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artiries Biculturalism and Academic Achievement

of African American High School Students Jonathan P. Rust, Margo A. Jackson, Joseph G. Ponterotto,

and Fran C. Blumberg

Biculturalism was examined as a factor that may positively affect the academic achievement of African American high school students, beyond cultural identity and self-esteem. Hierarchical regression analyses determined that cultural identity and academic self-esteem were important factors for academic achieve- ment, but not biculturalism. Implications and future research are discussed.

Se examinó el biculturalismo como un factor que puede afectar positiva- mente al rendimiento académico de los alumnos de educación secundaria Afroamericanos, más allá de la identidad cultural y la autoestima. Los análisis de regresión jerárquica determinaron que la identidad cultural y la autoestima académica fueron factores importantes para el rendimiento académico, pero no el biculturalismo. Se discutieron implicaciones e investigaciones futuras.

I n the past 30 years, the academic achievement gap between African Ameri- can and European American students has been reduced (Kao & Thompson, 2003). However, even when the variable of socioeconomic status is controlled,

African American students still perform significantly less well academically than do European American students in test scores, grades, educational attainment, and dropout rates (Kao & Thompson, 2003). Various explanations have focused on the social and structural barriers with which African Americans must con- tend, such as racism; academic tracking and teachers' expectations; stereotyp- ing and stereotype threat; and limited access to social, political, and economic power and resources (Diamond, 2006; Lawrence, Crocker, & Dweck, 2005). Toward the goal of informing more effecdve interventions to further reduce this academic achievement disparity, we invesdgated biculturalism as a factor that may positively predict the academic performance of African American students beyond the effects of cultural identity and self-esteem.

niltnrai Hifferenrps One influence on the lower academic performance of African American stu- dents may be differences between African American and mainstream American

Jonathan P. Rust, Department of Psychology, State University of New York at New Paltz; Margo A. fackson andfoseph G. Ponterotto, Counseling Psychology, and Fran C. Blumberg, Educational Psychology, Fordham University. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Jonathan P. Rust, Department of Psychology, State University of New York at New Paltz, 600 Hawk Drive, New Paltz, NY 12561 (e-mail: rustj@newpaltz. edu).

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cultures, especially as espoused in schools. Schools in the United States are socializing agents that reflect, use, and teach the cultural norms and values of mainstream American society (Maryshow, Hurley, Allen, Tyler, & Boykin, 2005). These include a focus on individualism and compedtion, whereas Afri- can American culture emphasizes collectivism and cooperadon (Maryshow et al., 2005). Research has found the cultural values associated with the learning styles of African American students to be significantly different than the cultural values that form the basis of the pedagogy in schools (Maryshow et al., 2005). Payne (2005) discussed these cultural differences in terms of socioeconomic status, where schools use the norms and values or "hidden rules" (p. 9) associ- ated with middle-class American culture, which may be very different from the culture of minority students living in poverty.

Thus, part of the academic disparity between African American and European American students may arise from the dissonance between African American students' understanding of their own cultural norms and values and those of the mainstream society instilled in schools. As a result of this dissonance, as well as the continued sociocultural obstacles that African Americans must negodate (i.e., racism), many African American students may disidentify with academic achievement by not incorporadng it into their self-concept or self- esteem (Good, Dweck, & Aronson, 2007).

hiniltnraiism and niltiiral iHpntity The extant research has found that a strong cultural/ethnic idendty, the extent to which an individual idendfies with, pardcipates in, and feels posidvely about his or her cultural/ethnic group, helps individuals deal with conflict related to intercultural contact, acculturadve stress, and second culture acquisidon (Constandne, Alleyne, Wallace, & Franklin-Jackson, 2006). A strong cultural idendty for minority youth is associated with protecdve developmental factors such as higher self-esteem and coping skills, as well as higher academic performance, cognidve ability, and school adjustment (Oyserman, Brickman, & Rhodes, 2007). Biculturalism and cultural idendty are related but disdnct concepts in that biculturiJ individuals have strong cultural/ethnic idenddes in two cultures (LaFromboise, Coleman, & Gerton, 1995).

Biculturalism is defined as one's sense of belonging to two different cultures without losing sense of one's original cultural identity; one's ability to dif- ferentiate between the rules, norms, and values of both; and one's ability to interact in both cultures without relating them in a hierarchical manner (LaFromboise et al., 1995). Biculturalism has been found to be an adaptive way for racial/ethnic minorities to deal with second culture interactions and the resultant acculturative stress (Carter, 2006). Bicultural individuals exhibit higher cognitive functioning, higher self-esteem, and a stronger sense of well- being than do monocultural individuals (LaFromboise et al., 1995).

In the present study, biculturalism was conceptualized as relevant to African American high school students and their sense of belonging and understand-

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ing the norms and values in both mainstream American and African American cultures. Oetting and Beauvais (1990-1991) examined the positive effects of hiculturalism for Mexican American and Native American youth. Klonoff and Landrine (2000) examined the acculturation process for African American adults. Yet no known stndies have specifically examined the influence of hi- culturalism on the psychosocial functioning of African American adolescents. Relevant to academic achievement, Oyserman, Kemmelmeier, Fryherg, Brosh, and Hart-Johnson (2003) found that hicultnralism correlated positively with the academic grades of minority students and buffered them from the effects of stereotype threat. However, they did not specifically delineate their findings with African American students. To better understand how cultural factors may affect the academic performance of African American students, we in- vestigated biculturalism as a factor that may positively predict their academic performance heyond the influence of cultural identity.

self-esteem Self-esteem is a factor positively related to cultnral identity and hiculturalism (LaFromhoise et al., 1995). However, no significant relationship hits heen found between global self-esteem and academic performance for African American high school students (Sirin & Rogers-Sirin, 2004). Research specific to academic self- esteem and the academic achievement of African American students is limited and inconclusive (Cunningham, Hurley, Foney, & Hayes, 2002). Therefore, both global and academic self-esteem were included in this study to clarify their relationship to the academic achievement of African American students and to determine how these two variables might interact with biculturalism and cultural identity. In this study, global self-esteem is defined as an individual's overall judgments of competency regarding one's self-worth, and academic self-esteem is defined as one's academic judgments of competency regarding one's self-worth (Harter, 1988).

hypotheses It was proposed that being hicultural may provide more cognitive-affective and social support for African American high school students' academic achievement than having a positive cultural identification with one's culture. The study examined the relationship between biculturalism, cultural identity, global self-esteem, and academic self-esteem relative to the academic achievement of African American high school students. The hypotheses were as follows: (a) hiculturalism will he positively related to cultural identity, glohal self-esteem, academic self-esteem, and academic achievement; (h) hiculturalism will account for more variance in academic achievement than will cultural identity and glohal self-esteem; and (c) biculturalism will account for more variance in academic achievement than will cultural identity and academic self-esteem. Bivariate correlations and hierarchical multiple regressions were conducted to address these hypotheses.

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method PARTICIPANTS

Participants were 190 high school students in a northeastern U.S. metropoli- tan area from schools (83.2%, n = 158) and summer enrichment programs ( 16.8%, n = 32). All participants self-identified as being ethnically or culturally African American or Black. The sample was 65.8% female and 34.2% male. Participants' ages ranged from 13 to 19 years (M= 15.56, SD= 1.21). Approxi- mately 24% were in ninth grade, 27% were in 10th grade, 31% were in 11th grade, and 18% were in 12th grade. For each participant's high school, the percentage of the student body eligible to receive free lunch was used as a broad indicator of socioeconomic status. Approximately 41% of the students came from four high schools in which more than two thirds were eligible for free lunch, 14% came from three high schools in which one third to two thirds were eligible for free lunch, and 44% came from nine high schools in which up to one third were eligible for free lunch.

PROCEDURE

Participants were recruited from schools and academic enrichment programs that served African American students through brief presentations by the first author in classes or groups. Midway through the recruitment process, in order to achieve an adequate sample size, $10 gift certificates were offered as an incentive, which yielded 16 participants (8.4% of the sample). Informed consent was obtained from students and their parent or guardian. After the demographic questionnaire, the remaining four surveys were administered in a counterbalanced manner to control for order effects.

INSTRUMENTS

Academic achievement was determined based on participants' report cards from the previous school year. An overall average of academic grades was determined across four main subjects: English, math, science, and social studies. Most report card grades were reported as percentages. Letter grades were converted to percentages as follows: A-i- = 98.5, A = 94.5, A- = 91.5, B-i- = 88.5, B = 84.5, B- = 81.5, C+ = 78.5, C = 74.5, C- = 71.5, D+ = 68.5, D = 65, and F = 55. The mean grade averages ranged from 44.75 to 98.25.

The Orthogonal Cultural Identification Scale (OCIS; Oetting & Beauvais, 1990-1991) was the primary measure of biculturalism. The OCIS has two 6-item scales that assess how much respondents and their families live according to the traditions, ideas of success, and lifestyles of their own racial/cultural group (Orthogonal Cultural Identification Scale-African American [OCIS-AA]) and those of mainstream American culture (Orthogonal Cultural Identification Scale-White [OCIS-W]). Each item is responded to on a 4-point Likert-type scale (4 = a Zoi, 3 = some, 2 = not much, and 1 = none). Eor this study, mean

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scores of 2.5 or greater on hoth the OCIS-AA and the OCIS-W were identified as hicultural. This study variahle was coded as "Bicultural 1."

The construct validity of the OCIS was supported (hy confirmatory factor analyses) for Mexican American and Native American adolescents (Oetting, Swaim, &Chiarella, 1998) and for Asian American undergraduates (Johnson, Wall, Guanipa, Terry-Guyer, & Velasquez, 2002). Preliminary evidence sup- porting the construct validity of the OCIS for African American adolescents was found in a pilot study hy Rust (2008). Oetting and Beauvais (1990-1991) reported coefficient alphas for the OCIS in the low .90s.

The African American Acculturation Scale-Revised (AAAS-R; Klonoff & Landrine, 2000) was a second scale used in this study to measure hicultural- ism. The AAAS-R, a 47-item scale, assesses acculturation of African Americans. High scores reflect adherence to traditional African American culture, low scores reflect acculturation into mainstream American culture, and intermedi- ate scores reflect hicultural identity. The items are rated on a 7-point Likert- type scale ranging from 1 {I totally disagree/not true at all) to 7 {Istrongly agree/ absolutely true). For this study, mean scores hetween 3 and 5 were identified as hicultural. This variahle was coded as "Bicultural 2."

The validity of the AAAS-R was demonstrated with African American adults (Klonoff & Landrine, 2000), and preliminary evidence supported its con- current validity with the OCIS for African American adolescents in the pilot study hy Rust (2008). In the present study, the AAAS-R was included as a one- dimensional measure of acculturation to assess concurrent validity evidence with the OCIS. The internal consistency for the AAAS-R reported hy Klonoff and Landrine (2000) was .93.

The Multi-Group Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM; Phinney, 1992) was used to measure cultural/ethnic identity. The MEIM is composed of 15 items, 12 of which are used for scoring (Roherts et al., 1999). Respondents rate each item on a 4-point Likert-type scale (1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = agree, and 4 = strongly agree). The validity of the MEIM has heen demonstrated for various adolescent ethnic groups, including African Americans, with adequate reliahility (Cronhach's a = .84; Roherts et al., 1999).

The Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents (SPPA; Harter, 1988) was used to measure self-esteem. The SPPA has 45 items that assess respondents' per- ceived competence on nine domains. The Glohal Self-Worth and the Scholastic Competence suhscales, hoth of which contain five items each, were used in this study. Items are presented in a structured alternative format in which respondents are given two opposite descriptions and are to choose the one that hest descrihes them. They then answer if that description is sort of true for me or really true for me. Mean scores can range from 1 to 4, with higher scores suggesting higher self-concept in that particular domain. The validity of the SPPA has heen demonstrated for European American adolescents (Harter, 1988) and African American adolescents (Thompson & Zand, 2002), and coefficient alphas have ranged from .70s to .90s.

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results Table 1 presents the descriptive statistics and bivariate correlations among tbe research variables. Cultural identity correlated with (a) global self-esteem (r = .31, p< .01), (b) academic self-esteem (r= .18, p< .01), and (c) academic achievement (r= .17, p< .05). Academic self-esteem correlated positively with academic grades (r= .38, p< .01).

Some unexpected significant correlations are of note. First, the correlation between Bicultural 1 and tbe OCIS-W (r= .80, jö< .01) was much stronger than the correlation between Bicultural 1 and the OCIS-AA (r= .24, p< .01). There- fore, the more a student identified with mainstream American culture, tbe more likely he or she was to be bicultural. However, the converse was not as true. The more a student identified with African American culture, the more he or she was not as likely to be bicultural. Next, Bicultural 2 was negatively correlated with cultural identity (r = -.18, p < .05) and African American acculturation (r = -.27, p< .01). This indicates that the midrange scores (3-5) of the AAAS-R, which were used to determine biculturalism, were inversely related to higher levels of African American cultural identification. This finding may call into question the validity of Bicultural 2 as a measure of biculturalism.

On biculturalism, 98 participants (51.6%) met the criterion for tbe Bicultural 1 variable (i.e., mean scores of 2.5 and higher on the OCIS-AA and OCIS- W). One hundred fifty (79%) met the criterion for the Bicultural 2 variable

TABLE 1

Correlations, Descriptive Statistics, and Cronbacii's Aipha of Research Variables

Variable

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

8. 9.

BC1 OCIS-AA OCIS-W BC2 MEiM OCIS-AA OCIS-W AAAS-R SPPA- GSW SPPA-SC Grades

.04 -.01

.24**

.80** -.10

.04

.06 -.07

-.18* -.09 -.03 -.27**

.01 -.07 -.03

.25**

.05

.30**

.31**

.18*

.17*

—

.21**

.17*

.18* -.09

— -.09

.02

.02 -.01

—

-.07 -.09 -.09

— .48** .11

— .38**

—

3.37 2.99 4.74 3.11 3.23 2.45 4.21

3.12 2.93

75.41

0.40 0.38 1.28 0.47 0.58 0.69 0.79

0.61 0.65

10.09

.72

.77

.86

.65

.72

Note. BC 1 = Bicultural 1 : Orthogonal Cultural Identification Scale-African American (OCIS-AA) and Orthogonal Cultural Identification Scale-White (OCIS-W)—scores 2.5 and higher; BC 2 = Bicultural 2: African American Acculturation Scale-Revised (AAAS-R)—scores between 3 and 5; MEIM = Multi-Group Ethnic Identity Measure; SPPA-GSW = Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents-Global Self-Worth; SPPA-SC = Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents-Scholastic Competence; Grades = academic average. * p < .05. **p< .01.

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(i.e., mean scores hetween 3 and 5 on the AAAS-R). Preliminary t tests and a one-way analysis of variance were conducted to determine whether potential confounding variahles affected academic grades. Significant differences were found in academic grades for year in high school (YIS), f(3, 186) = 3.39, p < .05 (ninth-grade M= 73.6, lOth-grade M = 74.7, llth-grade M = 74.7, 12th-grade M= 80.2); for participants in an academic enrichment program (AEP), i(38.86) = 2.25, /?< .05 (AEP M= 79.7 vs. non-AEP M= 74.5); and for students who received a gift certificate incentive (RGC) to participate in the study, «(188) = 2.91, />< .01 (RGC M= 68.7 vs. non-RGC M= 76.0).

Given that Bicultural 1 and Bicultural 2 were not significantly correlated, hiculturalism as measured in this study may not he a unified construct. There- fore, four separate hierarchical multiple regressions were conducted, two with Bicultural 1 and two with Bicultural 2. In all four regression equations, the confounding variahles (i.e., YIS, AEP, and RGC) were entered into Block 1 to control for their effects. Gultural identity and self-esteem (glohal or academic self-esteem depending on the hypothesis being examined) were entered in Block 2 given that cultural identity has heen found to he linked to self-esteem and academic achievement (Oetting & Beauvais, 1990-1991; Roherts et al., 1999). Biculturalism (Bicultural 1 or Bicultural 2) was entered in Block 3 to determine whether it predicted academic achievement heyond Blocks 1 and 2.

In Block 1 of the first hierarchical multiple regression analysis, the con- founding variahles were significant, F(3, 186) = 7.01, p< .Q\, predicting 10% of the variance in academic grades. In Block 2, glohal self-esteem and cultural identity were significant, F(2, 184) = 3.60, p < .05, predicting an additional 3.6% of the variance in academic grades. In Block 3, Bicultural 1 did not predict significant variance in academic grades. In the second hierarchical multiple regression equation, all the findings were the same as in the first regression equation for Blocks 1 and 2. The inclusion of Bicultural 2 in Block 3 was not significant.

In the third hierarchical multiple regression equation, cultural identity and academic self-esteem were entered in Block 2 and were significant, F{2, 184) = 16.66, jb< .01, predicting 14% of the variance in academic grades (see Tahle 2). In Block 2, the standardized heta coefficient of .36 for academic self-esteem showed that it made the largest contrihution to the significant regression model. The inclusion of Bicultural 1 in Block 3 did not predict significant variance in academic grades. Finally, in the fourth hierarchical multiple regression analysis, all the findings in Blocks 1 and 2 were the same as those in the third regression analysis. The inclusion of Bicultural 2 in Block 3 was not significant.

disrnssinn On the hasis of the results, none of the research hypotheses regarding hi- culturalism were supported. As measured in this study, hiculturalism was not

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TABLE 2

Summary of Hierarchical Regression Analysis 3 for Variables Predicting Academic Achievement

Variable

Block 1 Received gift certificate Year in school Academic enrichment program

Block 2 Received gift certificate Year in school Academic enrichment program MEIM SPAA-SC

Block 3 Received gift certificate Year in school Academic enrichment program MEIM SPAA-SC Bicultural 1

7.10 1.74

-3.77

8.23 1.47

-2.17 1.90 5.44

8.10 1.47

-2.26 1.89 5.50

-1.63

SEB

2.49 0.68 1.91

2.34 0.63 1.81 1.42 1.05

2.34 0.63 1.81 1.42 1.05 1.29

0.20 0.18

-0.14

0.23 0.15

-0.08 0.09 0.36

0.23 0.15

-0.08 0.09 0.36

-0.08

2.84 2.56

-1.98

3.52 2.33

-1.20 1.33 5.18

3.46 2.33

-1.25 1.33 5.24

-1.26

AfP

.10

.14

.01

P .00 .00 .01 .05 .00 .00 .02 .23 .18 .00 .21 .00 .02 .21 .18 .00 .21

Note. MEIM = Multi-Group Ethnic Identity Measure; SPPA-SC = Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents-Scholastic Competence; Bicultural 1 = Orthogonal Cultural Identification Scale- African American and Orthogonal Cultural Identification Scale-White (scores 2.5 and higher).

significantly and positively related to cultural identity, global or academic self-esteem, or academic achievement, nor did it predict variance in academic achievement that was not already predicted by cultural identity and global or academic self-esteem. Biculturalism may have been inadequately measured in this study. As an alternative possible explanation, there may be no value added with biculturalism for the academic achievement of African American high school students.

Tbe findings that cultural identity was positively related to global self-esteem, academic self-esteem, and academic achievement were consistent with previous research (Constantine et al., 2006). Tbe finding that global self-esteem was not significantly related to academic achievement supports previous research with African American high school students that their sense of self-worth was not related to academic achievement (Sirin & Rogers-Sirin, 2004).

Tbis finding may support previous research that suggests an academic dis- identification by African American bigh school students where they do not associate academic performance with their self-esteem (Good et al., 2007). Academic disidentification may also account for tbe relatively low correlations between cultural identity and both academic self-esteem (r= .18, p< .01) and academic achievement {r= .17, p < .05). African American students may not, to a large degree, incorporate academic achievement as part of tbeir cultural self-concept and self-esteem. In contrast, this study found academic self-esteem and academic achievement were positively related. Tbis finding suggests that

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there may he an interaction hetween cultural identity and academic self-esteem on academic achievement for this population.

LIMITATIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

One limitation of this study concerns the construct validity of the two hicultural- ism scales. The findings in this study that the two measures of hiculturalism did not correlate significantly with each other or with cultural identity suggests that these scales may measure unrelated constructs or independent aspects of the same concept. In contrast to Rust's (2008) pilot results, this study did not find concurrent validity hetween the AAAS-R and the OCIS with African American adolescents. The decision in this study to use the middle third of the mean AAAS-R scores (3-5) as a measure of hiculturalism (the Bicultural 2 variahle) may not have heen an accurate measure of the construct. Furthermore, despite preliminary evidence supporting the construct validity of the OCIS with African American high school students (Rust, 2008), the meaning associated with this sample's responses to the OCIS may have heen different than the meaning as- sociated with the responses given hy other minority youth. From an orthogonal perspective of acculturation measurement, this study's finding of a significantly stronger positive correlation of the OCIS-W than the OCIS-AA with Bicultural 1 suggests that future research might investigate (a) to what degree African American students who identify more with European American than with African American culture are hicultural in high school contexts and (h) what meaning African American youth associate with hicultural identity in high school.

Another limitation of this study was the difficulty in defining the houndar- ies of African Americans as an ethnic group. Although all participants in this study identified as African American, approximately half of them (46.3%) identified their primary ethnicity as something other than African American. For this study, 16 other racial/ethnic group identifiers were used in addition to African American. These differences hetween self-definitions may confound the generalizahility of the results. Many participants reported multiple cultural identifications (e.g.. Latino American as well as African American). When their identification with mainstream American culture is considered, these students could he considered multicultural. The complex nature of what it means to he identified as part of an ethnic group as well as multiple cultural identifications may have affected the results of this study regarding hiculturalism.

One implication of these results for future research is that hiculturalism needs to he investigated to determine whether or how it may he relevant to African American adolescents. In a qualitative study with African American men, Diemer's (2007) results suggested that hicultural competence may facilitate participation in the predominantly European American educational and occupational o p portunity structure while maintaining identification with one's culture of origin or racial group. Several researchers have found that hicultural skills were associ- ated with positive academic and psychosocial functioning with Latino American youth (e.g., Villalha, 2007). However, hiculturalism may he different for African

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Americans than for other racial/ethnic minority groups in the United States, who may be more able to trace their culture to a specific country and language and to a relatively recent time period. African American culture may not be so easily separated from mainstream American culture inasmuch as it shares a common language (English), and most African Americans cannot trace their heritage or culture to any place more specific than the United States or Africa (the continent). Some research suggests that cultural identity is a stable psychosocial trait, which consistently informs the attitudes, values, and worldviews of individuals, while defining biculturalism as a state condition that may vary depending on the social context (Roysircar, Carey, & Koroma, 2010). Building on this research, future studies could focus on defining biculturalism for African American youth and how it might be similar to, or different from, biculturalism for other minority youth. Finally, this study contributed new information to the sparse literature on the relationship of academic self-esteem to the academic achievement of African American high school students. Additional research is needed to confirm these findings and to inform intervendons with African American high school students to improve their academic performance.

IMPLICATIONS FOR COUNSELORS AND EDUCATORS

The results of this study and previous research suggest (a) that cultural iden- tity development is an integral factor in the academic achievement and the global and academic self-esteem of African American high school students and (b) that differences between African American and mainstream American cultures may be related to the lower academic achievement of these students. On the basis of these findings, counselors might train educators to work with African American students explicitly addressing how cultural identity and cultural differences may be related to their academic achievement, includ- ing (a) exploring the meaning and salience of race, ethnicity, and culture for themselves and society; (b) building skills to deal with these sociocultural issues; and (c) examining how academic self-esteem and achievement are related. Because academic self-esteem was found to be significantly related to academic achievement for students in this study, interventions could be geared to increasing the academic self-efficacy beliefs of this population of students. Finally, counselors and educators might engage a range of individuals throughout the school system to examine how to better recognize and include the cultural values of their African American students within the schools and curriculum to facilitate their academic achievement (Maryshow et al., 2005).

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