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Multiculturalism as a Dimension of School Climate: The Impact on the Academic Achievement of Asian American and Hispanic Youth
Janet Chang Trinity College
Thao N. Le Colorado State University
Multiculturalism constitutes an important element of school climate, but the relation between perceived multiculturalism and academic achievement has not been widely studied. This study examined the influence of students’ perceptions of school support for multiculturalism on academic achievement among 280 Asian American and Hispanic youth, including ethnic identity and ethnocultural empathy as potential mediators. Results of structural equation modeling revealed that perceived multiculturalism was significantly positively related to ethnocultural empathy for Asian Americans and Hispanics, and that ethnocultural empathy, in turn, was predictive of academic achievement for Hispanics only. Results of bootstrapping to test for mediation effects revealed ethnocultural empathy to be a salient mediator for Hispanic youth. Although ethnic identity did not mediate the link between multiculturalism and academic achievement, ethnic identity was significantly predictive of achievement for Hispanics. On the whole, these findings suggest that fostering a school climate supportive of multiculturalism may improve empathy toward ethnic out-groups. Furthermore, schools that promote compassion and tolerance for diverse ethnic groups may achieve better academic outcomes among Hispanic youth.
Keywords: multiculturalism, academic achievement, empathy, Asian American, Hispanic
In light of changing demographics, racial disparities in high school completion, and risk factors confronting ethnic minority youth, multiculturalism has assumed greater importance in educa- tional settings. Projections of the U.S. population suggest signifi- cant growth in the number of Hispanics and Asians in 2050 (Passel & Cohn, 2008). This results in a rapidly growing young and emerging adult population, and as a consequence, issues concern- ing educational attainment take on even greater significance. In fact, Hispanics have the highest dropout rates (22%) relative to other ethnic groups (Planty et al., 2008). Asian Americans also experience academic difficulties; a host of factors (e.g., immigra- tion/refugee status, socioeconomic status) contribute to lower lev- els of educational attainment among certain Asian groups (Na- tional Commission on Asian American and Pacific Islander Research in Education, 2008). Moreover, ethnic minority youth face other challenges, including the negative impact of discrimi-
nation (Garcia Coll et al., 1996) and risks generally associated with adolescent development (Eccles et al., 1993). In effect, addressing these pressing issues in the context of multiculturalism may lead to better academic outcomes for Hispanic and Asian American youth.
Multicultural experiences are thought to benefit youth, both academically and interpersonally (e.g., Juvonen, Nishina, & Gra- ham, 2006; Tan, 1999). Ethnic minority youth who have expressed a stronger preference to interact with other ethnic minorities or been exposed to ethnically diverse school contexts tend to expe- rience a wide range of favorable outcomes, such as more positive educational attitudes and higher grade point averages (Guzman, Santiago-Rivera, & Haase, 2005), as well as greater social satis- faction and self-worth (Juvonen et al., 2006). Although these findings highlight the value of ethnic diversity, it is less understood how perceived multiculturalism (i.e., adolescents’ perceptions of the value and emphasis placed on cultural diversity in school settings; Tan, 1999) shapes minority youth outcomes, namely academic achievement.
Students’ perceptions of the school environment have an im- portant bearing on how they learn and behave in that context (Koth, Bradshaw, & Leaf, 2008). Multiculturalism, assessed at the subjective level, can provide critical insight into adolescents’ awareness of the psychological (e.g., perceptions of teachers’ attitudes), behavioral (e.g., interactions with diverse groups), and structural (e.g., school activities that involve diverse groups, mul- ticultural curriculum) dimensions of cultural diversity in school settings (Brand, Felner, Shim, Seitsinger, & Dumas, 2003). How- ever, the vast majority of past research has focused on the propor- tion of ethnically diverse groups in schools (i.e., structural diver- sity; school or classroom ethnic composition) or contact through desegregated schooling (Juvonen et al., 2006; Kurlaender & Yun, 2007). Most studies do not address how adolescents’ perceptions
Janet Chang, Department of Psychology, Trinity College; Thao N. Le, Department of Human Development and Family Studies, Colorado State University.
We are grateful for the assistance of Isami Arifuku, Lila Booth, Idean Ettekal, Gianna Tran, Chris Tsukida, Judy Wallen, and the National Coun- cil on Crime and Delinquency’s interns and field interviewers for their contribution and assistance in conducting this study. We also appreciate the invaluable feedback that we received from Michael Zárate, the reviewers, Misaki Natsuaki, and Rachel Dinero.
This publication was supported by Grant 1 U49 CE000743 from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Its contents are solely the responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official views of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Janet Chang, Trinity College, Psychology Department, 300 Summit Street, Hart- ford, CT 06106. E-mail: [email protected]
Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology © 2010 American Psychological Association 2010, Vol. 16, No. 4, 485– 492 1099-9809/10/$12.00 DOI: 10.1037/a0020654
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of multiculturalism reflect in some measure the school climate and how those perceptions affect minority youth achievement.
Studies investigating perceived multiculturalism as an aspect of school climate and its effect on the academic achievement of Asian American and Hispanic youth are remarkably scarce. Most nota- bly, limited research on perceived multiculturalism and academic achievement has not shed light on potential mechanisms by which multiculturalism positively influences achievement. These signif- icant shortcomings in past research have constrained our under- standing of how multiculturalism contributes in meaningful ways to the academic adjustment of minority youth. Accordingly, in the present study, we examined whether perceived school multicultur- alism (defined according to the aforementioned dimensions) was related to academic achievement, focusing on Asian American and Hispanic youth to allow for ethnic group comparisons. We also explored sociocultural factors as mediators of the relation between multiculturalism and academic achievement.
Multiculturalism as an Important Dimension of School Climate
Although school climate (i.e., social, educational, and structural aspects of the school environment that affect students’ experi- ences; Anderson, 1982; Brand et al., 2003) is a multidimensional construct and has been recognized as a significant contributor to adolescent development, including academic achievement (Esposito, 1999; Good & Weinstein, 1986; Griffith, 1995; Kuper- minc, Leadbeater, Emmons, & Blatt, 1997; Roeser & Eccles, 1998; Way, Reddy, & Rhodes, 2007), multiculturalism has been under- examined as a component of school climate (Green, Adams, & Turner, 1988; Mattison & Aber, 2007). This limitation in past research is noteworthy considering the relevance of multicultural- ism to minority students’ perceptions of school climate and the salience of ethnic/racial issues to minority youth, who undergo developmental changes that make them more adept at handling matters pertaining to ethnicity and race (Quintana, Castaneda- English, & Ybarra, 1999). In essence, multiculturalism has as- sumed a weaker role in adolescent development even in the face of evidence that it may be a substantial factor in shaping academic achievement for ethnic minority youth.
Previous research has shown that strengthening students’ per- ceptions of multiculturalism yields positive academic outcomes for minority youth. Tan (1999) found that Mexican American adoles- cents who had more positive perceptions of multiculturalism in their schools were more likely to report positive perceptions of their academic achievement, greater academic ease, and the incli- nation to remain in high school. Similarly, in validation studies of a multiculturalism subscale of a school climate measure by Brand et al. (2003), adolescents’ perceptions of multiculturalism were associated with positive academic adjustment for ethnic minority youth, although differences between ethnic groups were not delin- eated. Even after controlling for socioeconomic status, Brand and colleagues demonstrated that perceived multiculturalism is a com- pelling predictor of minority youth outcomes (e.g., greater aca- demic aspirations and psychosocial adjustment). Overall, these studies reinforce the value of assessing students’ subjective expe- riences of multiculturalism, and to date, appear to be the only published research on the relation between perceived school mul- ticulturalism and the academic achievement of minority youth. As
such, it remains unclear what mediators help account for the association between perceived multiculturalism and academic achievement.
Ethnic Identity and Ethnocultural Empathy as Potential Mediators
Students’ subjective experiences rooted in a school ethos sup- portive of multiculturalism have apparent benefits for minority youth achievement. However, few studies have examined potential mediators of school climate effects on psychological and behav- ioral outcomes among ethnic minority youth (e.g., Loukas, Suzuki, & Horton, 2006). Interventions that attend to issues of multicul- turalism and achievement would be remiss to not consider factors salient to minority youth that could account for school climate effects. Hence, examining ethnic identity and ethnocultural empa- thy—factors relevant to both Asian American and Hispanic youth that are associated with multiculturalism and academic out- comes—is integral to understanding the impact of perceived mul- ticulturalism on achievement. Testing multiple mediators further serves to elucidate that relation.
Ethnic identity is typically conceptualized as a strong, positive perceived connection to one’s ethnic group that promotes sharing of the predominant beliefs, attitudes, and values of that specific group (Phinney, 1990). Although it may initially seem counterin- tuitive, greater ethnic identification has been linked to students’ perceptions of multiculturalism. Factors such as the inclination of ethnically diverse students to interact to reach shared social and academic goals in school (Pellebon, 2000) and perceived positive interracial experiences (e.g., greater cultural awareness and inter- racial interaction; Wright & Littleford, 2002) have been shown to foster a stronger, more secure ethnic identity. Greater endorsement of multiculturalism is also associated with greater in-group iden- tification among minority group members (Verkuyten, 2005). Consistent with these findings, multicultural theoretical perspec- tives assert that multiethnic or pluralistic contexts strengthen the ethnic identity of individuals while cultivating positive evaluations of out-groups (LaFromboise, Coleman, & Gerton, 1993; Lambert & Taylor, 1990).
In addition to the positive association with multiculturalism, possessing a strong ethnic identity confers educational and psy- chosocial benefits (Oetting & Beauvais, 1991; Shelton et al., 2005). A number of studies have revealed a positive link between ethnic identification and the academic performance and adjustment of ethnic minority youth (e.g., Phinney, 1992). For example, Mexican and Chinese adolescents who reported greater ethnic identification expressed more favorable educational attitudes (Fuligni, Witkow, & Garcia, 2005). In a similar vein, Latino adolescents with well-formed ethnic identities were perceived by their teachers to have better school performance (e.g., grades, cooperation; Supple, Ghazarian, Frabutt, Plunkett, & Sands, 2006). Collectively, these findings indicate that ethnic identity may ac- count for the hypothesized relation between perceived multicul- turalism and academic achievement.
Like ethnic identity, ethnocultural empathy represents a poten- tial mechanism by which multiculturalism positively affects aca- demic achievement. In encounters and interactions with members of different ethnic minority groups, ethnocultural empathy encour- ages more favorable perceptions of ethnic groups different from
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one’s own. As an extension of basic empathy, ethnocultural em- pathy involves empathetic feelings directed toward an out-group target (Wang et al., 2003). Although intergroup conflict is an undeniable issue in increasingly diverse educational contexts (U.S. Department of Education, 2005), multicultural school settings lend themselves to greater opportunities to build ethnocultural or out- group empathy and, as a result, lessen hostility toward ethnic out-groups (Cohen & Insko, 2008; Nesdale, Griffith, Durkin, & Maass, 2005). Past research has shown that being in multiethnic contexts fosters greater empathy toward individuals from different ethnic groups (Boisjoly, Duncan, Kremer, Levy, & Eccles, 2006). In educational settings where multiculturalism is valued, ethnocul- tural empathy reduces negative aspects of minority adolescents’ environment (e.g., intergroup conflict, alienation) and, conse- quently, promotes a connection to school and better academic outcomes.
Given that learning is socially embedded (Vygotsky, 1978), it is not surprising that affective processes influence academic achieve- ment (Zins, Payton, Weissberg, & O’Brien, 2007). There is in- creasing evidence that empathy, including ethnocultural empathy, is predictive of academic outcomes (Aronson, 2002; Feshbach & Feshbach, 2009). Feshbach and Feshbach (1987) found that greater empathy in 8- to 9-year-old girls was predictive of their achieve- ment 2 years later in the areas of reading and spelling. Moreover, cooperative learning in an ethnically diverse group of students enhances the ability of youth to empathize with peers from cul- turally diverse backgrounds, thereby lessening stereotyping ten- dencies, reducing prejudice, and improving academic outcomes (Aronson, 2002). Research on social and emotional learning also attests to the value of building perspective-taking abilities and empathizing with those different from one’s cultural background to nurture academic success (Zins et al., 2007). In multiethnic school settings where the potential for intergroup conflict exists, students are more equipped for and engaged in learning when they experience greater ethnocultural or out-group empathy; facilitating cooperative interactions among diverse students fosters positive attitudes toward school (e.g., feeling of community) and better academic motivation and outcomes. Thus, schools that cultivate a climate promoting empathy for diverse groups are likely to pro- duce greater academic success than schools that overlook the value of compassion and tolerance for diversity.
The Present Study
Based on the aforementioned research findings, we hypothe- sized that perceived school multiculturalism would be positively related to academic achievement. Consistent with Tan’s (1999) research, we expected students’ perceptions of the value and emphasis placed on cultural diversity in school settings to be predictive of academic achievement among Hispanic youth. Al- though there are no known studies on perceived multiculturalism’s effects on the academic achievement of Asian American youth, the Brand et al. (2003) findings suggest that multiculturalism is ben- eficial to ethnic minority youth more generally. Thus, the same prediction was extended to Asian American adolescents.
In light of past research, we hypothesized that ethnic identity and ethnocultural empathy would mediate the association between perceived multiculturalism and academic achievement. In the present study, ethnocultural empathy encompassed adolescents’
endorsement of multiculturalism, reflecting perceptions of their own level of cultural sensitivity (Wang et al., 2003). Adolescents who report greater perceptions of school support for multicultur- alism likely have more cultural empathy and favorable individual attitudes toward multiculturalism.
Method
The present analyses centered on secondary data obtained through a larger evaluation study of an afterschool, community- based youth program in Oakland, California. More information about the sample is available in Le, Lai, and Wallen (2009).
Participants
The sample comprised 280 youth who self-identified as Asian (n � 155) or Hispanic (n � 125) and ranged in age from 11 to 15 years old (M � 12.8 years). Among Asian American youth, the majority were either of Chinese (45%) or Vietnamese (37%) descent. Among Hispanic youth, the majority identified as Mexi- can (86%), followed by Central American (10%), Caribbean (2%), and other Latino (2%). More than half of Asian American youth were second generation (55%), 21% were first generation, and 7% were third generation or higher. Among Hispanic youth, nearly half were second generation (46%), more than 25% were first generation, and 9% were third generation or higher. In both groups, a small percentage (17%) did not know their generation status. There were more Asian American boys (53%) than Asian American girls (47%); the pattern was comparable although re- versed for Hispanic youth (47% boys, 53% girls). The Asian American sample had slightly more 13-year-olds than the Hispanic sample (36% vs. 28%, respectively), whereas the Hispanic sample had slightly more 12-year-olds than the Asian American sample (41% vs. 29%, respectively). The two groups had comparable percentages of 14- and 15-year-olds. All the youth resided in the same geographic area that was reflective of a low-income and an ethnically heterogeneous neighborhood.
Procedure
As noted earlier, youth were recruited from a community-based afterschool program from a middle school in the Oakland area. Youth who did not participate in this program but attended the same middle school were also recruited. A school attendance list was generated from which nonprogram youth were randomly selected to participate, matched by age, ethnicity, and gender. As such, the program and nonprogram youth were comparable on demographics. They completed questionnaires on laptop comput- ers in a 45-min session in a designated room at the school.
Verbal and written parental consent and youth assent were obtained prior to the start of the study. Participants received $25 for their participation. The Human Subjects Committee at the University of California, Berkeley approved the study.
Measures
In the present study, the internal reliabilities of the measures were reasonably high for both ethnic groups (see Table 1), with most alpha values .82 and greater. The exception was perceived school multiculturalism for Asian Americans (� � .76).
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Perceived school multiculturalism. Four items from the In- ventory of School Climate—Student Version were used to assess students’ perceptions of school support for multiculturalism (Brand et al., 2003). Previous research has demonstrated accept- ability reliability of this scale in ethnically diverse samples (Brand et al., 2003). Youth ranked the frequency (1 � never, 2 � hardly ever, 3 � sometimes, 4 � often) of diverse students being involved in significant school activities, their teachers’ support of racial harmony, and opportunities to learn about diverse cultures and ethnic groups in the curriculum and to work with diverse students in school activities. In the present study, items were averaged, and higher values indicated greater perceived school support for mul- ticulturalism.
Ethnic identity. Ethnic identity was assessed using 12 items from the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (Phinney, 1992). This measure has been shown to have high reliability in ethnically diverse adolescent samples (Phinney, Ferguson, & Tate, 1997). The items on the scale reflected several features of ethnic identity, including exploration, validation, belongingness, and commitment. On a 4-point scale (1 � strongly agree; 4 � strongly disagree), youth rated the extent to which they agreed with statements re- garding different aspects of their ethnic identity, including positive feelings (e.g., cultural pride). Responses to these items were re- verse scored and averaged, with higher scores reflecting more positive perceptions of one’s ethnic identity.
Ethnocultural empathy. Ten items from the Scale of Eth- nocultural Empathy (Wang et al., 2003) assessed empathic under- standing and appreciation of ethnic and cultural diversity. In val- idation studies of the scale, the measure was found to have acceptable reliability (Wang et al., 2003). Using a 6-point scale (1 � strongly disagree; 6 � strongly agree), youth rated the extent to which they agreed with statements regarding feeling at ease with individuals of a different cultural background, valuing others’ cultural norms and practices, being aware of diversity, understand- ing and advocating for those encountering discrimination, and experiencing pride in the accomplishments of others. Higher av- erage values across these items indicated greater ethnocultural empathy.
Academic achievement. Academic achievement was as- sessed using the official grade point average that was reported on
youths’ school records. Higher values reflected greater academic achievement.
Analysis
Structural equation modeling using Mplus 5.1 (L. K. Muthén & Muthén, 2008) was used to test the relations among perceived school multiculturalism, academic achievement, and the two hy- pothesized mediators. For the constructs of perceived school mul- ticulturalism, ethnic identity, and ethnocultural empathy, three- item parcels formed each of these latent variables, as recommended by Kishton and Widaman (1994). Using three indi- cators per construct is advantageous as it provides a more reliable and stable measure; furthermore, this strategy has been widely recommended in structural equation modeling (e.g., B. O. Muthén, 2002). Measurement models were first developed and tested for fit, parsimony, and invariance across two ethnic groups (i.e., Asian Americans and Hispanics). Conducting measurement invariance is essential for group comparisons to ensure that the measures and scales mean the same (e.g., indicators load onto the latent con- struct) across the groups. Once measurement invariance is ascer- tained, then analyses can proceed to structural invariance to assess whether the paths are similar across groups. Next, we examined structural models of no mediation, partial mediation, and full mediation. We estimated the effects of multiple mediators simul- taneously because multiple mediation models can examine the mediation effect of one variable, controlling for the effects of other mediators in the model (Preacher & Hayes, 2008).
Results
Descriptive Statistics
With respect to the manifest variables, there were generally no significant ethnic differences (see Table 1), although Asian Amer- ican youth had higher levels of academic achievement compared with their Hispanic counterparts. Perceived school multicultural- ism was significantly positively related to ethnocultural empathy and academic achievement in Asian American youth (r � .27 and r � .16, p � .05, respectively) and in Hispanic youth (r � .40 and r � .20, p � .05, respectively). On the other hand, the relation between school multiculturalism and ethnic identity was not sta- tistically significant (r � .07, ns, and r � .17, p � .10, for Asian Americans and Hispanics, respectively). Ethnic identity was sig- nificantly positively related to academic achievement among His- panics (r � .24, p � .05) but not significantly associated with achievement among Asian Americans (r � .15, p � .10). Eth- nocultural empathy was positively related to academic achieve- ment among Asian Americans (r � .17, p � .05) and Hispanics (r � .22, p � .05).
Measurement Models
Table 2 displays the values of the fit indexes for different levels of measurement factorial invariance for the Asian American and Hispanic groups. For good model fit, Hu and Bentler (1999) recommended that the comparative fit index (CFI) should equal or exceed .95 and the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) should be less than .06. Values for the Tucker–Lewis
Table 1 Means, Standard Deviations, and Reliabilities of Manifest Variables
Measure M SD �
School multiculturalism Asian 3.13a 0.63 .76 Hispanic 3.16a 0.76 .82
Academic achievement Asian 3.07a 0.74 .93 Hispanic 2.44b 0.81 .88
Ethnic identity Asian 3.14a 0.48 .88 Hispanic 3.14a 0.60 .92
Ethnocultural empathy Asian 3.73a 1.06 .90 Hispanic 3.85a 1.34 .93
Note. Different subscripts denote significantly different means.
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index (TLI) that are equal to or greater than .95 also suggest good fit. Results revealed that strict factorial invariance (i.e., equality constraints on factor loadings, means, intercepts, variances) was defensible because the observed fit statistics (�2/df ratio � 1.36, RMSEA � .051, TLI � .977, CFI � .980) were better or com- parable to the baseline model of configural invariance and to the other models. Strict factorial invariance represented the most par- simonious model. Thus, direct relations among the path coeffi- cients in the subsequent structural models as well as direct mean comparisons on both the latent and manifest levels between Asian Americans and Hispanics (see Table 1) could be reasonably as- sessed.
Structural Models
Given the results of measurement invariance, structural invari- ance was next investigated where three structural models were compared with strict factorial measurement invariance constraints maintained. That is, for all factors, each factor indicator loading and intercept was constrained to be equal across both ethnic groups. The fit index values of the three models are presented in Table 2. In the no mediation models, school multiculturalism and the mediator(s) were modeled as separate predictors of academic achieve- ment. In the partial mediation models, school multiculturalism was a predictor of both the mediator(s) and academic achievement, while a path from the mediator(s) to academic achievement was also speci- fied. In the full mediation models, a path was specified from school multiculturalism to academic achievement through the mediator(s) (i.e., no path was specified from school multiculturalism to aca- demic achievement).
Results revealed that the full mediation model represented the best fitting model, compared with the no mediation and partial mediation models. The full mediation model was the most parsi- monious, with slightly better or comparable fit statistics (see Table 2). Structural paths for the full mediation model are displayed in Figure 1, with specific values shown for Hispanic youth. Perceived school multiculturalism was a strong predictor of ethnocultural empathy, and ethnocultural empathy, in turn, predicted academic achievement for Hispanic youth. Although school multiculturalism was not a significant predictor of ethnic identity, ethnic identity was significantly predictive of academic achievement for Hispan- ics. For Asian American youth, there was a significant path only between school multiculturalism and ethnocultural empathy (.33, p � .05). In terms of explained variances, school multiculturalism
accounted for about 11% and 20% of the variance in ethnocultural empathy for Asian Americans and Hispanics, respectively. For ethnic identity, school multiculturalism contributed very little ex- plained variance (about 1%). Together, the predictors accounted for about 12% and 27% of explained variance in academic achievement for Asian Americans and Hispanics, respectively.
We then conducted bootstrapping to assess the effects of the two mediators, ethnocultural empathy and ethnic identity, as recom- mended by Preacher and Hayes (2008). Bootstrapping is a non- parametric resampling procedure used with small sample sizes to obtain more precise estimates. If zero lies outside the confidence intervals, then the null hypothesis of no direct effect is rejected. The bootstrap estimates presented were based on 5,000 bootstrap samples. As shown in Table 3, taken as a set, ethnocultural empathy and ethnic identity do mediate the effect of school mul- ticulturalism on academic achievement, with the effect contributed mainly by ethnocultural empathy, but only for Hispanics. Since the 95% confidence intervals (the results of bootstrapping) did not contain zero for ethnocultural empathy in the Hispanic sample, ethnocultural empathy was a significant mediator of the indirect effect.
Discussion
In the present study, we sought to determine whether perceived school multiculturalism positively influences the academic achievement of Hispanic and Asian American youth and to dem- onstrate support for ethnic identity and ethnocultural empathy as potential mechanisms that account for the hypothesized relation. On the whole, the results provide partial support for the impact of perceived school multiculturalism on academic achievement, with respect to one of the proposed mediators. Specifically, Hispanics’
Table 2 Fit Indexes of Invariance Measurement and Structural Models
Model �2 df p �2/df ��2 �df ��2/df RMSEA TLI CFI
Measurement Baseline (all mediators) (configural invariance) 78.49 50 .01 1.57 1435.98 40 35.90 .064 .964 .980 Model 00 � � invariant (weak factorial invariance) 81.07 60 .04 1.35 1433.40 30 47.78 .051 .978 .985 Model 01 � � invariant (strong factorial invariance) 98.00 68 .01 1.44 1416.42 22 64.39 .057 .972 .979 Model 02 � invariant (strict factorial invariance) 106.31 78 .02 1.36 1408.16 12 117.35 .051 .977 .980
Structural No mediation (all mediators) 81.07 60 .04 1.35 1433.40 30 47.78 .051 .978 .985 Partial mediation (all mediators) 81.07 56 .02 1.45 1433.40 34 42.16 .057 .972 .982 Full mediation (all mediators) 83.29 62 .04 1.34 1431.18 28 51.11 .050 .978 .985
Note. RMSEA � root mean square error of approximation; TLI � Tucker–Lewis index; CFI � comparative fit index.
.11
School Mul�culturalism
.36*
Academic Achievement
.45* .30* Ethnocultural
Empathy
Ethnic Iden�ty
Figure 1. Full mediation model of school multiculturalism on academic achievement through ethnocultural empathy and ethnic identity.
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favorable views of school support for multiculturalism were asso- ciated with increased empathy for ethnic out-groups, which in turn was significantly related to greater academic achievement. Al- though some of the effects associated with ethnic identity were in the expected direction, only ethnocultural empathy emerged as a significant mediator in the full mediation model for Hispanics. These findings are in line with past research suggesting that perceived multiculturalism (Tan, 1999) and other-group orienta- tion (i.e., tendency to interact with others from a different ethnic/ cultural background than one’s own; Guzman et al., 2005) are associated with better academic outcomes for Hispanic youth.
As a noteworthy contribution to understanding school climate effects on achievement, the present study is the first to shed light on a pathway (i.e., ethnocultural empathy) by which perceived school multiculturalism operates for Hispanic youth. The main findings speak to the value of promoting social and emotional learning in schools (Zins et al., 2007). Fostering empathy toward those different from one’s own ethnic background can enhance the relation between perceived multiculturalism and academic achievement among Hispanics, perhaps by minimizing the poten- tial for intergroup conflict (Nesdale et al., 2005) and contributing to a climate conducive to learning (Aronson, 2002). Because the cross-sectional nature of the present study precludes making causal inferences, longitudinal studies are needed to investigate the di- rectionality of the direct and indirect effects. Alternatively, it is conceivable that doing well in school makes one more empathetic and tolerant of diverse groups and, therefore, more likely to have positive perceptions of school multiculturalism.
Although the mediational role of ethnocultural empathy was not substantiated by the findings for Asian Americans, the results suggest that multiculturalism has the potential to improve eth- nocultural empathy in Asian American youth. Like Hispanic youth, Asian American youths’ perceptions of school support for cultural diversity appeared to foster greater empathic understand- ing of ethnic out-groups. This finding resonates with theoretical perspectives that extol the virtues of multiculturalism for improv- ing intergroup relations (LaFromboise et al., 1993; Lambert & Taylor, 1990). In effect, Hispanics and Asian Americans may develop an increased capacity during adolescence to form multi- cultural perspectives embracing intergroup interaction and to em- pathize with ethnic out-groups (Quintana et al., 1999). Moreover, for Asian American youth, the effects of multiculturalism may be limited to domains (e.g., interpersonal) other than academic achievement given that the predictors in the present analyses
accounted for only 12% of the explained variance in achievement. Furthermore, parental factors and cultural resources theorized to promote academic achievement, unmeasured in the current study, may be more salient predictors of achievement among certain Asian American groups (Chang & Le, 2005).
The present findings did not support ethnic identity as a medi- ator of the relation between perceived multiculturalism and aca- demic achievement. On the one hand, the significant path between ethnic identity and academic achievement in the Hispanic sample corroborates the well-documented link between ethnic identifica- tion and academic adjustment (e.g., Phinney, 1992). On the other hand, there was no support for the association between multicul- turalism and ethnic identity (e.g., Verkuyten, 2005). Quite possi- bly, using alternative measures or methods (e.g., behavioral), rather than self-report measures used in the current study, may better encapsulate dimensions of ethnic identity (Tsai, Chentsova- Dutton, & Wong, 2002) related to subjective experiences of mul- ticulturalism.
This study represents an important step in addressing the role of perceived multiculturalism in school settings among ethnic minor- ity youth, but more research is needed. First, in addition to the subjective assessment of school multiculturalism, it is important to consider other forms of multiculturalism that contribute to school climate, including ethnic diversity, racial climate, and the conflu- ence of these factors. Ethnically diverse school environments may promote positive psychosocial developmental outcomes (e.g., Juvonen et al., 2006; Santos, Ortiz, Morales, & Rosales, 2007). Greater ethnic heterogeneity within schools with larger numbers of minority students has been found to predict better academic out- comes for all students, irrespective of their own ethnic background (Goza & Ryabov, 2009). However, the benefits of ethnic diversity may be constrained by racial climate. Mattison and Aber (2007) found that views regarding inequities and experiences related to race in school partially accounted for differences between African American and White American high school students, with the former having more negative views of the racial climate and experiencing more negative academic and discipline outcomes.
Second, it is possible that the effects of multiculturalism on academic achievement may be more substantial in less ethnically diverse areas where power relations between different ethnic groups are unbalanced (Juvonen et al., 2006). According to the American Community Survey, demographic estimates of Oakland revealed that the majority of individuals are ethnic minorities, with only 34% who are White (U.S. Census Bureau, 2006). Oakland
Table 3 Mediation of the Effect of School Multiculturalism on Academic Achievement Through Ethnic Identity and Ethnocultural Empathy
Variable
Point estimate SE Z
Bootstrapping 95% CI
Lower Upper
Asian Hispanic Asian Hispanic Asian Hispanic Asian Hispanic Asian Hispanic
Ethnic identity 0.01 0.04 0.03 0.06 0.40 0.59 �0.05 �0.09 0.08 0.16 Ethnocultural empathy 0.08 0.14 0.06 0.07 1.29 2.03 �0.04 0.01 0.21 0.27 Total 0.10 0.17 0.07 0.08 1.37 2.06 �0.04 0.01 0.23 0.34 Ethnic identity vs. Ethnocultural empathy �0.05 �0.07 0.05 0.07 �0.95 �1.00 �0.18 �0.20 0.03 0.08
Note. CI � confidence interval.
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youth in the present study may be more accustomed to ethnic diversity rather than monocultural environments in which they do not represent the majority. Nonetheless, multiculturalism is likely beneficial in educational settings ranging in levels of structural diversity, including ethnically diverse ones.
Third, other mediators, such as school connectedness (Loukas et al., 2006; Nichols, 2008), may contribute to the relation between multiculturalism and academic achievement. For Hispanic youth, facilitating bonds to school may be one mechanism by which perceived multiculturalism exerts its impact on academic achieve- ment. Taking into account the immigration status of Hispanic youth is also important, although beyond the scope of the present study because of limitations in sample size. Highlighting the benefits of multiculturalism, Portes and Zhou (1993) asserted that immigrant youth who continue ties to ethnic social networks and establish cross-ethnic relationships will flourish academically. For Hispanic youth from immigrant backgrounds, multicultural issues may be particularly salient as they negotiate the processes of acculturation and enculturation (Phinney, Horenczyk, Liebkind, & Vedder, 2001).
Overall, the present findings underscore the importance of mul- ticulturalism as a component of school climate and the role of schools as socializing agents. Looking beyond structural diversity, this study suggests that being in a social and academic milieu where cultural diversity is valued may result in meaningful changes in tolerance for diversity and compassion toward ethnic out-groups among Asian American and Hispanic youth and, con- sequently, better academic outcomes for Hispanic youth. Indeed, students respond to the school environment as they perceive or experience it (Koth et al., 2008). Students’ perceptions of multi- culturalism mirror the social and academic ethos of the school, reflecting messages about diversity transmitted through school activities, social interactions, and teachers’ attitudes. In short, both schools and educators can play an instrumental role in developing and implementing initiatives that foster a climate supportive of multiculturalism.
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