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University of Dayton eCommons

Honors Theses University Honors Program

11-2017

A Case Study on Inventory Costing Methods Natalie Hunton

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A Case Study on Inventory

Costing Methods

Honors Thesis

Natalie Hunton

Department: Accounting

Advisor: Marsha Keune, Ph.D.

November 2017

A Case Study on Inventory

Costing Methods

Honors Thesis

Natalie Hunton

Department: Accounting

Advisor: Marsha Keune, Ph.D.

November 2017

Abstract Firms use costing methods to determine the price of a product and to analyze the efficiency of resource consumption. These methods often comply with the external financial reporting rules set forth by the U.S. Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP), which require all manufacturing costs, including overhead, to be assigned to goods in inventory for costing purposes. However, firms can internally use alternative costing methods that do not comply with GAAP. The purpose of this case study is to understand and evaluate the costing method currently employed by a company in the Dayton, OH area1, and identify the most beneficial costing method for its circumstances. Background research on common costing methods including traditional, process, job, activity-based, and variable is used to analyze the Company’s costing method. This background research includes each costing method’s advantages and disadvantages along with circumstances that help dictate the use of each method. This research is combined with research on the Company to develop expectations regarding the Company’s current costing method and to develop an interview guide for employee interviews. Interviews with the Company’s employees and a factory tour are used to understand the Company’s current costing method, including why management selected a particular costing method, and the advantages and disadvantages of the method. This information is then synthesized and analyzed to determine if the current costing method best serves the Company’s interest or if an alternative costing method would better serve the Company. This is completed by assessing the validity of the other costing methods and possible advantages and disadvantages of use for the Company.

1 Throughout this project, the company this case study evaluated will be referred to as the Company.

Table of Contents

Abstract Title Page

I. Introduction 2

II. Backround 5

General Costing Background 5

Traditional Based Costing 5

Process Costing 6

Job-Order Costing 7

Activity Based Costing 8

Variable Costing 9

Summary 10

Background on the Company 10

Hypothesis Development 12

III. Methods 14

IV. Results and Analysis 16

Results 16

Analysis 17

Traditional Based Costing 17

Process Costing 17

Job-Order Costing 17

Activity Based Costing 18

Variable Costing 19

V. Conclusion 21

Appendix 1 22

Appendix 2 23

Operations Questions 23

Accountant Questions 23

References 26

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I. Introduction

The cost of producing a good or service is comprised of three components: direct

labor, direct materials, and overhead. Direct labor is physical work performed by

employees that can be directly traced to the generation of a good or service. Direct

materials consists of physical items that can be traced to a specific good or service.

Overhead is defined as indirect costs related to the production of items and services.

Indirect costs includes items that cannot be traced easily to a good or service, such as

administration and security personnel costs. All three components are needed to

accurately cost a product or service. However, because of overhead’s indirect nature, it

can be difficult for firms to determine this cost compared to direct labor and direct

materials. Many methods have been developed to allocate overhead costs in a manner

that complies with the type of product a firm generates and the desired accuracy of

information. Because of the uniqueness of each costing method, each method will have

different advantages and disadvantages depending on the firm. As there are many

methods available, and no standardized approach for firms to determine the most

appropriate method, firms often have difficulty deciding on a costing method to

implement. The purpose of this study is to evaluate if the Company, a firm in the

Dayton, Ohio, area, is implementing a costing method that balances costs and benefits for

its business model.

The costing method a firm chooses to implement has a substantial effect on

selling price and, consequently, realizable profit. For instance, if one costing method

determines that the cost of an item is $6.00 and the firm wishes to receive a profit of

30%, the price of the item would be $7.80 with a profit of $1.80. However, if another

costing method determined the cost of the item was $7.00, the price of the item would be

$9.10, with a profit of $2.10. A significant impact on the profit realized by the firm is

presented when these numbers are multiplied by the number of units sold each month.

Pricing can also impact profits by discouraging consumers from purchasing because the

cost may be too high for the perceived value of the item. Conversely, if the perceived

value of the product is high, firms can charge a higher price for the item and receive a

higher profit margin. Thus, it is imperative that overhead be calculated accurately since

differences in overhead calculation can lead to discrepancies in the cost of an item.

These discrepancies can ultimately mean thousands of dollars in lost profit for a firm.

While costing methods can affect the price and profit of a good or service, they

may also help a firm determine the efficiency of various processes. A more reliable

costing method is able to provide more representative information in the way overhead is

actually incurred by a good or service. If there is a difference between applied and actual

overhead costs, this difference can help managers determine where in a process

inefficiencies are occurring or which product is proving to have inefficiencies.

Before a firm implements a costing method, it is critical that managers conduct

appropriate background research. Research can include obtaining an understanding of

the circumstances under which it is most appropriate to use each method and how the

methods allocate overhead. Managers can then evaluate this information relative to the

firm’s current capacity of labor resources to carry out the costing method, data currently

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being collected, and business strategy such as producing a quality commodity at a low

price. It is important that a firm select a method that complies with the manner in which

it generates its product and the amount of data accuracy needed. For instance, some

costing methods are best used when heterogeneous products are created, while others are

best used when homogenous products are created. In other cases, methods provide highly

accurate data with regards to overhead cost breakdown, but more accurate data can be

costly and may not be critical to the firm's survival or may not be in line with the firm’s

competitive strategy.

The purpose of this case study is to evaluate if the Company is implementing a

costing method that balances the costs and benefits of its’ business model. This is done

by analyzing common costing methods and applying this knowledge to the Company.

This information is then used to determine why the Company uses a specific method, the

validity of other costing methods, and what data would be needed if a different method

were to be implemented.

The most common costing methods used by firms are traditional based, process,

job-order, activity, and variable. To understand and evaluate these costing methods, I

gathered research from various academic journals, cost accounting text books, and lay

articles. My background research shows that the main difference between the methods

previously mentioned is how costs are traced to each good or service and under what

circumstances the various methods can be used. For example, job-order costing is better

suited for heterogeneous products, and process costing can best be used for relatively

homogenous products. The application of cost drivers also varies considerably between

the costing methods. Cost drivers can include items such as direct labor hours worked

and number of machine hours used. Depending on the costing method, the number of

cost drivers and the nature of the costs allocated by these drivers vary considerably. Each

costing method also carries its own advantages and disadvantages such as

implementation costs and accuracy of overhead allocation.

To gather information on the Company, I conducted two sets of interviews. In the

first set of interviews, I met with the Controller and the Chief Financial Officer (CFO).

During the interviews, the Controller and the CFO provided background on the Company

including the main revenue generating items, a description of the main components of the

manufacturing process and what happens at each step of the process1. The discussion of

the manufacturing process was then followed by a tour of the production facility for

Product A. Using the information gathered in the interview along with background

research on costing methods, I developed a hypothesis that the Company uses a dual

costing method that implements both traditional based costing and job-order costing.

To determine the accuracy of my hypothesis, I conducted a second round of

interviews at the Company. For this set of interviews, I met with the Controller and an

Accountant who specializes in cost accounting at the company. During the interviews the

Accountant discussed how the Company allocates direct labor, direct materials, and

1 Throughout this project, the main revenue generating item for the Company will be referred to as Product

A

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overhead to products. This discussion included how the Company costs current and new

products along with how it evaluates if the proper amount is being allocated to each

product or whether adjustments need to be made. After talking to the Accountant, I

interviewed the Controller about the costing method the Company implements, why the

Company selected its current method, why other costing methods were not implemented,

and the Company’s options for future costing methods.

After gathering information from the second round of interviews, I analyzed why

the Company chose the costing method it decided to implement. In addition to this, I also

analyzed the validity of implementing other costing methods at the Company. If a

method was viable, I determined what additional information the Company would need

to collect to make the costing method work. If the method was not viable, I determined

what changes would need to be made to the current production process or goods in order

to make the costing method viable. In addition to analyzing and evaluating the

Company’s current costing method and options for other viable methods, I analyzed the

potential of the Company changing costing methods in the future with the expansion of

the Company and what costing methods in the future may be most beneficial to the

Company.

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II. Background on Costing Methods

General Costing Background

A common issue most firms face is determining how much a single good or

service will cost the firm to provide. The cost of a good or service is comprised of three

components, direct labor, direct materials, and overhead. One reason determining the

cost of a good or service is challenging is due to the allocation of a cost known as

overhead, to each individual product. Unlike the costs of direct labor and materials,

overhead is an indirect cost and includes items such as electricity, property taxes, and rent

on buildings. It is important that firms allocate overhead costs because this cost is

required in the costing of a good or service according to GAAP. GAAP is the accounting

rules and regulations that firms must follow when it comes to external recording

purposes. Allocation of overhead can also help managers determine appropriate sales

prices and where inefficiencies are occurring in the manufacturing facility. However,

since there is no way to directly trace overhead costs to a good or service, costing

methods are used to allocate this cost. Because of the importance of costing, firms need

to focus on the allocation of overhead in a way that is cost effective, and yields the most

accurate results as to the true nature of the cost of a product. The method a firm chooses

to allocate costs is known as the firm’s costing method. All costing methods use cost

drivers to determine the overhead allocation for each item. Cost drivers are the reason as

to why the cost exists- it “drives” the change in a cost. The two most common cost

drivers include direct labor hours worked and number of machine hours used, but a firm

can create a cost driver in any instance where there is a change in the cost of an activity.

While all costing methods use cost drivers, it is how the cost drivers are implemented that

differentiates the various costing methods.

Cost drivers may be used to help allocate variable, fixed, and product costs.

Variable costs are those that depend on the usage of the cost driver; thus, it fluctuates.

Fixed costs are costs that do not depend on the amount of the cost driver; they are a flat

rate and do not alter. Product costs are those that can be better traced to the product or

service being sold. This would include all costs that are included in Costs of Goods Sold.

It is important to note that depending on what cost drivers the firm uses and what sort of

costs it is allocating, the firm may or not comply with GAAP. If the costing method a

firm uses for internal decision making purposes does not comply with GAAP, then the

firm must also have a separate costing method that complies for external reporting

purposes.

Traditional Based Costing

There are two broad types of costing methods, the first being traditional based

costing. This method implements only one cost driver and consists of product costs that

are fixed and variable (Verico, 2008). This method presumes that variable costs and

overhead resources are proportional in regards to fixed costs. Some proposed benefits of

this method are that all costs are accounted for in this method, allowing data users to

assess the quality of information received since the data can be reconciled with the

ledger. In other words, the information used in the costing method can be traced to

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ledgers to ensure that the information is reliable. This helps the user review information

regarding customer profitability management, product profitability management, and firm

operations (Vercio, 2008). Although this method is one of the cheapest costing methods

and complies with GAAP, it is typically in a firm’s best interest not to use this method.

Because traditional based costing presumes that variable costs and overhead resources are

proportional in regards to fixed costs, it can lead to lower costs being allocated to low

volume products compared to those made in bulk. Thus, this method can be highly

inaccurate (Hundal, 1997). This method also combines costs that do not have a similar

cost driver pattern, allowing costs to be allocated to products when those products did not

cause the cost in question. An example of this would be an item having to stay at a work

station longer than normal because a product downstream requires additional attention.

Because the item must stay at the station longer, more labor hours may be attributed to

that item, even though work may not have been completed. In this case, a cost driver

other than labor hours may have caught this error and attributed this cost only to the

product that caused the backup in workflow. For most firms, this broad costing method

may be too inaccurate and misleading for decision makers and thus might not be used.

However, the costing methods that are derived from the traditional based method, such as

process, job-order, and activity based are alternative forms of traditional based costing

seen in firms. This is because these methods use all costs, like their parent’s costing

method, but use cost drivers differently in order to create more accurate data for decision

makers.

Process Costing

A costing method that stems from traditional based costing is process costing.

With this method, costs are traced through each department. These departments would be

production cells or areas, such as Fabrication and Assembly, which the product must pass

through in the production process. Departments track the costs that are incurred in their

cell and apply those costs to the department’s Work in Process account. This account is

used for assets that have not yet been completed (Oliver, 2000). The cost per unit can

then be determined by the following formula:

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑜𝑜𝑑𝑠 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠

(Vitez, n.d.).

There are two types of process costing methods, the weighted average method and

the first in first out (FIFO) method. The weighted average method includes overhead

costs for both current and prior periods in its cost per unit calculation. In contrast, the

FIFO method only uses the costs incurred in the current period to determine cost per unit

(Blotcher, 2015). While these two types of process costing methods calculate costs in a

different manner, the circumstances in which the methods are used and many of the

methods’ benefits are similar.

Process costing, as a whole, is typically employed in companies that generate

homogenous products, and users of this method receive similar benefits according to

some researchers, no matter which type of process costing method they use. Some of

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these perceived benefits include providing managers with detailed information on the

various production statistics of individual departments or workgroups. This is

accomplished by having each department create its own cost driver that is unique to what

each department does and allocate overhead incurred from their specific production cell

to the final good (Vitez, n.d.) To then determine the final amount of overhead allocated

to each product, the individual overhead allocations from each department are summed.

By having unique cost drivers rather than a general cost driver, the firm can more reliably

determine how much overhead should be applied to the final product. Overhead

allocation by department can also help in understanding department performance by

converting the cost allocated to the product and the cost driver to terms of cost-controls,

efficiency, and productivity. Measuring these terms over time can help a firm track

effectiveness of changes in policy (Ingram, n.d.) Process costing also complies with

GAAP, so secondary costing methods do not need to be in place.

When determining the practicality of process costing for a firm, the disadvantages

of the method must be considered. Firms have the option to either include non-

production costs in their overhead allocation or not (Ingram, n.d.) The omission or

inclusion of such costs can lead to discrepancies regarding the efficiency of departments.

If the decision makers are not aware that non-production costs are allocated to products,

they may incorrectly determine that a department is operating at a lower efficiency than

what it actually is (Ingram, n.d.) This method can also lead to distorted finished good

totals if equivalent units, the amount of work in process inventory that could be combined

to make finished units at the end of the accounting period, are not calculated at the end of

an accounting period accurately (Blotcher, 170). Process costing can be difficult for

some firms to use since an accurate inventory management method must be in place to be

able to determine where products are at the end of the period in order to calculate

equivalent units. Inaccurate numbers of where items are in the product process may

result in an inaccurate finished good total, thus, making it difficult for the company to

determine how many products the firm has available to sell on the open market (Vitez,

n.d.) Additionally, this costing method is not recommended for firms that do not generate

homogenous products. Firms that desire to employ a method similar to process costing

often turn to another derivative of traditional based costing, job-order costing.

Job-Order Costing

Job-order costing is typically found in firms that generate heterogeneous products.

This method is similar to process costing, but instead of having costs applied by each

department, costs are traced and applied by using the job cost sheet (Ingram, n.d.) This

means that the cost for each product is determined by analyzing the direct materials,

direct labor, and overhead costs that can be specifically traced to the job. A job is defined

as a unit or multiple units of a distinct product or service. Jobs normally include custom

items or services such as creating custom cabinetry or tailoring of an article of clothing.

Job-order costing has several inherent benefits. One benefit is this method

complies with GAAP, since it is a form of traditional based costing, and both product and

period costs are combined to determine overhead. Other benefits include allowing

managers to more reliably calculate the costs on each job, leading to a better

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understanding of profit compared to job costing’s parent method, traditional based

costing. Researchers believe this allows managers to establish which jobs are more

desirable and should be pursued (Ingram, n.d.) Some researchers also argue that other

benefits include managers being provided with the tools to track both an individual’s and

a team's performance with respect to cost-control, efficiency, and cost productivity

(Ingram, n.d.) This is done by analyzing job cost sheets to see how overhead costs

fluctuate. Since this fluctuation would be caused by the applied cost driver, managers can

analyze the applied overhead costs of similar jobs to better understand the individual’s or

team’s performance, depending on which is used. With job costing, the Work In Process

account also serves as a control account in the general ledger. This means that there is a

subsidiary ledger. This subsidiary ledger contains multiple accounts for each job that

support the total amount in the overall Work In Process account. This is useful because it

provides a check for a firm to help ensure that their Work In Process account is accurate

(Ingram, n.d.)

However, job-costing has several shortcomings. The method requires extraneous

employee labor since employees must track all material and labor for each job. This can

be time consuming, and thus costly, for the firm. Also, record keeping varies for each job

since jobs vary, and jobs may be inaccurately charged for inefficiencies, such as

downtime (Lal, 2009). While process costing and job-order costing are best used in

industries that generate specific product types, homogenous or heterogeneous, activity-

based costing can be applied to any product type.

Activity Based Costing

Activity-based costing, better known as ABC, is the last method that has roots in

traditional based costing. This method allocates overhead to the activities that cause the

various costs. Activities can be combined based on various criteria such as physical,

logical, or cost. Physical means that costs can be combined into homogenous groups of

tasks based on physical characteristics. Logical means combining same or similar tasks

independently from the process or functional area that a task is performed at. Lastly, cost

means combining activities based on similar factors that affect the amount of costs

applied, such as place and time (Kapic, 2014). Unlike the traditional based method that

allocates all overhead with one cost driver, ABC allocates costs with multiple cost drivers

that are needed to produce the commodity (Johnson, n.d.)

ABC has several significant shortcomings. ABC, unlike traditional based costing,

rarely complies with GAAP. ABC does not comply with GAAP because it does not

assign all manufacturing costs, specifically fixed overhead, to products. ABC does not

allocate these costs because these costs do not change with regards to the amount of

goods being produced. This costing method, though, will also attribute costs that are not

manufacturing to products because the cost may still be relevant to the product, such as

salaries of the workers who designed the product (Kapic, 2014). Because ABC rarely

complies with GAAP, firms are required to have an external cost accounting method for

financial reporting. Another disadvantage pointed out by several researchers is that this

method is costly. Detailed records of all the cost drivers and activities are required which

can lead to a large amount of data that must be gathered on a regular basis (Kapic, 2014).

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The amount of data needed in some cases can also lead to employees actively resisting

the method due to time constraints.

There are several benefits to ABC. Some business professionals believe ABC

more accurately calculates item costs and increases a firm’s efficiency by providing

information about effectiveness and efficiency of various activities. This method can also

help managers assess the activities that do not add value to the customers, and determine

if these activities should or can be eliminated. Various advocates also state that ABC

provides managers with an understanding and interpretation of the various costs, not just

the valuation of the end commodity (Kapic, 2014). This enables companies to predict

what costs should be present versus just what costs are present, thus allowing firms to

ensure that they have accounted for all costs of the product.

A variation of activity based costing is time driven activity based costing

(TDABC). TDABC relies on the time it takes to perform an activity to determine the

cost of an activity. This derivative of ABC has some separate disadvantages compared to

regular ABC. One disadvantage is the difficulty of collecting accurate information. The

percentage of a worker’s time spent on each activity that is recorded will often be higher

than actual because workers will not want to admit idle time. Also, interviewing

employees to obtain this information can be time consuming and costly. However, if a

firm uses TDABC by engaging in time studies, managers can more accurately assess the

amount of time it takes to complete an activity and it is less time consuming than using

percentage of time (Blotcher, 149).

While ABC and its derivation, TDABC, are the last methods that stem from

traditional based costing, firms have one final option for costing methods.

Variable Costing

The final costing method firms can employ is variable costing. This method, like

traditional based, is considered a broad cost accounting method. However, unlike

traditional based, this method has no existing deviations because it is used so

infrequently. This costing method includes all variable costs but does not consider fixed

costs in its calculation of overhead (don Edwards, 1958).

According to some academic scholars, perceived benefits of this method are that

cost-volume-profit relationships are distinct and help managers generate basic policy

decisions (Blotcher, 2015). This method, also, allows managers to quickly evaluate

various actions regarding cost controls since the only way to change operating income is

to sell more units. This is different than traditional based costing which can make

operating income change by fluctuating the number of units produced (Blotcher, 2015).

Others contend that this method helps managers reach conclusions about profitability of

operating segments, product prices, profit planning, and cost control since it is easier to

see how changes impact costs compared to traditional based costing and methods that

stem from traditional based costing (De Vos, 1968).

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Despite the benefits, critics tend to agree that there are many disadvantages to this

method. One disadvantage is that variable costing is not GAAP compliant. Therefore,

for external financial reporting, a secondary costing system must be employed. Other

disadvantages include this method’s incapability of handling costs that are both fixed and

variable in nature. In an attempt to separate these costs, the firm must analyze and

possibly change how it separates the fixed and variable costs multiple times in an attempt

to make this separation of costs as representative as possible (don Edwards, 1968). The

most common example seen to highlight this issue revolves around batch costs. Other

problems include that missing fixed costs can lead to an inaccurate image of how much a

product costs, causing companies to not meet their desired profit levels. Critics also note

that if managers are familiar with traditional based costing methods and decide to switch

to variable costing, this can lead to poor management decisions if they do not understand

the differences in gross margin analysis between the two. This complication stems from

the fact that gross margin will appear higher in variable costing since fixed costs are not

analyzed, which can lead to incomplete analyses of how the firm is performing (De Vos,

1968). Because of its failure to consider fixed costs and the disadvantages that arise,

most firms choose not to use this method.

Summary

While there are various costing methods that a firm can employ, it is always up to

managers to determine which method is most appropriate for the firm’s goals. Firms

need to analyze the perceived costs and benefits of potential costing methods and

determine the method that allocates overhead in a manner that is most appropriate to the

firm's size, profit levels, and product. From there, managers can determine which method

makes the most logical sense.

Background on the Company

The Company is a manufacturing firm that specializes in the production of

equipment. The Company is known for its manufacturing of Product Family A which

alone holds 50% of the Company’s total sales. The Company creates several different

variations of Product A depending on the customer. However, in the next year, the

Company hopes to make some of the options for Product A more standardized. The

Company performed a study several years ago and determined that one version of

Product A can have over 17,000 configurations, though the Company will only sell

approximately 125 of these configurations. In addition to Product A, the Company also

manufacturers other products, which comprise 25% of the Company’s total sales. The

remaining 25% of the Company’s total sales is attributed to other products, parts,

supplies, accessories, and computer boards.

For the purpose of this case study, the production process of Product A will be the

main area of focus since Product A comprises the largest portion of the Company’s total

sales. Figure 1: Production Flow of Product A, found in the Appendix, highlights the

production process of Product A and the systems used to determine how items moves

through the facility. These various production systems include MRP, Kanban, and pull by

customer demand. The diagram breaks down the production process starting with

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purchasing of the raw materials and ends with the shipping of the final product. This

diagram highlights the different types of systems that move inventory through the

production process along with the process flow on the production floor.

The production process begins with Purchasing, which orders the raw materials

that will be needed in the production process. These materials are then stored in the

Warehouse until the production processes requires them. Both Purchasing and the

Warehouse determine how much raw materials should be purchased or on hand based on

Materials Resource Planning, a system that uses information on current orders and

forecasts of future orders to determine how much material needs to be on hand.

Raw materials are then pulled from the Warehouse and taken to the Laser and

Flexible Manufacturing System (FMS) machines to be cut into components using a

Kanban system. For a Kanban system, new components are brought to a work station

when containers in that station run out of necessary parts. Once the container is empty,

upstream stations are notified that a replenishment of parts is needed. From the FMS

machines, if the components need to be smoothed they are taken to the Deburring station,

if not, they are placed on the Racks. Both the Deburring station and the Racks use a

Kanban system to determine when components need to be replenished at a station. Up to

this point, all component generation is standardized.

Once an order is initiated, components are pulled from the racks and taken to

Fabrication and Assembly. Components are pulled based on a Bill-of-Materials.

Therefore, the method is considered Pull Production, and it is used for all Fabrication.

Assembly, though, still uses a Kanban system for some components. The Bill-of-

Materials is required because beginning at this point in the production process each

product is unique to each customer. For the Fabrication process, components first go to

the Press Brakes station where they are bent into the shape needed. From there, the

components are sent to the Welding station to be welded together to make the body of

Product A. Product A is then sent to the Cutting station, where the excess material is cut

off the body and smoothed out. The body of Product A is then sent to the Polishing

station to be polished.

After the Fabrication process, Product A then moves to Assembly. Assembly

consists of several main assembly stations, and the main assembly station may have

several sub-assemblies depending on the type of Product A moving through the

production process. In general, the Assembly portion of the production process begins in

the Body station. In this station, larger components such as dials and drains are attached

to the body of Product A. After this, Product A moves to Power. In Power, power cords

are installed in Product A. Product A then moves to Probes where probes are installed.

Following Probes, the product moves to Element where more switches and brackets are

added to Product A. Next, the product moves to Cords, where more wiring is added to

the product. Then, the product moves to Wiring where all of the previous cords and wires

are connected together and to the main unit. Product A is then moved to Pretest. If

Product A passes the Pretest, it moves on to Test for the final test. If the product fails at

either the Pretest or the Test, it goes back to the assembly station that can fix the error that

occurred. If the product passes the Test station, it moves on to Final Assembly where

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finishing cosmetic components are added and the product is packaged. Items are

removed from the production process to be sent to Shipping or to the Company’s finished

goods warehouse.

The Company has approximately $24 million worth of inventory. This number

includes finished units, partially made units, components awaiting use, and raw materials.

Components awaiting use are stored on racks and stay on the racks for approximately

four weeks before being pulled for use in Fabrication and Assembly. In general, Product

A spends two days in Fabrication and two days in Assembly. To reduce the amount of

setup time needed in Fabrication, the Company groups its demand into two day lots and

then runs these lots together. The Company also organizes part numbers by similar

tooling and runs them sequentially. This approach allows the Company to run four or

five different component numbers with the same tooling, requiring only minimum

changes to programs in the machine control. At the end of Assembly, items are either

sent to a distributor to be sold to the end customer or held in a finished goods warehouse.

On average there are eleven finished goods turns a year. It takes the Company

approximately three to four weeks from the time an order is placed to when an order is

shipped to create all Product As for the order.

Hypothesis Development

After learning about the Company’s production flow, I believe that the Company

does not use a singular costing method and likely uses a costing method that is comprised

of two different methods. This hypothesis is based on information gathered during my

first visit to the Company. During the first visit, the Controller provided several diagrams

to help me better understand the process flow of the main revenue generating item,

Product A. A comprehensive diagram of the handouts provided during the visit can be

found in Appendix 1.

The figure in Appendix 1 shows that the Company uses three different approaches

in the plant to pull items to be used for production. These three different approaches are

Material Resource Planning (MRP) Forecast, Kanban capacity replenishment, and pull

production by customer demand. These three approaches are used in various stages of

the production process. MRP forecasting is used to determine how much raw material

inventory should be on hand. Kanban capacity is used in the FMS and Laser station along

with Deburr, Racks, and portions of Assembly. Pull production by customer demand is

used for Fabrication and Assembly, along with Finished Goods.

MRP is a system that attempts to keep adequate inventory levels to assure that

required materials are available when needed. This is done by predicting future demand.

Data are collected on items such as how fast the Company uses up inventory and how

much inventory is needed in order to complete upcoming orders. In addition to MRP, the

Company uses a Kanban system. Kanban systems regulate inventory by having

inventory pulled through the production process rather than pushed. This means that if

you look at the production process as a stream, workers upstream only work on items

when workers downstream need them. This is different from many systems where

workers are asked to work on as many items as possible, regardless of whether items are

P a g e | 13

needed or not. Pull production by customer demand means that items are moved or

added to the production process specifically because the customer needs said items for

their desired product.

Because there are three different methods used to generate inventory in the

production process, I believe that no single costing method would accurately allocate

overhead to these items. I hypothesize that the Company uses two different costing

methods in order to allocate overhead. I believe that based on the three methods used to

move inventory through the plant that the costing methods used are traditional based and

job-order. My reasoning for this is based on the Background work previously mentioned

and my understanding of MRP, Kanban, and pull production.

I hypothesize that in standardized parts of the production process, the Company

uses a traditional based costing method to apply overhead to items. The Company likely

does not use a variable costing method, because this method is known to lead to many

inaccuracies. Also, in this part of the production process, job-order would not be

appropriate since each item is not unique in nature, a characteristic often found where

job-order costing is used. Activity based costing would most likely be an inadequate fit

because ABC requires a lot of data to be used to make the allocation accurate. Since the

Company would most likely have another costing method, due to ABC costing rarely

complying with GAPP, economically it would not make sense to use activity based. For

these reason, I hypothesize that the Company uses traditional based costing to allocate

overhead that applies to items that fall under the MRP forecasting and the Kanban

systems.

As discussed earlier, the Company implements three major methods to help move

inventory through the production process. While traditional based costing would make

sense for items that fall under MRP and Kanban, this method would not be accurate for

the unique items that fall under the pull production by customer demand. I believe that

items that fall into this category would use job-order costing to accumulate costs. This is

because in order to pull items based on customer demand, a bill of materials would need

to be issued. While talking to the Controller at the Company, he stated that all final

products that leave the Company facility are unique to each customer. A characteristic

found in many firms that use job-order costing is that the firm creates unique products.

Since the Company generally makes products that are unique to each customer, the

Company has grounds to use this methodology.

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III. Methods

To analyze the Company’s costing method and to make predictions about what

costing method the Company currently employs, I compiled background research on the

most common costing methods: traditional based, job-order, process, activity based, and

variable costing. Scholarly articles, text books, and lay articles on cost accounting are

used to understand under what circumstances each method is used along with how

overhead is attributed in each method. The background research also included what

information is needed to implement each costing method and the advantages and

disadvantages of each method.

On May 24, 2016, I, my thesis advisor, and a managerial accounting professor

traveled to the Company to conduct interviews and tour the Company’s plant. In our

interviews, we talked to the Controller and the Chief Financial Officer. With both, we

discussed several items including, the Company’s sources of revenue, which items

contribute most to revenue, and the breakdown of the production process of the highest

generating item of revenue, in this case Product A. Several hand outs were made

available that further diagramed how production flows through the Company’s plant.

Before walking through the plant, the Controller discussed these diagrams so I would

better understand what I was seeing while on the plant floor. After explaining the

diagrams, the Controller discussed the various systems used at the Company to help

products move through the facility. These system included MRP, Kanban, and pull

production by customer demand. The Controller explained the entire production process

starting with when an order is first made, to when the items are either shipped or stored in

the Company’s finished goods warehouse. Following this discussion, we toured the plant

floor to better understand the production process previously mentioned. Throughout the

tour, the Controller answered questions regarding the production process including how

much inventory is on hand at any given time and how long it takes items to go through

the production process. After the tour with the Controller and CFO was completed, we

discussed what I observed on the plant floor, and I asked any questions that were not

answered that pertained to my Operations Interview Questions that I submitted to the

Institutional Review Board (IRB). These questions can be found in Appendix 2.

Following the interviews, I was able to generate my hypothesis regarding what cost

accounting methods the Company implements to allocate costs to Product A.

On July 11, 2016, my thesis advisor and I traveled to the Company for a second

round of interviews with the Controller and a Cost Accountant. In this interview, I asked

them specific questions regarding the costing method(s) employed by the Company along

with how direct labor and direct material costs are attributed to items at the Company. In

addition to answering the interview questions, the Cost Accountant gave a PowerPoint

presentation to further diagram how direct labor and direct materials are allocated.

Following the second round of interviews, I analyzed why the Company uses a

specific methodology. To do this, I used the background information on the various

costing methods and the Company along with the interview notes. I then analyzed why

the Company uses one method versus other methods, the feasibility of implementing a

different costing method, the advantages and disadvantages of implementing a different

P a g e | 15

method, and what additional information the Company would need to collect to

implement the method.

P a g e | 16

IV. Results and Analysis

Results

During the interview that occurred on July 11, 2016, I met with a Cost Accountant

and the Controller. The Cost Accountant discussed the overall costing process using a

PowerPoint presentation. The first item mentioned was product cost source data, this

included information about what is collected in order to begin the costing process.

Necessary material includes Bill-of-Materials, material cost, and fabrication/assembly

cost. From there, the Cost Accountant explained how each of the prior items are used to

help generate the product cost. Next, it was discussed that in order to ensure that the

Company is applying the most accurate information, the actual product cost is reviewed

and updated monthly to check for any numbers that appear incongruent with

expectations. The Cost Accountant then discussed how the product costing process for

standard units varies from configured units and how the process for costing new products

varies from the prior mentioned units.

Following the discussion with the Cost Accountant, the Controller explained the

Company’s specific costing process for the allocation of overhead. The Controller

informed me that the Company uses a traditional based costing method for all steps in the

production process. The Controller noted that the Company chose this costing method

because the Company’s primary focus is on customer service. The Company believes

that if it chose a more rigorous costing method, it would ultimately hurt customer service

since it would take longer to collect data for reporting purposes and be more costly. With

the traditional based costing method, the Company establishes an annual overhead rate at

the beginning of the year by analyzing the overhead rates from the past twelve months

and the coming year’s budget. During the year, the overhead rate is analyzed on a

monthly basis. If the overhead exceeds a certain margin of error, then it is possible that a

new overhead rate needs to be determined for the remainder of the year. The overhead

rate includes items such as production supplies, overtime, production support, quality

management, scheduling, materials management and handling, and production

supervision. Overhead is applied as a percentage of direct labor. Direct labor is tracked

based on product routings. The Company’s direct labor wages includes employee

vacations, holidays, benefits, payroll taxes, and retirement contributions.

According to the Controller, advantages of the traditional based costing method

include it being a straight forward method to assign costs to products, to determine

product margin, and to set a sell price. The Controller also noted that for the Company’s

desired level of accuracy, traditional based provides accurate enough data. In fact, in

2013 a study was conducted to see what overhead would be if ABC was used, and the

differences between the two methods proved to be negligible. As for the future of the

traditional based costing at the Company, the Controller notes that as of now the

traditional based method should stay in place. However, the Company does plan to add

more product lines in the future, which will require the reevaluation of overhead.

P a g e | 17

Analysis

Traditional Based Costing

The Company uses traditional based cost accounting. This costing requires the

use of only one cost driver to determine overhead applied (Vercio, 2008). The Company

uses this method because its strategic advantage is to deliver quality products in a timely

manner to its customers. Traditional based costing is beneficial to the Company because

it yields accurate enough information for overhead allocation, without having to spend

unnecessary resources, such as time and capital, on extra information gathering. Also,

because this method complies with GAAP, the Company does not have to spend

additional capital on implementing a secondary costing method. While upper

management at the Company realizes traditional based accounting is not the most

accurate costing method, the costs of implementing other methods at this time exceeds

possible benefits as proved by the Company’s in-house study conducted in 2013. During

this study, the Company concluded that the use of a more accurate, but costly, costing

method did not provide information that was vastly different than the overhead allocated

from traditional based.

Process Costing

Process costing is a partially viable method that could be implemented at the

Company. Process costing is used mostly for homogenous products since costs are traced

through departments by having departments apply costs to their Work in Process Account

(Oliver, 2000). This method is only partially viable because the Company only makes

homogenous products for the first half of the production process, FMS and Laser to

Racks, and portions of Assembly. Process Costing complies with GAAP, therefore no

additional costing methods need to be implemented that overlap with the Process Costing

method.

If the Company were able to apply this method, a benefit received would be that it

is able to more accurately determine the efficiency of the Laser and FMS, Deburring,

Rack, and Assembly stations since those departments could use Process Costing. If in the

future the Company is able to make more standardized Product As, upper management

would be able to determine the efficiency of more departments, such as Fabrication and

other portions of Assembly. Reasons the Company may not want to use this method

include the Company having to either make its process more standardized or implement a

secondary costing method. In addition, the Company may have to update its inventory

management method since the location of inventory is important for the calculation of

overhead at the end of each period (Vitez, n.d)

Job-Order Costing

Job-order costing is a partially viable method the Company could implement.

Job-order costing can best be used in processes that generate heterogeneous products or

when a firm wants to treat standardized products as “unique” items. Firms may choose to

use this method for allocating costs because it can help them determine how profitable a

P a g e | 18

specific job, or item, may be or how efficient the production process is for that job or

item. For the Company, this method would work best for the Fabrication and parts of the

Assembly portions of the production processes, since during those stages, the product is

unique to each customer. One complication, though, could occur with the production of

some of the standardized components, FMS and Laser to Racks portion of the production

process along with parts of Assembly. Because many of the standardized components

are created before an order is made, more documentation may be necessary to keep track

of the component’s costs so it can then be applied to the job. Another option could be to

remove the production of standardized parts in Laser and FMS, Deburring, Racks, and

Assembly. The Company could eliminate these departments by purchasing instead of

creating components for Product A. The Company would then have a process that

consists entirely of heterogeneous products. However, this would most likely cause the

cost of its finished product to increase.

An advantage of job costing would be that it could help the Company determine

the efficiency of the Fabrication and Assembly portions of the production process by

analyzing how overhead is attributed to similar jobs. This could allow managers to

determine possible inefficiencies in their production process. While this method does

comply with GAAP, it may not be best to use it as a stand-alone cost allocation method

since it can only cover half of the production process as it currently stands. This could

make it expensive for the Company to implement and impractical since these costs are

then added to the cost of implementing another costing method. In addition to the

implementation of a secondary costing method, process costing may require more labor

and capital to be spent on data collection and record keeping. Job costing requires all

materials and labor to be tracked, which may require additional records to be kept of

standardized items so it can be accurately attributed to a job. These additional costs

would cause the end product to have a higher cost, which is incongruent with the

Company wanting to provide an efficient process that helps reduce costs.

Activity Based Costing

ABC is a viable cost accounting method that the Company could implement. The

advantage of implementing this method would be increased accuracy in the allocation of

overhead to each product since more than one cost driver is used. By using more than

one cost driver, costs are able to be assigned to items based on a more cause-and-effect

relationship, thus allowing overhead to be more accurate (Kapic, 2014). ABC rarely

complies with GAAP, though, so the Company would most likely have to implement a

secondary costing method. If this were done, it would increase the costs associated with

record keeping required for costing methods. Because the Company focuses on

providing a quality product and the lowest possible cost, this costing method may not be

the best for the Company’s competitive advantage.

Activity based costing could also help the Company increase the efficiency of the

plant by using time-driven activity based costing (TDABC). This specific form of

activity based costing is based on the time it takes to perform specific activities that can

be observed (Blotcher, 2015). By using this method, the Company can see how much

unused capacity is currently at the firm and manage those costs. The disadvantage of this

P a g e | 19

method is the extra cost for information the Company would need to implement this

method.

If the Company were to use time-driven activity based costing, the Company

would have to collect information on how much time it takes to perform each activity.

This could be done in two ways. The first way would be to interview employees to see

what percentage of time they spend on each activity. Information collected in this

manner is time consuming because interviews with many workers must be held in order

to get the most accurate percentage. This percentage will still be inaccurate, though,

because workers will not want to share information about how much time they spend

idle, so a majority of the percentages will be inflated (Blotcher, 2015).

The second manner to collect information for TDABC, is to perform time studies

to see how much time on average is spent on each activity. This method of data

collection is less time consuming but still costly (Blotcher, 2015). The Company could,

also, use regular activity based costing and allocate costs based on multiple cost drivers.

However, this still requires extensive data keeping and collection.

Variable Costing

Variable costing is a viable method for the Company to implement. This method

includes all variable costs in the cost of the product and does not allocate a percentage of

fixed cost to each product. Instead, all fixed costs are considered period costs rather than

product costs (don Edwards, 1958). This method would not require additional record

keeping for the Company and managers would not have to allocate a portion of fixed

overhead to each item. This could ultimately lead to variable costing being less time

consuming to implement compared to prior mentioned methods. Another advantage of

implementing this method is that it will allow the Company to reward its employees

fairly. This is possible because the only way for employees to raise operating income is

to sell more units. This is different than traditional based costing because operating

income can fluctuate based on of how many units are produced. This can cause different

departments to have different objectives and be able to manipulate metrics that can lead

to rewards that were not deserved (Blotcher, 2015). By having only one way to change

operating income, it will encourage different departments, such as Power and Cords, to

work together and to reward departments using the same metric without one department

being able to have more influence on the metric over another.

Variable costing, however, has several disadvantages. One major disadvantage to

this method is that the Company’s production process includes fixed costs in addition to

variable costs. If the Company used this method, the accuracy of the overhead allocation

would decrease since several major costs would be excluded from the price of the final

product. This could cause the Company to incorrectly price their finished product, since

not all product costs are being allocated to each item. Another difficulty for the Company

would be determining how to label costs from batched operations, such as laser bed

cutting and press brake operations, that contain characteristics of both fixed and variable

costs. Because batch costs are neither fixed nor variable, the Company would have to

determine a way to incorporate these costs into the variable costing method that would

P a g e | 20

allow them to still reap the rewards of the method (Blotcher, 2015). Another

disadvantage to variable costing is that this costing method is not compliant with GAAP

(De Vost. 1968). Therefore, the Company would be required to implement another

costing method on top of variable costing.

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V. Conclusion

The cost of producing a good or service is comprised of three components: direct

labor, direct materials, and overhead. All three components are needed to accurately cost

a product or service. However, because of overhead’s indirect nature, it can be difficult

for firms to determine this cost compared to direct labor and direct materials. This causes

overhead to be a vital item that allows a firm to accurately determine a selling price for a

product. All firms must use a costing method in order to be able to allocate costs to

products, however, most methods differ in how overhead is applied. The main costing

methods that firms utilize are traditional based costing, job-order costing, process costing,

activity based costing, and variable costing. The main differences between the costing

methods are the number of cost drivers each method utilizes and the nature of the costs

allocated.

The purpose of this case study was to evaluate if the Company is implementing a

costing method that balances the costs and benefits of its business model. This was done

by analyzing common costing methods and applying this knowledge to the Company.

This information was then used to determine why the Company uses a specific method,

the validity of other costing methods, and what data would be needed if a different

method were implemented.

Background research on costing methods and the Company lead me to the

hypothesis that the Company most likely uses a dual costing method of traditional based

and job-order because its production process has two major components. The first

component of the production process is the generation of standard items that are then

used in the final product for the customer. The second component of the production

process is the assembly of the standardized items to make a unique item for each

customer. The first component is in line with major characteristics involved in traditional

based costing, a method that deals with standardized items, while the second shows

characteristics found in job-order, a method that deals with unique products.

After the hypothesis was made, I traveled back to the Company where the actual

costing method of traditional based was revealed. Thus, my hypothesis was only

partially correct. Further analysis shows that traditional based costing is most in line with

the Company’s business model of delivering a quality product in a timely manner. If the

Company were to employ a dual method, as hypothesized, this would ultimately require

more resources, and thus slow down the process. While a dual method would be more

accurate, the level of accuracy provided would ultimately be too costly to justify its use.

However, with the Company expanding its product lines in the future, it may become

critical for the Company to eventually change its costing method to one that provides

more accuracy. Until that time, though, it is likely that the Company will continue use to

traditional based costing to allocate overhead to its products.

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Appendix 1

P a g e | 23

Appendix 2

Interview Questions

Operations Questions

The Process

What are some of the products manufactured in this facility?

Can you walk me through the production process from when the order is placed to when

it is shipped to the customer on one of your products?

What are some of the non-value add activities that take place in the production line? Non-

value add meaning any activity that does contribute to the production of the product.

Are units ever sitting idle during the production process? When? For how long?

Do you track the amount of time units are idle during production?

How long does it take for a product to go through the production process?

Does it vary by product type?

Inventory

On average how many units of inventory are on hand? How much is it worth?

How long do items typically stay in inventory?

Customer features

Do you allow customers to add unique options to their product? If so what are some of

the add ons customers can purchase?

Do you limit how many add ons a customer can have?

When are these add ons added to the product? Are they added to a unit that is pulled

from inventory or is it added in the initial creation of the product?

Accountant Questions

Questions about the Individual

What is your name?

How long have you been in the accounting profession?

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How long have you worked for company?

Questions about the Company’s Costing Method in General

What sort of costing method, for example standard costing, process, job, or activity-based

costing, does COMPANY use for inventory?

How long has company been using this particular method? What method was it using

before, why did COMPANY decide to change methods?

Questions about the Company’s Specific application of the Costing Method

Could you walk me through an example of the application of your costing method to a

specific product?

How many overhead cost pools do you have?

What cost drivers does the company use when determining overhead cost allocation?

How do you gather the necessary information regarding the cost drivers?

Aside from looking at cost drivers, does COMPANY need any other information to

allocate overhead?

How do you evaluate the reasonableness of the cost of an item?

In your opinion what are some of the benefits of using the method COMPANY currently

uses?

In your opinion what are some of the disadvantages of using the method COMPANY

currently uses?

Questions about the Future of the Company’s Costing Method

Has COMPANY been looking into possibly changing the costing method currently in

place? If so why and to what method?

If COMPANY is not looking into changing the method currently in place, in your opinion

do you think they should? If so, why and to what method? If not, why not?

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