regarding story about what should be, or has been, created.

Public values scholars look to a variety of sources for evidence of what the “public” is, wants, or is good for it. Sources include, for example, literature reviews, legislation, rules and regulations, and opinion polls (Bozeman 2007; Jacobs 2014; Jørgensen and Bozeman 2007). Meynhardt (2009, forthcoming), as noted, relies on psychological theory to derive the dimensions against which public values can be assessed; he has developed and published results from the use of psychological questionnaires based on this work. Moulton (2009) looks to “public values institutions,” which can be of three types, with the three types presumed to diff eren- tially aff ect how public values are realized in practice. Regulatory institutions are legally sanctioned and can establish rules, surveil- lance mechanisms, and incentives to infl uence behavior. Normative- associative institutions help create expectations or norms that infl uence social life through prescriptive, evaluative, or obligatory guidance. Finally, cultural cognitive institutions help create shared conceptions of the nature of social reality and the frames used to create meaning. Th e three kinds of institutions are analytic con- structs and can and do overlap in practice. Andersen et al. (2012) look to archetypal forms of governance to derive the content of public values; the forms are hierarchy, clans or professions, net- works, and markets.

How Public Value Relates to Other Concepts Part of public value’s importance is that it encompasses and goes beyond several other venerable concepts that highlight the proper ends and means of government and broader public action. Among these are the public interest, the common good, public goods, and commonwealth. Public interest originally was associated with the state, not with the public sphere more generally (Gunn 1969), and thus it typically refers to the reasons for, or consequences of, govern- ment action (Alexander 2002, 226–27). Beyond that, attempts to operationalize the public interest have proved diffi cult (Mitnick 1976; Sorauf 1957), although not necessarily in the case of apply- ing relatively clear public laws and regulations to specifi c decisions (Alexander 2002). Vagueness and diffi culties of operationalization also plague related terms such as the common good.

Public goods refers to production of nonrival, nonexcludable goods and services. Public value diff ers in three ways: First, it includes remedies to market failures beyond inadequate provision of public goods, along with the institutional arrangements that make the rem- edies possible. Th is fi ts clearly with Bozeman’s (2007) view. Public goods are outputs and public value includes the outcomes made possible by public goods. Th is fi ts well with Moore’s (1995) view. Finally, public value has value for the valuer, which accords well with Meynhardt’s (2009) approach.

Probably commonwealth comes closest to capturing the meaning of public value, as the term originally meant “common well-being.” In the United States from the colonial era through the World War II era, as Boyte (1989) points out, commonwealth meant two things. First, it meant a republican or democratic government of equals concerned with the general welfare and an active citizenry through- out the year. Second, the term “brought to mind the touchstone, or common foundations, of public life—the basic resources and public goods of a community over which citizens assumed respon- sibility and authority” (Boyte 1989, 4–5). Th us, while similar to public value in meaning, commonwealth is not the same. Th e

452 Public Administration Review • July | August 2014

and market failures (Welch, Rimes, and Bozeman, forthcoming). Th e approach has been used primarily in the science and technol- ogy fi eld (e.g., Bozeman and Sarewitz 2011) but also increasingly in other fi elds (Bozeman and Moulton 2011, i367).

Meynhardt (forthcoming) has developed a public value assessment instrument called the public value scorecard (not to be confused with Moore’s [2013, forthcoming] public value scorecard). Th e scorecard is an aggregated summary based on individuals’ rankings of the value of something related to the public along the dimensions mentioned earlier—moral-ethical, hedonistic-aesthetical, utilitarian- instrumental, and political-social—as well as a fi fth dimension related to fi nancial performance (Meynhardt, forthcoming). Th e scorecard has been used in a variety of situations for both formative and summative purposes.

Andersen et al. (2012) have developed a third instrument for assess- ing public values that relies not on public value criteria or psycho- logical assessments but instead on what they call “organizational design principles” derived from four archetypal modes of governance (hierarchy, clan, network, and market) (717). For each of the four they articulated the role of public organizations, role of citizens, organizational context, control forms, and central values. From these values, they developed an instrument that they tested on Danish public managers by asking them to what extent the values applied to their organizations. After a variety of analyses, seven dimensions of public value emerged: the public at large, rule abidance, budget keeping, professionalism, balancing interests, effi cient supply, and user focus. Th eir work highlights tensions among the values and the complexity of public managers’ values environments (723–24).

Conclusions Scholars and public professionals are making important theoretical, practical, and operational strides in developing a new approach to public administration as an alternative to approaches that preceded it. Th ey need to do more, however, before the new approach is widely understood, appreciated, and used to advance important public values underplayed by traditional public administration and New Public Management. In this fi nal section, we off er some tentative conclusions about where things stand and then outline an agenda for research and practice.

Where Things Stand While there clearly is an emerging new approach to public admin- istration, it does not have a consensually agreed name. Among the various possibilities, however, the Denhardts’ (2011) label “New Public Service” certainly appears to be the leading contender based on citations. Whatever the name, attention to issues of public value, public values, and the public sphere are central to the new approach.

Th e concept of creating public value is popular within both aca- demic and practice settings (Williams and Shearer 2011). Even crit- ics note the broad interest in the idea among practitioners (Rhodes and Wanna 2007). Similarly, Van der Wal, Nabatchi, and de Graaf (2013) assert that the study of public values is gaining in impor- tance in public administration and may well be one of the fi eld’s most important current themes. Finally, for several decades, scholars and political commentators have devoted increased attention to the public sphere, including debates about the limits and role of

Finally, as performance, public value can serve as a performance measurement and management framework. A key advantage of the public value idea is that there is no single bottom line (Kalambokidis 2014). Moore (2013, 2014, forthcoming), for example, proposes that managers look at costs and benefi ts as well as at less tangible aspects when they assess public value creation. Bozeman (2002, 2007) and Talbot (2010) argue for using a variety of public value criteria to discern how much public value has been created or dimin- ished. A focus on public value also stimulates attention to the long- term viability and reliability of public investments (Fisher 2014).

A number of governments have made explicit or implicit use of the public value framework. Kernaghan (2003), for example, exam- ines the values statements of four Westminster-style governments; each contains a range of values beyond effi ciency. Th e “joined-up government,” “whole-of-government,” and collaborative governance initiatives that developed in many countries in response to the frag- mentation caused by New Public Management were about coordi- nation and also about recovery and pursuit of public values beyond narrowly defi ned results and effi ciency (Christensen and Lægreid 2007). Unfortunately, some of these eff orts have used excessively narrow interpretations of public value. For example, the British government under Tony Blair made explicit use of public value as a way of thinking about performance, but it operationalized Moore’s strategic triangle by focusing on services (for operational capabil- ity), outcomes (for public value), and trust and legitimacy (for the authorizing environment) (Kelly, Mulgan, and Muers 2002). Accenture consultants Cole and Parston (2006) further dimin- ish the meaning of public value. Th eir approach just repackages existing approaches to performance measurement and management under a diff erent label (Alford and O’Flynn 2009, 185). Dahl and Soss’s (2014) cautions about the ease with which the public value approach can be hijacked for purposes not intended by its principal authors are on clear display.

Th e various approaches to creating public value can be used posi- tively or normatively—and have been. Williams and Shearer observe that “the most striking feature is the relative absence of empirical investigation of either the normative propositions of public value or its effi cacy as a framework for understanding public management” (2011, 1374). Th ey do note, however, some exemplary studies. For example, O’Toole, Meier, and Nicholson-Crotty (2005) found in a large-N study of Texas school superintendents that the superintend- ents saw the points of Moore’s triangle as constitutive of their roles. And Meynhardt and Metelmann (2009), in a study of the German Federal Labor Agency, also found evidence that middle managers think in much the same way that Moore’s public value entrepre- neurs would.

Uses of Policy-Level and Societal Public Values in Practice and Research Policy-level and broader public values have also been used in a variety of ways. For example, public values feature prominently in the approach that Bozeman and his coauthors have developed called “public value mapping.” Th e approach incorporates a broad range of value considerations into policy decision-making processes by helping (1) identify public values, (2) assess whether public value failures have occurred, (3) map relationships among values, and (4) graphically represent relationships between public value failures

Public Value Governance: Moving Beyond Traditional Public Administration and the New Public Management 453

Th e public value literature does provide a broader sense of public values than typically found in traditional public administration and New Public Management. As the emerging approach to public administration unfolds, the public value literature should be explic- itly incorporated, as the issues it addresses are so fundamental. For example, too many performance measurement and management regimes and models focus principally on effi ciency and eff ectiveness directly related to the mission (Moynihan et al. 2011; Radin 2006, 2012; Talbot 2010) and disregard what Rosenbloom (2007) terms “non-mission-based values,” such as equity, due process, freedom of information, and citizenship development. As a result, too many performance measurement and management schemes may actually weaken public value creation (Kroll and Moynihan, forthcoming). Practitioners thus should work to ensure that performance measure- ment and management approaches do include non-mission-based values and, at the very least, do not diminish democratic engage- ment and citizenship behavior. Rosenbloom’s (2007) contribution has been noted. Moore (2013, forthcoming) has also made a start on some of these concerns with his proposed public value account, as does Meynhardt (forthcoming) with his very diff erent public value account. Bozeman and his colleagues’ public value mapping model also makes a contribution. Similarly, public participation processes can be designed to enhance democratic behavior and citizenship (Bryson et al. 2013; Nabatchi 2012). Finally, policy analysis as well should include a broad array of values beyond its traditional focus on effi ciency, eff ectiveness, and sometimes equity (Radin 2012).

Practitioners and scholars also should follow Australia’s lead, for example, and draw attention to the expected and actual public value created by policies, programs, projects, and other eff orts (Kernaghan 2003). As Jacobs (2014) demonstrates in the U.S. context, the public is “pragmatically liberal”—that is, the public is quite willing to support particular public undertakings when the value is clear and the cost is reasonable. Moore’s public value account off ers a way of making the case in specifi c circumstances. Kalambokidis (2014) provides practical advice on some of the ways in which this public value–clarifying work can be done in relation to fi scal and spending policy.

Given the complex networked and collaborative arrangements prac- titioners now often fi nd themselves in, they have a heightened need to cultivate what Moore calls a “restless, value-seeking imagination” in a democratic context. Public aff airs scholars and educators should help them in this eff ort. Th at imagination should also incorpo- rate attention to government’s special role in assuring concern for important values and standing fi rm against eff orts to diminish them (Dahl and Soss 2014). Again, the need for imagination is not new to public administration, where creativity, innovation, and strate- gic thinking and acting have always found a place (Bryson 2011; Hartley, forthcoming; Osborne and Brown 2013). Such imagination often involves bridging the politics–administration divide (Appleby 1945; Gulick 1933), but also knowing when to defer to elected offi cials (Alford, Hartley, and Hughes, forthcoming). In all of these cases, public administrators have a special obligation to turn their imaginations to enhancing democratic governance and citizenship. As noted, policy analysis also can help foster imaginative responses and attention to the array of public values (Radin 2012). Clearly, however, the public value literature should explore much further the

government, the why and how of public engagement and active citizenship, and the need for a strengthened democracy.

Th is growing interest is partly attributable to the importance, urgency, scope, and scale of public problems facing the world; the pragmatic recognition that governments alone cannot eff ectively address many of these problems; and a concern that public values have been and will be lost as a result of a powerful antigovernment rhetoric and a host of market-based and performance-based reforms. Following Dewey, the public value literature and the emerging approach to public administration represent the products of a prac- titioner and scholarly “public called into being” over these concerns.

In the emerging approach, government clearly has a special role to play as a creator of public value and a guarantor of public values and the public sphere, but in a market-based democracy, govern- ment is not the owner of all the processes and institutions having public value potential or obligations (Peters and Pierre 1998). Th e literatures on cross-sector collaboration, integrative leadership, and networked governance are all responses to the new context, in which public managers frequently must collaborate with nonprofi ts, businesses, the media, and citizens to accomplish public purposes. A major contribution of the public value literature is the way it draws attention to questions about (1) the public purposes that are or should be served by organizations in all sectors, by intra- and cross- sector collaborations, by more general governance arrangements, and by public leadership broadly defi ned, and (2) how public man- agers and leaders do and should accomplish these purposes. Th ese are important normative and research-related questions needing to be pursued in the new context.

Of course, the concern with purposes and values is hardly new to public administration; what is diff erent are two diff erent parts of the context. Th e fi rst is that traditional public administration and New Public Management—while they both have strengths—are not up to the tasks of networked governance, leadership, and management when a variety of public values should be served, including, but hardly limited to, effi ciency, eff ectiveness, and equity. Th e second is the view that terms such as the public interest and commonwealth are too narrow, other related terms such as the common good are too vague, and the language of public value provides a helpful way forward, as Jacobs (2014) suggests.

A Research and Practice Agenda Right now, the new approach is enmeshed in often vague defi ni- tions, conceptualizations, and measurements of public value and the public sphere. While public administration scholars and practition- ers may ultimately agree on these public value-related matters, they are unlikely to reach full consensus (Davis and West 2009). Th at is not necessarily a bad thing. In order to make progress, however, scholars should address the challenges to current formulations, in part through further conceptual refi nement, the development of suitable typologies and measures, and rigorous empirical testing. Research should attend to both subjectively held public values and more objective states of the world; whether a specifi c public value is intrinsic, extrinsic, or relational; whether something is a prime or instrumental public value; whether there are hierarchies of public values; who does the valuing; how the valuing is done; and against what criteria the object of value is measured.

454 Public Administration Review • July | August 2014

Benington, John. 2011. From Private Choice to Public Value? In Public Value: Th eory and Practice, edited by John Benington and Mark H. Moore, 31–51. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Benington, John, and Mark H. Moore. 2011. Public Value in Complex and Changing Times. In Public Value: Th eory and Practice, edited by John Benington and Mark H. Moore, 1–30. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Boyte, Harry C. 1989. CommonWealth: A Return to Citizen Politics. New York: Free Press.

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Bozeman, Barry. 2002. Public-Value Failure: When Effi cient Markets May Not Do. Public Administration Review 62(2): 145–61.

———. 2007. Public Values and Public Interest: Counterbalancing Economic Individualism. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.

Bozeman, Barry, and Stephanie Moulton. 2011. Integrative Publicness: A Framework for Public Management Strategy and Performance. Supplement 3, Journal of Public Administration Research and Th eory 21: i363–80.

Bozeman, Barry, and Daniel Sarewitz. 2011. Public Value Mapping and Science Policy Evaluation. Minerva 49(1): 1–23.

Briggs, Xavier de Souza. 2008. Democracy as Problem Solving: Civic Capacity in Communities across the Globe. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Bryson, John M. 2011. Strategic Planning for Public and Nonprofi t Organizations: A Guide to Strengthening and Sustaining Organizational Achievement. 4th ed. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Bryson, John M., Kathryn S. Quick, Carissa Schively Slotterback, and Barbara C. Crosby. 2013. Designing Public Participation Processes. Public Administration Review 73(1): 23–34.

Budd, John W. 2014. Implicit Public Values and the Creation of Publicly Valuable Outcomes: Th e Importance of Work and the Contested Role of Labor Unions. Public Administration Review 74(4): 506–16.

Christensen, Tom, and Per Lægreid. 2007. Th e Whole-of-Government Approach to Public Sector Reform. Public Administration Review 67(6): 1059–66.

Cleveland, Harlan. 2002. Nobody in Charge: Essays on the Future of Leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Cole, Martin, and Greg Parston. 2006. Unlocking Public Value: A New Model for Achieving High Performance in Public Service Organizations. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Cooper, Terry L., Th omas A. Bryer, and Jack W. Meek. 2006. Citizen-Centered Collaborative Public Management. Special issue, Public Administration Review 66: 76–88.

Crenson, Matthew A., and Benjamin Ginsberg. 2002. Downsizing Democracy: How America Sidelined Its Citizens and Privatized Its Public. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Crosby, Barbara C., and John M. Bryson. 2005. Leadership for the Common Good: Tackling Public Problems in a Shared-Power World. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Dahl, Adam, and Joe Soss. 2014. Neoliberalism for the Common Good? Public Value Governance and the Downsizing of Democracy. Public Administration Review 74(4): 496–504.

Davis, Paul, and Karen West. 2009. What Do Public Values Mean for Public Action? Putting Public Values in Th eir Plural Place. American Review of Public Administration 39(6): 602–18.

Denhardt, Janet V., and Robert B. Denhardt. 2011. Th e New Public Service: Serving, Not Steering. 3rd ed. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe.

Dewey, John. 1927. Th e Public and Its Problems. Athens, OH: Swallow Press, 1954. Dubnick, Melvin J., and H. George Frederickson. 2010. Accountable Agents: Federal

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conceptual, political, organizational, managerial, and other limits on public managers seeking to create public value in particular circumstances.

Institutions and processes matter for the creation of public value, the realization of public values, and the preservation and enhance- ment of the public sphere (Benington and Moore 2011; Budd 2014; Dahl and Soss 2014; Jacobs 2014; Kalambokidis 2014; Moore 2014; Radin 2012; Talbot 2010; West and Davis 2011). Th e research on performance management regimes makes this clear. Such regimes and the institutions and processes that produce and sustain them, as well as the consequences for public value, should be the focus of much additional work. Th e same is true of collabora- tive, networked governance processes. Work thus should continue on linking managerial behavior attempting to create public value with institutions and processes and policy-level and other important public values related to democratic and collaborative governance (Jørgensen and Bozeman 2007).

Another part of that work is to bring in scholarship from other fi elds to help enrich the conversation at a time when public administration can be viewed as too insular (Wright 2011). We look forward to continued research and learning that will determine whether the public value literature will override the challenges and take a permanent place in the ongoing development of the fi eld of public administration scholarship and practice.

Note 1. Th is introduction and the symposium articles in this issue stem from an inter-

national conference on “Creating Public Value in a Multi-Sector, Shared-Power World,” held at the University of Minnesota on September 20–22, 2012. Th e conference was co-sponsored by three units of the University of Minnesota: the Hubert H. Humphrey School of Public Aff airs, the Carlson School of Management, and the Center for Integrative Leadership. Th e Minnesota Humanities Center was a co-sponsor.

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