Art 160 Basic Photography

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Fourth Edition

A Short Course in

HY AN INTRODUCT I 。 N TO P H 。 TOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUE

币2比笔霞a e A W 忽

3 ι E

Barbara London Jim Stone

＠民arson

Publish盯： Roch Wilkofsky Editorial Assistant: Kaylee Navarra Product M盯kecing Manag盯 Nicholas Bole Executive Field Marketing Manager: Wendy Albert Managing Content Produc盯 Donna DeBenedictis Project Coordina口on, T四E Design, and Electronic Page Makeup: SPi G lobal

Cover Designer: Lumina Datamat1cs Cover Image: Adam Ekberg, Va印刷，s 011 a Froz;en La岭， 2005. C> Adam Ekberg Manufacturing Buyer: Mary Ann G lo riande Printer/ Binder: LSCC-Kendallville Cover Printer: Phoenix Color

Acknowledgmen臼 of th ird-par ty content appear on the appropriate page in the text o r on page 228, which const,ru四s an extension of this copyright page.

Frontispiece: Edward Bateman, Landscape Photographer, 2012 Opposite page: Teun Hocks, Untitled, 2000. Courtesy of the ar tist a nd Torch Gallery, Amsterdam

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Library of Congress Ca时oging-in-Publication Data

London, Barbara I Stone, J,m A short course in photography. D igital an introduction to photograph ic technique / Bar bara London, Jim Stone Fourth edition. I Upper Saddle River, New J ersey Pearson Educa口on, Inc., (2018) LCCN 2017047540 I ISBN 9780134525815 I ISBN 0134525817 LCSH: Photography…Digital techniques…Textbooks. I Image processing…Digital techniques…T四tbooks LCCTR267 .L647 20 18 I DOC 771－位23

Copyright © 2019, 20 15, 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Printed in the United States of America Th,s publication is protected by copyright, and permission should be obtained from the publisher prio r to any proh ib ited repro- duction, storage in a retrieval system, or 盯·ansmission in any form o r by any me.ans, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise For info rmation regarding permi臼ions, request fo rms and the appropriate contac臼within the Pe.arson Education G lobal Rights & Permissions Deparε盯Y、ent, p lease v’s’E飞叭ww.pe缸soned com/per盯T、 s阳，sfφ

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＠民梢。n

Student Edi口on ISBN 10: 0-13-452581-7 ISBN 13: 978-0 -13-452581-5

A La Carte Ed，口on ISBN 10: 0-13-452603-1 ISBN 13: 978-0 -13-452603-4

Instructor's Review Copy. ISBN 10: 0-13-452601-5 ISBN 13: 978-0 -13-452601-0

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Contents

iv CONT ENT S

Preface vii

I Camerα1111 2 Ge忧ing Star晦d Getting y。ur camera read y 4 • Focusing an d se忧ing t he exposure 6 • Exposure readout 7 • Exp。sing images 8 • What will you ph悦。graph? 9 • Types 。f Ca meras Film cameras 10 • Digital cameras 1 2 • Basic Camera c。ntrols 14 • M。re ab。utCamera c。ntrols 1 6 • Inside a d igital single-lens re自由came甩 17 • Shutter Speed A俄cts light a nd m。tion 18 • Use it creatively 20 • Apertt』re Affects light a nd de pt h 。f fi eld 22 • Use it creat ively 24 • Sh utter Speed and Aperture Blur vs. depth o f field 26 • Getting the Most from y。ur Camera and l ens 28

2 L ens 9 30 Lens Focal Length The basic di民rence between lenses 32 • Normal F民d Lengtl、 The m。st like hu man visi。n 34 • Long Focal Lengtl、 Telephoto lenses 36 • Short Focal Len萨 Wide-angle lenses 38 • Zoom, Maao, and Fisheye Lens国 40 • Focus and Depth of Field 42 • Automatic F。cus 43 • Dep由 of Field Controll ing sharpness in a ph。tograph 44 • M。陀 about Depth 。f Field H。wto preview it 46 • Perspective H。wa photograph sh。WS depth 48 • Lens Attachments Cl。se-ups and fi l回归 50

3 Li~ht αnd E x posure I 52 Sensors and Pixels 54 • Pixels and Resoluti。n 55 • Col。r in Phot。罗叩hy c。lor Systems 56 • Col。r Cha racteristics 57 • White Balan国 58 • Using Hist。grams 60 • Exp。sure Meters W ha t different types do 62 • How to cal- cula te and a句ust a n exposure manua lly 64 • Overrid ing an Automatic Exp。－ sure Camera 66 • Making an Exp。sure of an Average Scene 68 • Exp。sing Scenes that are Lighter or Darker than Average 70 • Backlighting 72 • Exposing Scenes with High Contrast 73 • H DR Hig h dyna m ic ra nge 74

4 Di互itαl Workplαce Bαsics ( 76 Equipment and Materials You’ II N时 78 • Pictures Are Files 80 • 时时 Col。r Modes, gam uts, spaces, and profil es 82 • Channels 83 • Cal ib阻ting for accu阻cy 84 • Working wi出 Camera Raw 85 • Stay organized Setting up a Worl<fl。w 86 • Phot。g阻pher's Workfl。wProg甩ms: 87 • Importing an Image 88 • Scann ing 89

5 Im础e Editin~噩 90 Getting Started Edit ing an Image 92 • Adju叫ng an Image Lev由 94 • Curves 96 • Adj usting Part of an Image Sel ecti。ns 98 • More Techniques Layers 100 • Ret。uch i ng 1 02 • Sharpening 1 04 • C。mpositing 106 • c。lor into black and white 108 • Filters 1 09 • An Edit ing Workfl。w 1 10 • Ethics and Dig ital Imaging 1 12

6 Prin tin~ a n d Display 誓114 Prin国rs and Drivers 11 6 • Pape阳 and Inks 117 • Soft P roofing 118 • P四oramic Phot。，graphs 119 • Presenting Your Work Fram ing 120 • Matting a print 121 • M。unting a P rint Equipment a nd materials y。u’II need 122 • Dry Mou nting a Print Step by Step 1 24 • Bleed M。untingρvermatting 1 26

7οr~anizin~ αnd Storin~ 9 128 Image Storage 130 • Using Met adata 1 31 • S。玩ware fo r Organ izing 1 32 • Archivi ng Images and Prints 133

8 U sin互 Li~h t t; 134 Q ualit ies of Light From d irect to d i仔used 136 • Existing Light Use what’s available 1 38 • The Main Light The strongest s。urce of light 140 • Fill Light To lighten shadows 142 • Simple p。rtrait Lighting 144 • UsingArti行cial Light Ph。t。lamp 。r flash 146 • M。re ab。ut Flash How E。 p。sition it 148 • Using Flash 1 SO

9 Seein~ Lik e αCαmerα • 152 What ’s in the Picture T he edges 。r frame 154 • The background 1 56 • Focus Which parts are sharp 158 • Time and Moti。n in a Photograp h 1 60 • Depth in a Pict ure Three dimensio ns bee。me two 162 • Cha。s into order 163 • Photographing for Meaning 164 • P。rtraits Informal : Find ing them 166 • F。rmal : Setting them up 168 • Ph。tographing the Landscape 1 70 • Photographing the Citysca pe 1 72 • Ph。tographing Inside 1 74 • Assembled to be Ph。t。graphed 176 • Resp。nding t。 Ph。t。，graphs 178

10 History of Photo互raphy ffl 180 Daguerre。type “Design s 。n si lver bright” 182 • Cal。type P1ctu res 。n paper 184 • C。llod ion Wet - Plate Sharp and reproducible 185 • Gelatin Emulsi。n/ Roll- Film Base Ph。tography for every。ne 186 • C。lor Ph。tography 1 87 • Early p。rtraits 188 • Early T ravel Ph。tography 190 • Early Images of War 191 • Time and M。ti。n in Ea rly Ph。tographs 1 92 • The Phot。graph as Docu me nt 1 93 • Ph。t。graphy and Social Change 194 • Pho叫。urnalism 196 • Phot。graphy as Art in t he 1 9由 Century 200 • Pictorial Ph。t。graphy and the Ph。t。－Secessi。n 201 • The Direct Image in Art 202 • T he Quest f。r a New Vision 203 • Ph。tography as Art in the 1950s an d 1960s 204 • Ph。t。graphy as Art in the 1 970s and 1980s 206 • Color Phot。graphy Arrives- Again 208 • D ig ita l Ph。tography Predecessors 21 0 • Bee。mes mainstream 212

H。w to l ear n M。re 214 • Troublesh。。ting 2 1 5 • P hotograp hers' Web S ites 220 • Glossary 222 • Bibliograp hy 226 • Ph。to Credits 228 • Index 230

CONTEN T S v

Penelope Umbrico. Sunset Portraits from 8,462,359 Flickr Sunsets on 12/ 21/ 10, 2010. Photography 四” be your subjec皂剧 well as your medium. Umbrico began searching the Web in 2006for阶e most-often-photographed sut沪ct, find- ing it to be sunsets (541,795 pictures posted on the popular photo-sharing site Flickr at that timψ

Umbrico had 4 x 6-inch machine prints made from an "appropriated” selection (th且2010 piece includ，出on如those sun扭曲时阶 si/houet胆d figures), and exhibits them in grid form, about 8 feet tall. For a 2011 gallery sh仙台 she showed 1,058 4 × 6 -inch sunset portrai阳， by then the to臼I number of sunsets on Flickr had grown to 9,623,557.

As you make your own photographι it ι wort, askingyourself questions. What are the w吵得you can impro时阶e pho归•graphsyou are now making> If others have alrea命photographedyour subject, how will your pictures bed伊rent? If you magnifj, 伪e meaningyour images have for you, will you also increase the impact they have on others? Read on.

l川…叫川t photog吵nd would lik e to learn, or if you want to make better p ictures than the ones you are maki n g now, A Short Cot4rse in Photograp抄

D怨“I will h e lp you. T his book is modeled after the widely used fi lm-and-dark room edi tion of A Short Co1'r咒 in Photograp妙， but presents the medium in its cu rrent, e lectronic form.

We present her毡，mdep巾， the basic E旺hn iques of photography:

1 H。w to get a good四posure 1 How to a句ust the focus , s hutt er speed, and aperture (the

size of the lens openin g) to produ ce the results you want 1 Howton-血1sferyOL町 pictures to a computer血1dmal也sure they缸e organized and safe fro m loss

1 How to use com p uter software to ma!忧your ph。tographs look t h eir best

Alm ost all of today’s cameras i ncorp。rate automa tic fea tu res, b ut t hat doesn't mean t hat t h ey a u tomatically produ ce t he re- s ults you want. Th is edition of A Sh。时 Courτe in Photograp抄 de votes special atten tion to:

1 Au tomatic focus a n d a u tomatic exposu re-what they do and, part icularly, h ow to override them when it is better to adj us t the camera man ually

Some of t h e book’s h ighligh ts inclu de:

1 Getting Started If y口U缸e brand new to photography, this section w让l walk you through 出e first s teps of selecting and ins talling a mem01yαrd, settin g the camera's menu options, focus ing sh盯ply, adjusting the四posL町e, and making your 自rst piαures. S四pag臼4-9.

1 Projects. T h ese projects are designed to help develop your tech n ical and expressive skills. See page 136 or 155.

1 Making Bett er Prints. This includes informatio n abou t how to adjust your p h otographs with image咱diting sofn，.咀re (pages 92- 11 1), select ink an d paper for th e m (page 1 17), p rint them (page 1 18), and由en display them in a mat and frame (pages 120- 12乃．

1 Types oflenses (pages 31-4 1), cameras (pages 10- 13), ligh ting (pages 13 4- 15 1), and software for 。rganizing and arch ivi n g (pages 13 1- 133).

1 History of Photography. The medium has been used for docu men tatio n, persuasio n, and person al expressi。n sin ce its 19由－centu1y inventio n. See pag，臼 180-213.

Photography is a su均ective undertaking. A Sha时 Course in Photograp抄emphasizes your choices in p ictu re m aking:

1 How to look a t a scen e in th e way a camera can record it

1 How to select th e shutter speed, point of view, and 。ther

Pr巳fαce

elemen ts that can ma!但the differen ce between an ordin血y snapshot a n d m四citing p h otograph

1 Ch apter 9, Se凹ng Like a Camera, explores your ch。tees in selecting a n d adjusti吨the image and presents ways to p h otograph su同ects s u ch as people a n d landscapes.

1 An updated Chapter 10, T h e H istory of Photograph y, traces t h e technical, social, and artistic development of the mediu m since its incepti。n.

New in this fourth e d ition are:

1 The latest o n camera techno logy an d software, integratio n of workfl ow applications-includin g Capture On e Pro-at every step, and expanded coverage of a Camera Raw workfl ow.

1 Newph。tographs by g陀at con temporaiy artists, including Edward Bateman, Ian van Coller, S副11 Come1飞John Divola, Filip D ujardin, Adam Ekber忘Kate Joyce, David Leven ti, Marti na Lopez, Ch ristoph Oberschneider, Todd Owyoun g, Christia11 Richter, and Geoffrey Robins。n

1 The 1970s四plosion of color photography is四pl血nedin the Histo1yofPhocography, Chapter 10.

1 Cu rrent produce and technical information throu gh o u t , with updated demonstratio n and example ph。tographs.

This b。ok is designed to make learn in g photograph y as easy 出 possible:

1 Every two fac ing pages completes a single toptc 1 Detailed s叩句－sαp instructi。ns clari今each stage 。f

extended procedu res 1 Boldfaced h eadings ma!也subtopics easy to spot 1 Numerous p h o tographs and drawings illustrate each topic

Acknowledgmen臼

Many people gave generously of th e ir time and effort in the pro- duction 。f th is book. Feedback from ins tructors h elps con firm the d irection of th e book and determ ine the new elements in each

edition. The a u thors are grateful to all th。se wh o reviewed pre- vious editions and forwarded comments. At Pearson Educatio n, Roth Wilkof』ky provided editorial su pport. Annemarie Fr剖1klin, Steve Martel, a11d the team at SPi Global s u pervised th e produc- tion of the book from manuscrip t to prir treme ly few, of c。urse) errors. Atτ1ber, Jade, and Skye Ston e gave their dad 口me to fin ish ct、e bo。k Ify。u have suggesti口ns, pl回se sen d th em to Photograph y Editor, Pearson Educatio n, 221 Riv臼 Street, Hoboken，町07030. T h ey will be sincerely welcomed.

Jim Stone Barbara London

PREFACE vii

ANN I E LE’80V，τz

Yo Yo Ma, 1998 Framing is a b,uic control you 阳时

in making a p加tograph. The two photofaphs on 曲is page and opposi胆are about music. Would you

center your su句ect or use a corner? Do you want action or ，它pose? Black and white or color? Ho巾ontal,

vertical, or勾uare? Candid or po且d? Viewed from above, bel，酬，， or stra.以s on? More about framing

。” pages 154- 155.

Ge时ng Started ..... ...... ...... 4 Ge，时ingyo11r cam旷are叫y ••• •••••• 4 Fowsing and setting the exposure • ••• 6 Expomre reado11t •••• •••••• •••••• 7

Exposi，您images ••••• •••••• •••••• 8 What will yo11 photograph? • •• •••••• 9

T ypes of Cameras ... ...... ..... 10 Film cam旷-as ••••••• •••••• ••••• 10 D忽ital cameras ••••• •••••• ••••• 12

Basic Camera Controls .... ..... 14

More about Camera Con町ols ... 16 Inside ad也ital single-lens

F吃卢四 cam旷·a •••••• •••••• •••• • 17

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Ge时ngtheMost 命。m Your Camer a and Lens . ...... ...... 28

In this chapter yo,i'Ll leαrn ...

• the basic c。ntrols of your camera and what they d。 • the categones of cameras, and their charactenstics,

so you can ch。。se the right 。ne for your purposes. • the first S四ps of ♀etting a came用 ready, focusing

an image, and adjusting the camera飞坦白，ngs.

Project: EXPOSE SOME PICTURES

YOU Will NEED Camera. We suggest one with a句ustable c。ntrols Outpu t. To evaluate y。ur work, it’ s g。。d to see exactly what y。u did y。ur digita l p ictures can be viewed 。n the camera ' s small mon itor but they a re easier to evaluate on a computer screen . Pages 8 and 88 tell y。u h。w to d。wnload photographs from your camera t。 a computer Once they a re on a c。mputer, y。ur unedi四d ph。tographs can a lso be displayed large with a digital pr。，ject。r or on a wide-screen television s。 you can easi ly see small deta ils and imagine wh且 they might look like printed at a large s ize. If you shoot 3Smn、 fi lm you can take it to the photo lab in a drug store 。r supermarket cha in fo r 。vern ight pr。cessing and printing

Pencil a nd ”。tepad 。r smartph。”e to keep tra ck 。f what y。” d。. Optional, but highly rec- omme

PROCEDURE See pages 4-9 if y。u a re j ust beginning to photograph. Those pages walk y。u thr。ugh the 自陌t steps of setting up your camera, focus ing an image sharply, adjusting the camera settings s。your ph。t。g日phs won' t be too light 。r too dark, and making y。ur first pictures. See pages 10-13 fo r more about the kinds 。f cameras

Have some variety in the scenes when you sh。。t For example, photograph su同ects near and far , indoors and 。utside, in the shade and in the sun. Ph。tograph different types 。f subjects, such as a poπrait, a landscape, and an action scene Page 9 gives some suggestions

HOW DID YOU DO? Which pictures d id y。u like best? Why? Were s。me d i民rent from what you expected to get? Did some 。f your came日’s operati。ns cause c。nfusion? It helps to read y。ur instructi。n b。。k a ll the way through or ε。 ask 币or help from some。ne fam iliar with your camera

Todd O吃young. Drummer Quest/oνe pe，作rmingwith the Roots, Fox 7百eater, St. Louis, Missouri, 2008.

Cαmerα

All……伽i咿…m a n e-formi口内 light-sensitive surface (film or a digital sensor) to record the ligh t chat

forms a n image; a light-tigh t contain er (the camera’s body) to keep other lψE。ut; and w。 important con trols to a句ust the am。Unt 。fp肌ire

ma!《i口g lig ht (theεxposure) d、at reaches the light-sensi tive surf汪ce. T h is chapter describes those light controls and how you can ta!但charge

of them, instead of letting them control you. Almost all current cameras are

equipped with automatic 四posure and automatic focus, a n d many h ave

automatic flash. If you are interested in making better p ictures, however, you s h ould know how y。ur camera m冰es its decisions, even if the automatic fea-

tures can' t be turned off. If they can, you will want to override your camera’s automatic decisions from time to time a nd m汰e your 。叭响 choices.

’ You may want to blur the motion of a moving su均已ct o r freeze its motion sharply. Pages 18-19 sho即how.

• You may want a scene sharp from foreground to background or the

foregrou n d sharp but the backgroun d o u t of focus. See pages 44-45. • Y。u may want to override your camera’s automatic focus mechanism so

that only a certain part of a scene is s h arp. Page 43 tells when and how

to do so.

• You may de口ide to s ilhouette a subject against a b rig h t background，。g

perh aps you want to make s ure that you don’t end up with a s ilhouette. See page 72.

Most profi自sional phot o g r a phe rs use cam e ras wit h autom atic featu res,

but they know h。w their cameras operate manually as well as automatically so

they can ch。。se which is best fo r a particular situation. You will wane to do

the same because the more you know about how your camera operates, the

better you w ill be able to get the results you want.

Getting Stαγted GETTING YOUR CAMERA READY

A c amera’s m a in “ n ctio n s are t o help you v i e w the s ce n e so you can select what you want t o

p h otograph, focus t o get the scene s h a rp w h ere

you want i t to be, a nd exp o se t he picture so it is

n o t too l ig h t or t oo dark.

This illu stration div ides a came ra in half so it

s h ows p arts fo r b oth fil m a nd d ig ital cap ture. For

more abo ut s p ec i fic ca m eras, see p ages 10-13.

The lens mov田 ro.. 帽，d and back to bring 。同ects at d，陆rent dis<anc目。nto sharp focus.

The ape<ture adjusts from la<gec (lettin且mo陀 light pass 衔。m由e lens m由e light-sensit<Ve 阳rlace) to smaller (letting less light pa臼）

C hoose a Memory Card

The shu忧垒，。pens and d。S白白l imi t the length 。ftime that light strikes 由e I唱ht-sensi t<Ve 钮，自由

The sensor (in a digotal 日mera) converts 由e light from the lens ,nto electncal s,gnals that are 四川回由emem。，ycard

The memo叩card (in a digotal cam肝·a) stores ,mages un til they can be printed 。川rans舱，red

to a comp皿er or 。the, storage d阳ce

Select a n ISO More about 田mero controls on pages 14-2 7.

CF ( C。mpact Flash)

SD (Se<u re Digital )

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Digi时臼meras store p町ures on m回10ry饵，ds that V莓，γ in capacity and speed Because t h ere a陀 several types t h at are n ot int erc h angeable, make su re you h ave one t h at fi臼 your camera

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ISO speed ( 100, 200, 400, and 目。n〕 descri bes a sensor’s ( or fil m 's) sensit ivity to ligh t. The h igher the number, the less l!ght it needs for a correcε 四posu陀（币。r a p icture t h at is n ot too ligh t o r too da战）. With a d ig ital camera, you may select an ISO set- t ing w ithin that came阻’s range. You may ch。。sea di仇rent ISO for each p icture, or y。u may set your came日 to d。 s。 automati -

cally L。wer n umbers will gene阻lly result in highe卜quality p ictures (see Noi盟， page 75)

Set a n ISO 。f 50 to 800 for shooting 。ut doors in sunny cond it ions. In dimmer light, such as ind。。目， use an ISO of800 。r h igh- er Film is made wit h a fixed ISO; an en t ire roll m ust be exposed at t h at speed 400 sp四d fi lm isa g。。d all-purp。se choice.

4 CAMERA

Check the Batteries Insert a Memory Card

Make su陪y。urcamera’s batteries ha ve a b四h charge. N。 dig1tal came日s and 也w fi lm cameras will 。pe用自with。旺 ’- power. Ahal阳叩ty symbol will let 111 Y。u kn。ww hen the batte叩is low. "I Ca叫a fu lly-c ha rged spa陀 ify。u can . 也且

Many cameras use proprietary battery packs that must be recharged with 由e man ufactur苍白 matching charger. s。me c。mpact cameras have b uilt-,n battenes that lim1tyoursh。。ting w hile they recha『-ge

s。me cameras u皿 standard batteries thaεy。u can buy nearly anywhere M。st c。nvent1。nal s『zes are av副lable m m。ney 坦vmg rechargeable versions

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Keep cards protected when th町are not in t he came阻 Mem。叩cards are vulnerable to d ust and moisture as well as magnetic fie lds, heat, and shock Try n。tto touch the electrical c。n国cts

Open the 。pti。ns menu. Tum the camera 。n and p ress the butt。n c。display t he menu 。n the came阻’s monitor.

Review the defaul臼. In y。ur came阻’s manual, read t hro ugh the hst 。f settings t hat can be changed by the 。pe阻四r. Decide wh,ch 。fthem r。u w。uld 1,ke to c hange &om the camera ’s defaul白， the way th。se 。P＂。ns have been 坦t by the factory.

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Select a menu ite m with the c。ntrol wt四el 。n the came阻’s back, then u臼 the Jog d ,a l (als。。n the back) to r凹四l a list of settings 。r choices for that item

R ’ di s

Getting Stαrted FOCUSING AND SETTING THE EXPOSURE

.... Basic Men u Ooc10

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Select the file type and resolution. 节、e menu t田m may b e called ",mage q ua lity,” b ecause visual 自del 1ty IS a伯cted byyour choice. A lower resolut1。n 。rc。mpressed fi le lets you store more pie阳陀s。n your mem。叩 card , but a t s。me loss 。fquality. SaVJ ng pictures in the came阻’S 阻wform at, aεm highest resoluti。n, kee ps t he quality highest.

Cho。se an ISO speed. It can be d，能rent f。r each picture Higher n umbers let y。u sh。。t 1n lower light b ut prod uce an image with m。re no1四｛四e page 75 )

：号： p

襟。 Sunlight Cloudy Shade

Select the white balance ( color 回mpe日－ ture）。f t he d。m inant light source 1n whict、 y。u a re sh。。ting, such as incand escent (t ungsten) bulbs, sun hgh飞。r。utd。。r shade A camera 四E。n automatic makes these a d - JUStments fo r you. If your camera has a 阻W for町、at 。pt1on, 1t lea ves t he wh1回 balance choice u nt1I you edit 由e自le

More about ISO speed on page 75.

6 CAMERA

Focus

F。cus on the most impo rtant part of y，。ur scene to m a ke su陀 1t w,II be sha甲in the ph。tog阻ph. Practice focusing 。n 。bJects a t d1能rent d略目nc白白you look t hroug h the viewfind er so t hat you bee。me fa milia r with the wayεhe camera focuses

Manual 也cusing. As y。u l。。k through the View币nder, rota回 the focusing nng a t the fi-ont 。f the le ns. The view币nder 。fa single-lens refl四came阻 has a ground-gla臼 screen that shows w hic h paπs of the scene a re m。st sharply focused. S。me came阻s als。 ha回a m1cropnsm, a small nng at the center。f the screen in which an 。bJect ap- pears c。arsely d。民ed u nt1l 1t 1s focused. An advanced 。r伊tem DSLRmay 。他r a choice o f focusing screens

」二二2峭 Shutte, relem 队』n。n

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d<>w，、· shutter ”lea回d

Automatic f。cusing. Usually 由『S IS d。neby cen回nng 由e focusing brackets (v1s1b le in the m idd le of the 响ew击nder）。n your s u bject as y。u dep陀ss the shutter re lease p art w ay. The came阻adjusts the lens fo r you to bnng the bracketed 。bJect into focus D。n't pushεhe shutter re lease a ll the way d。wn until you a re ready to take a p icture

More about focus and when and how to override automatic focus on page 43.

Set the Exposure

Shutter speed Aperture s ize

@+@ γ125sec f/16

’ ISO 国、”’, ?lo..

至善 T。 get a correctly剧p。sed pictu陀，。ne th at 1s no t too light （。ver四p。sed）。rto。 dark (u nde阳p。sed), you－。r the camera- must set the shutter s peed a nd the apeπure ace。rdmg to the selec四d ISO sens『t1V1ty and h。w l 1ght 。r dark your su bject 巴节咀 shutter speed determ ines the len阱。f t1me th at hght stri kes t he sens。盯 the apeπure s『ze determines h。wb nght the light 1s th at passes through 由e lens and shutter to the light- sensitive s urface

More about shut臼r speed and aperture on p四rges 18-27 and about 四户osure and

metenngon p鸣＇es 62-73.

Expos ure Readout

A data panel appea陌。n t he b。dyofsome cameras, d ,spla·户ng shutter speed and ape俨 tu吨 settings {here，始到sec. shutter speed, f/ 16 aperture), as well as 。ther information

The shutte r speed and aperture settings appear in the viewfinder of s。me came阻S (he陀，始到 sec. sh utter speed , f/ 16 aperture)

A hist。，gram 1s an accu阻四 representation 。fexposure that m。st cameras can d isplay 。n the m。mtor a仕er y。u take each ph。tog阻ph. lfy，。ur subject ,s n。t m。vmg W目。therwise c。operative, make a test exp。sure of the scene first. Over－。r u nder- exp。sed tes臼can be deleted. M。re about h istog日ms 。n pages 60-61

EXPOSURE READOUT

Manually Setti n

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Wi由 manual 四p。SU陀， you set both the shutter speed a nd apeπure yourself. H。w do you kn。wwhich settingsε。 use? At the simplest level you can use a c hart like the 。ne above. Decide whaεkind 。flight illuminates the scene, a nd set the apeπu陀（由e非n umber sh。wn on the chaπ） and the shutter speed acc。rdmgly.

Notice that t he rec。mmended shutter speed 。n the c hart 后均由 sec. 。r Y, 2s sec These relaovely fast shutter speeds make It easie r for y。u to get a sharp p icture w hen hand holding the came阻（when 1t 1s not 。n a tnp。d) . Atsl。w shutter speeds, such as 比o sec. 。r sl。wer, t he shutter is 。pen l。ng en。ugh fo rthe p1ctu陀 to be b lurred 1f y。u move the came阻sh阱tlydunng 由e exp。sure

二I ,::: :- · ! ·2 .. 1 .而山：2 ＇：，.已 You 日n use a臼mera’s built-in meter for manual exp。sure Point 由e camera at the m。st imp。πant paπ。f the scene and activ毒自由e meter. The v,ewfinder will show whether the 四p。sure 1s correct. If 1t isn 't , change t he shutter speed and／。r aperture u ntil 饨，s Here, p lus num bers signa l overex- p。sure, minus means under由p。sure. Lining u p the red arr。wwith the dot 1n 由e center 1nd1cates t he exp。sure 1s nght T。 prevent blur caused by the came阻

m。v1ngdunng由eexp。sure ( 1f the camera is n。E 。n a tnpod), select a shutter speed 。fat leasε 比o sec A shutter speed 。fJ,\2s坦C. IS扭住r

Automatically Setting t he Expos ure

Wi由 automatic e叩。sure, t he camera sets the shutter speed 。r apeπure，。rb。th, fory。u

。

Wi由 programmed (fully automatic) 四p。sure, each time you press the shutter release butt。n, the came阻 automatically meters the light, then sets both shutter speed and ape陀ure

益萨干（｛？画：飞 :'• ·' c~飞＇. I Wi由 shutter-priority a‘Jtomatic回归sure, y。u set the shutter speed a nd t he camera sets the apeπure T。 prevent b lur fr。m camera m。”。n 1fy。u are hand h。ldi ng t he camera, select a sh utter speed 。fb♀o sec 。r faster

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.? OFF ‘川＇；

LIGHT ON • •

Wi由 aperture-priority automatic剧p。－ sure, you 四t 由eapeπure and the came阻 sets the shutter speed. T。 keep the picture sha甲when r。u hand hold the camera, check that the shutter speed 阻 Wio sec 。r faste r. I f 眩 IS n。ιsetthe ape陀ure to a la『-ger opening ( a smaller ιnumber)

More a品。“t hmνtoovemdeou阳motJc 四rposure on page 66.

R ’- 7

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G 一日 Hold the Camera Stead

F。r horizontal photogr，叩hs ( sometimes called "landscape”m。de), keep y。ur arms against y，。ur b。dy E。 steady the camera Use your right hand t。 h。Id the came阻 and your nght fore自nger to press the shut- ter release Use y。ur le仕 hand ε。 help sup- p。πthe camera 。r to focus 。r make 。ther camera adjustments

For verti日I ph。tographs ("portrait''mode), support 由e camera &om bel。W川的ther y。ur nght 。r le仕 hand. Keep that elb。w against y。ur b。dytos回ady the camera

A trip。d steadies the came曰“r y。u and lets y。u use sl。wshutter speeds f。r night scenes or 。由er situations when the light 1s d,m Make s ure to use a cable release, rem。te trigger，。r selιtimerw,ch It

8 CA M ERA

Make an exp。sure. Recheck the focus and c。mp。s,c,on JUSt before 四p。sure. When you a re ready to take a p icture, s臼b1lize your camera and y。urselfand gendy press the shutter re lease all the way d。wn M。st cameras prefocus automatically when you press the shutter button hal仙•ay d。wn If your s u bject c。。阴阳tes, try severa l d，他rent exp。sures 。ft he same scene, perhaps &om d，他rent angles

An LCD monitor sh。ws 四act fram ing a nd lets y。u check to see that the pi目ure is not t。。 light 。r too dark a仕er you take 1t Mostd『g,tal came用S w ,11 also let you z。。m ,n the m。mtord isplay。n a small paπ。fthe saved p icture to check pre口臼 focus

You’ II learn faster ,f y。u keep a rec。rd as you a re sh。。t1ng. Digital cameras a utomatl- cally save camera and exp。”陀，nforn咀－ ”。n-like the apeπure, shutter speed, and ISO-and sto陀 It with each picture But 1t he lps ton。四y。ur reas。ns for th。四 choices the way a subject was m。ving，币。r example, 。r the d 1rect1on and quality ofligl、E Th1swill lety，。u identi命the pa由toy。ur s uccessful images and help y。u make g陀at pictures m。re o仕en

Down load the Pictures

Transfer your pictu陀s to another storag e device, usually a c。mput町、 hard d n ve, at the end of a day's sh。。ting 。r w henever you want to review them 1n detail. This transfer is called d阳onloading. Yo u can 陀move the mem。ry card and plug 比 into a card reader, as shown ab。ve，。rc。nnect t he camera and c。mpu四r d1陀ctly with a cable, bel。w Some cameras can transfer images w1relessly.

Download your pictures directly t。 a c。mputer 1f It’s c。nven,ent. If you are sh。。ting 。n l。c.at1on y。u can trans也r 由em to a p。πable ha rd dnve 。r 。ther device m ade fo r reading cards. D。n't e rase t he memo叩 card u n ti l y。u a re sure all your images are secu re and, ,f p。s- sib le, d u p licated ,n at leastεw。 p laces y。u can delete unwan ted 1 mag臼 fror,、

出e card using t he camera, but-unless y。u are running 。Ut 。f r。。m 。n the card during a shoot-It 1s safer t。 save that ed- 阳ng step until a仕er all y。u r images have been d。wnl。aded

WHAT WILL YOU PHOTOGRAPH?

2 2

仨呐 a a

you more in terested in the person cooking> D。 you want the wh。le wall of a bu ild ing, o r was it only t he g日ffit i on it t hat caught your attenti。n?

Get closer (usually) . 0丘en people photo- graph from too fur away. What paπ。f the scene attract ed you? Do you want to see thewh。le deck, t he wh。le back 归rd，。r a re

Where do y，。u start? One place to staπ is by looking around through t he view币nder A SU均ect 。ften l。。ks di仇rent isolated in a viewfinder than it d oes when y。u see it surro u nd ed by 。ther objects. What in te r- ests you ab。ut this scene? W hat is it that you want to make into a ph。tog阻ph>

t he setting? Is t here a d istract ion (like bright su nlight 。r a sign d irectly behind s。me。ne’s head] that you c。uld avoid by changing posit ion? Ta ke a l。。k

lo。k at the background ( and 由e fo陀－ ground). How d oes y。ur su均ecε relate to its surround ings? Doy，。u want t he su均ecε centered 。r o仔t。。ne side t。 show m。re of

Try a di他陀，1t angle . I『，stead 。f always sh。。ti『1g fr，。m 『飞。m、al eye- evel heig ht, try getting up high and looking d。wn o n your SU同ect o r kneeling and looking u p

More about backgrounds and the image 斤·ameon P回,ges 154-157.

E Au－ e e 飞句泛

resulting ph。tog日忡， darker parts of t he scene may appear complet ely black，。r the subject itself may be silhouetted against a brigh ter background.

D。”’t be afraid to experiment, t。。． Incl ude a bright lig h t s。urce 。r bright sky in t he p icture (just d。n't sta re d irectly a t the sun t h rough t he viewfinder). In t he

Check the lighting. At fi rst, y。u a陀m。re likely to get a good 四”sure if you ph。回－ g目ph a m。陀。r less evenly lit scene, n悦。ne where the su均町 is against a v町l ight background , such as a bright sky.

9 . CH A PT E R 1 More about lighting on pages 134- 151.

Types ofCαmerαs FILM CAMERAS

W hat kind 。fcam- era is best for you? For occasional snapshots of fami ly and friends, an inexpensive, completely auromar,c, nonad1usr- able camera that you just point and shoot will probably be sa口sfacrory. But if you have become interested enough in photography to take a class or buy a book, you will 飞wane an adjustable camera because 1t will g,ve you greater creative control. If you buy a camera with auromanc features, make sure it is one that al lows you to manually override them when you wane to maJ也 exposure and focus choices yourself.

Film camera d esigns evolved as too ls for spe- cific tasks, and followed the slow evolution of film (see Chapter 10, pages 184- 186). Here are the m勾or styles, which are useful to

know about because many elements of these designs have been incor- porated into their digi- tal counterparts.

Single-lens re向ex cameras (SLRs} show you a scene d irectly through the lens, so you can preview what will be recorded. You can see exactly what the lens is focused on; with some cameras, you can check the depth of field (how much of the scene from foreground to background will be sharp). Through-the- lens viewing is a definite advantage with telepho- to lenses, for close-ups, or for any work when you want a precise view of a scene

Very early SLRs used large glass p lates or fi lm sheets but since the 1950s almost all were made co accept 35mm film. A few models aimed at (and priced for) profess旧naJ pho-

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Si” gle -lens Reflex Camera

·•

10 CA M ERA

rographers used larger roll fi lm . Recent SLRs incorporate auromanc exposure, auromanc focus, and automatic flash but allow manual control. Many different interchangeable lenses for SLRs are avai lable.

Dψtal SLRs (DSLRs) resemble their 35mm fi lm ancestors. Some SLR cameras made for 21，♀－it、ch－飞、~de roll film (called n飞edium f。rmat} may be used with accessorγdigital capture backs. Digital- on ly models, also called medium-format, are also available.

SLRs have long been verypopul盯with profes- sionals, such as photo- journalists or fashion photographers, or with anyone who wants to move beyond making snapshots.

Rang efinder earner目 are viewfinder fi lm cam盯缸 This means they have a peephole, or window, separate from the lens, through which you view the scene Inexpensive "pomt-and-shoot" view- finder cameras simply show the approximate framing through the 飞叽ndow. A rangefinder camera ,s more complex, 飞叽th a visual focusing system that you use as you look through the viewfinder 飞川ndow. The window shows a split image when an object

is not in focus. As you rotate the focusing ring, the split image comes together when the object is focused

Range白”der Film Ca mera

sharply. Rangefind盯 cameras let you focus precisely, even in dim light, but you cannot visually assess the depth of field because all parts of the scene, even the split image, look equally sharp in the viewfinder

Because the viewfind- 盯四 in a different posi- 口on from the lens that exposes the 日lm, youdo not see exactly what the lens sees. This difference between the viewfinder image and the lens image is called parallax error, and is greater for objects that are closer co the camera Better rangefinder cameras cor- rect for p盯allax error and have interchange- able lenses, although usually not in as many foe.al lengths as 盯e av剖1-

able for SLRs. Mose use 35mm 自Im; ones called medium formar 盯e for wider roll fi lm, few are digiral. Range日nder C剖白盯as 盯e fast, reliable, qu,er ,n operar,on, and rel a口vely small.

P盯al lax error and a viewfinder image char is reversed le丘 ro righr. Some now-discon口nued TLRs had inrerchange- able lenses; adjusrmenrs on all models are com- plerely manual

Twin-lens Reflex Camera

Twin-lens ref!四cam- eras (TL时， excepr for a couple novelty "rerr。” digiral versions, are all film cameras. New ones a陀 made by a few com- panies, bur secondhand models are widely avai l- able. They cannot easily be adapred ro digital capture. Each c剖白era has rwo lenses: one for viewing rhe scene and another jusr below it char exposes the film

A large fi lm format (21,4 inches square) is rheTLR’s advantage !rs disadvantages 盯e

View臼meras have a lens in rhe from, a gro山1d glass viewing screen in the back, and a flexible, accordion-like bellows in bec:ween. The camera's mosr valuable fearure is i rs adj usrabili叩rhecam era's P盯rs can be moved free! y in relation ro each orh町， which lees you airer pers~ecrive and sharpness to swt each sc白世 You can change lenses and even the catηera's back; for example, you can attach a back ro use selι developing film or one to record a digital image.

Each film exposure is made on a separare sheer, so you can make one shot in color and the nexr in black and white, or develop each sheer differenrly. Fi lm s,ze ,s large-4 x S inch- es and larger-for crisp and sharp derail even in a big print.

Using a view camera can be a more cons,d- ered process because they are slow to use comp盯ed ro smaller hand-held cameras. They 盯e large and heavy and muse be mounred on a tripod. The image on rhe viewing screen is upside down, and iris usual ly so dim char you have to put a focusing clorh over your head and rhe screen ro see rhe image clearly. When you wane complere conrrol of an image, such as for archi- tectural or product pho- tography or for personal work, rhe view c剖叽era’s advanrages ourweigh whar some mighr see 臼 mconven,ences

Some cameras are made 宦。而II a specialized need.

Panoramic cameras make a long, narrow photograph char can be effective, for example, wirh landscapes. Some of rhese cameras crop our P盯t of rhe normal image rectangle to make a panoramic shape Ochers use a wider-than- normal secrion of roll

日Im; some may rotare the lens from side ro side during the exposure

Digiral pat10ramas can be made during editing by s口rching sev- eral individual fr副咽es togerher，白rher from digiral caprure or from scanned film, so special- purpose panoramic cameras 盯e no longer common. Some digiral cameras can display a segment of rhe previous fr剖叽e on the side of the monitor to help align the next shoe for more seamless reassembly lacer. Ocher cameras (and smart phones) have a飞weep” mode chac can capru陀 a panoramic image with one press of

the bucron when moved across a scene

Ste陀o or 3-D cameras ta!<e two picrures ac che S缸’1e 口me chrough cwo side-by-side lenses. The resulting pair of images, a ste陀·ograph, gives che illusion of three dimen- s1ons when seen ,n a stereo vie飞wer.

Underwa-ter cam- 旷·as are not only for use underw’acer bur for any siruacion in which a c副白era is likely ro gec wec Some cam- eras are water res,scan飞 rather chan usable under飞.vacer. Specially- made underwater hous- ings are available for professional use or larger camera models.

R ” 11

Types ofCαmerαs DIGITAL CAMERAS

D igital camera d吨m are continually evolving and the aπay of avai l- able models can be over- whelming. With so many options, you can usually choose a camera based on the combina口on of features you need, but you may have to compromise. To get the most our of this book (and your photography) choose a camera that offers you the op口on to control focus and expo- sure manual ly

est SLR out for a walk requires a shoulder strap or camera bag. Using one in public suggests to others that you are not a casual snapshoot町， that you 盯e photographing seriously.

Compact臼meras 缸e

mostly designed for amateur photographers but V盯y considerably in quality. The smaller the camera, the more likely its features will be lim- ited Some compacts are good enough to be used

c。mpact Camera

Size is often the first con- sideration in choosing a camera. Your c缸’1era shouldn' t be so large or so small that it gets in rhe way of your phorog- raphy.

Digi.tal single-le刑时iflex (DSLR) cameras 盯e the most versa口le choice bur rhey 盯e big enough that you’H probably C盯叩one only when you 盯e mean- ing to use it. Professional models can be relatively heavy, bur caking even the smallest and light-

12 CA M ERA

by professionals when they don' t want to carry a larger camera; some are made to be used a few times and then set aside. Mose compact digital cameras 盯e a bit coo large and heavy for your pocke飞 but fie well in a smal l shoulder bag along with your phone and sunglasses.

5份compact digital cam旷as can be carried in a pocket so you 盯e ready to make pictures anywhere, any time.

CD • ’

c。mpactActi。” E忌”’era

\Vich image quality and features chac compa时 poorly to larger cameras, che market for subcom- paces is giving way to smart phones.

Lens. Do you need ,mer- changeable lenses? One common charactensetc of a camera made for serious ~horographers is chac a wide assortment offenses can be attached. An arsenal of specialized lenses can be expensive to acquire and cumber- some to carry. A fixed lens may be all you need, especially if it is a zoom chac covers the range you’d expect to use (see pages 32-33}

Viewing system. The purpose of a c剖叽era·’s viewing syscem is to let you frame and p时view, as accurately as possible, the photograph you are about to capture

A single-le阳陀卢阳 camera projects the image-forming light directly from your lens

onto a mirror and chen to your eye through a pencaprism (see page 17) so you see what the lens sees Because the view- finder is held to your eye, it is relatively easy to follow actton. But the mirror muse swing out of che way for che moment of exposure, so you don’E actually see the exact image you have captured And the mir- ror's motton can cause unwanted v,bratton chat causes slight blurring.

M irrorless cam旷as most O阮町、 have a small monitor or LCD screen on the back of the c剖叽· 盯a chac displays what che lens 1s seeing, transmitted directly from che image sensor. This image, called live vierv, ,s used for framing and focusing, and is replaced momentarily with a叽ewofeach captured image imme- diately after being taken.

Medium-format Digital SLR

The monicor on some cameras ,s arciculaced, or tilcable, for viewing from unusual angles, such as overhead or w刮目 level

M,rrorless cameras may have an electronic M白吃卢M叽 or EVF. This viewfinder is a smaller version of che LCD monicor char is located inside che camera It can be seen when hold- ing the camera to your eye rather than at arm’s length. SLR-style mirror- less c剖叽eras have a ch盯－ actensnc pentapr,sm, ocher cameras resemble rangefinder film cam- eras with the EVF vis- ible through a peephole located in a corner of the camera' s back.

An EVF display can be made lighter and darker to compensate for the brightness of a scene or for setting diι ferem apertures (page 22). Some cam盯as can show in the vie飞.vfinder an outline of the 盯eas of best focus, somenmes called foc11s peaking, or 日II che b缸’1e with a very small section of the scene co allow more pre- c,se visual focusmg

Res。lution. The max,- mum number of阴阳Is ac.an、era·’s sensor can capru陀 is called s臼 resolunon A camera, for 四ample, may be 12, 16, or 24 megapix- els (MP). An image fi le

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Miff'，。rless EVF Camera

captured by almost any current digital camera can make a sansfac- tory letter-size (8验× 11} prim. Generally, to keep the same image quali叨， the larger che prim, the higher the resolution needed (see page 55). If you aren' t p lanning co make large prin臼， you probably don' t need che highest mega阴阳l count.

Sens。v size also affects image quality. A 12MP sensor can be physically large or small. If it is small, co have the s剖ne number of individual light-sensing elements as a large 12MP sensor, the elements must also be smaller and more 口ghdy packed The larger and less crowded these ele- mems are on che sensor, the higher che quality 。f che image (see noise, page 75). Most subcom- pact cameras and all cell phones have very small sensors and, therefore, produce images of some- what lower quality.

A sensor the same

size as a 35mm film frame is called Ji.！忻州e Larger sensors 盯e made for medium-fortηat digi- tal c剖neras, priced for well-paid professional phocographers. Some com盯ion sensor sizes smaller than full frame 盯e (in descending order of size) APS-C, Four- Thirds, 2/ 3”, 1/ 1.8”(see the chart on page 45).

Other features may be a faccor 川 your choice. Most cameras have a builc-in flash for use in dim light. A few have builc-in \Vi-Fi that can transfer image fi les wire- lessly co a computer as

you shoot Some cam- 盯as can be r白白ocely controlled with built-in \Vi－日， Bluecooth, infra- red, or radio receivers Many cameras will cap- cure video at very high quality levels. They have builc-in microphones co record sound and many allow external micro- phones co be connected. To record an active lifestyle, there are action spor臼 cameras （。pp。sit

page, cop) that 盯e water- proof, shock resistant, and can be helmet or surfboard mounted.

Cell phone cameras now outnumber all other types by a wide mar- gin, and they capture a m勾oriry of the pho- cographs made daily, worldwide. Most ta!四 only low-resolunon images and allow the user no control other than where it points and when it shoots, but the best C剖叽era is always the one you have with you

R ” 13

Bαsic Cαmerα Controls

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you how to visu alize the scene the camera will capture and how to use the camera’s controls to ma!刊 the picture you have in mind. D igital cam盯as are shown h ere. A film camera will have

some 。r all of these sam e controls.

On these fully-automatic cameras, you can press the shutter release and have the “meraau阳mati，臼llyfo阳s the lens (au阳fo cus) and set the shutter speed and aperture (autoexposure). When you want 阳 choose camera settings yourself, you can manually oν＇erride the automatic functions.

c。ntrol d;al

Controls and data panels app臼ron both 阶is entry-le昭I sin2)e-lens reflex camera (abo时and the more sophisticated "sy如m” “耐用户ight) aimed at pro向sionals. Both can be equipped wi阶a wide variety of special- pu’-pose len阳and accessories. Push-buttons and dials let you select the shutter speed (the length of time the shutter remains open) and 阶e aperture (the size of the opening的，side the lens）. 时阶 either仰”叫you can阳伽nge one lens for another. Top-of-the-line cameras often do not have built-in flash.

Interchangea ble lens

14 CAM E RA

Shutter-speed control. Movingo句ects can be shown cri.平ly sharp, frozen in mid- motion, or blurred either a little bit or a lot. The faster the shutter speed, the sha’per 阶e moving object will appear. Turn 臼pages 18-19 for information about shutter speeds, motion, and blur.

Aperture control. Do you want part of the picture sharp and part out of focus or do you want the whole picture sharp from foreground to back-ground? Changing the size of the aperture (the lens opening) is one way to control sharpness. 7百e smaller the aperture, the more of the picture that will be sharp. See pages 22-25.

Lens focal length. 自ur lens's fo臼I length controls 阶e size of o价出in a scene and how much of that scene is shown. 7百e longer the focal length, the la嗯er阶e objec缸时l/ appear. See pages 32-39 for more about focal length.

Focusing. 7百rough the viewfinder window you see the s臼ne that will be recorded, including the sha，如st part of the scene, 阶e part on which the camera is focused. A particular part of a S臼ne 臼n be focused sharply by manually 阳ming阶efo阳sing ring on the lens, or you can let an autofocus 臼mera adjust the lens automati，臼lly. More about focusing and sharpness appears on pages 42-45.

R ” 15

More αbout Cαmerα Controls

Automatic 叫osure is a basic feature in alm ost all cameras. T he purpose is to let in a controlled amount of ligh t so that the result - ing image is neither too lig h t n o r too dark. T h e camera’s built-in merer measures the brightness of t h e scene and t h en sets shutter speed, aperture (lens open ing), or both in order to let the right amount of ligh t reach the camera’s recording sensor (or t he film in a fi lm camera). As you become m。re experienced, you w ill wan t to set the exposure manually in certain cases, instead of always relying on t h e camera. Read more about exposure in Chapter 3, pages 60-73.

You have a choice of 四posure m odes with many cameras. Read your camera’s instructio n manual to find o ut which exposure features your model has and h ow they work. You may be able to dO\＼•吼load a replacement manual from t h e manu- facturer’s 飞.Veb site, if you don’t have one.

Wi由 programmed (fully automatic) exp osure, the camera selects both the sh utter speed and the ap盯ture based on a program built into the cam- era by the manufacturer. T his automatic opera-

Exposure information appears in the viewfinder of many 臼m eras. This viewfinder shows the shutter speed (he吨，地o sec.) and aperture (f/5.6). Displays also show you when the flash is rea吵to fire and give you warni，，结s of under- or oven自：posure.

16 CA M E RA

tio n can be useful in rapidly changing situattons because it allows you simply to respond to t h e SU同ect, focus, and sh oot.

In shu忧er- priority mode, you set the sh ut- ter speed and the camera automatically sets t h e correct aperture. Th is mode is useful when t h e m otion of subjects is important, as at sport- ing events, because the sh utter speed determines whether movi ng o同ects wi ll be sharp 。r blurred.

In a p erture-pr iority m ode, you set the lens open ing and the camera automatically sets t h e shutter speed. T his mode is useful when you want to control the depth of field (the sh a image fro m foregro und to background) because the size of the lens opening is a major factor affecting sharpn ess.

M a nua l expos u re is also a choice with many au tomatic cameras. You set both t h e lens open- ing and shutter speed yourself using, if you wish, the camera’s bu ilt-i n light meter to measure t h e brightness of the light.

Some cameras also have a data panel on the body of the 臼mera that shows the same information-shutter speed and ap- erture-as附II as exposure, autofocuι and ISO modes and 伪e number of.叩osures remaining on the memo,y card (here 12匀

INSIDE A DIG l丁AL SINGLE-LENS REFLEX CAMERA

A u camera• have t h• …basic featu res: • A light-t ight b。x to hold the camera paπs and a

rec。rd ing sensor o r fi lm

• A viewing system that lets you a im t he camera accu rately

• A lens t o forrr币 an image and a mechan ism to focus it sha rply

• A shut定er and lens apeπureε。 control t he amou nt 。f light thaε reaches t he record ing surface

• A m四ns to hold a memory card t hat saves its captured info rmation o r to hold and ad vance fi lm

A. B。dy. The light-t ight box that c。ntains the cam- era’ s mechanisms and protec臼 the lig ht -sensitive surface ( sensor o r fi lm) from exp。sure to lig ht until you a陀 ready to make a ph。tograph

B. Lens. F，。cuses an image in t he viewfi n d er and 。n t he lig ht -sensitive record ing su rface.

C lens elem e nts. The o ptica l glass lens components t hat prod uce t he image.

D F。cusing ring. Turning t he ring foc uses the image by adjust ing t he d istance 。f t he lens from t he rec。rd ing surface s。me cameras focus automat ically.

E. D iaphragm. A circle of。verlapping leaves inside t he lens t hat adj usts the size 。f the ape同ure ( lens o pening) . It 。pens up to increase （。r closes d own to d ecr四se) the am。unt of light reachi鸣 the rec。rd ing surface

F. Apertu陀 ring or butt。n. Setting the ring or εurn- inga c。mmand d ial ( 0 ) d e t erm ines the size 。fthe diaph甩gm d u ring exposu re.

G. Mirror. Du ri ng viewing, the m irror re fl ects light from t he lens u pward onto the viewing screen Duri ng an exp。sure, the mirror swings o ut o f t he way s。 l ight can pass stra ig ht to the recording surface.

H. Viewi~g. scree n . A gr。und-glass （。r simila r) su白白 on which t he foc used image a ppears

I. Pentaprism . A five-sid ed optical d evice thaε reflects t he image from t he viewing scree n in t o t he viewfind er

J. Metering cell. Measu res the brig htness of the scene being ph。tographed

K. View西nder eyepiece. A wind ow through which the image from the penta p rism is visible

L. Shutter. Keeps light from t he recording surface u ntil y。u a re ready t。 take a pictu re. Pressing the shutte r release 。pens and closes the shutter to le t a measu red am。unt 。f lig ht reach the sensor

M. Sensor. A grid (usuall~ called a CCD o r CMOS ar日y o r chip ) comprising m illions 。f t iny lig ht -sen-

, ,,,

sit ive electron ic d evices (phot osit es) t hat rec。rd the image. The ISO ( or lig_ht sen忧ivi呐。f the sensor is adjustable, and is set in t o t he came日 by a d ia l o r menu setting

N. Data panel. A d is.play (most 。他n an LCD screen) fo r such information as shut臼r sp四d, aperture, ISO，四p。sure and met ering m。des, and the num- ber of exposu res remain ing 。n t he memory card

0. Command d ial. Selects t he shutte r sp四d , the length of time the shu tter remains o pen On some m。dels, it a lso sets the mode 。faut。matic exp。－ sure ope日tion. In some locat ions, it is called a thumbwheel o r j。g d ia l.

P Shutter release. A but ton thaεactivates the exp。． SU陀 sequence in whic h t he apertu陀 adjusts, t he mirr。r rises, t he shutter opens, light strikes t he rec。rding surface, and t he shutter closes.

Q. H。t sh。e. A bracket t hat a ttaches a fl ash u n it to the camera and provides an electrical linking that synchronizes camera and flash

R M。de d ial. Sets a manual 。r one o f several auto - ma tic 剧posu re modes. On 民Im cameras, a crank to rewind an 四posed roll of而I m may be located here. Most new fi lm came甩s rewind a utomatically

S. Cable connections. Plug in cables that, for exam - pie, connect external power o r a c。mputer, o r c。n t ro l the camera remotely

T. Memory 臼时. Stores image fi les May be e rased and reused; capacity varies. Can be removed to fac ilita t e transferring 而les to a computer or other storage d evice

A simplified look inside a digitol single-lens refl，臼臼mera or DSLR ( de.咿s vary in different models) The camera tokes its name from its single lens (another kind of reflex film camera has two lense吵and from its reflection of light u如'Ord for ν'iewing the image.

R ’ 111 17

Sh utter Speed AFFECTS LIGHT AND MOTION

L igh t a nd t h e s hutter speed . T。 m冰e a correct exposure, so t hat your p ictu re is neit her too ligh t nor too dark, you need to control t h e amount of lig h t that reaches the d igital im age sensor （。r fi lm). T he s hutter speed (th e amount of time t h e sh utter rem出ns open) is o ne of two controls your camera has over the amoun t of light. T he apertu size (page 22) is t he other. In automatic operation, the cam era sets the shu tter speed, apert ure, or both. In manual 。peration, you choose both settings. T h e sh utter-speed dial (a p ush bu tton o n som e cameras) sets t he sh utter so t h at it opens fo r a given frac t ion of a sec。nd after the sh utter release has been pressed. T h e B （。r bu lb) setting keeps th e shutt er open as long as the shutter release is held down .

Motion 缸，d t h e s hutter s peed . In addi tion to controlling t h e amo unt of light that en ters the camera, the shutter speed also affects the way that moving o均ects are shown. A fast shutt er speed can freeze moti。n-V2.so sec. is more than fast eno ug h for most scenes. A very slow sh utter speed w ill record even a slow-mo机鸣。同ect 、.vith som e blu r. The im portant factor is how m u ch the im age

actually moves across the recording surface. T h e m ore of that surface it crosses wh ile the shutt er is open, the more the image will be blu rred, so t h e shutter speed n eeded to freeze m otio n d epends in part on the d irection in wh ich th e su同ect is mov- ing in 时ation to t he camera (see opposi te page).

T he lens focal length and the distance of t he su bject from the camera also affect the size 。f the image on the sensor (or 自Im) and thus how m uch it wi ll blur. A subject will be enlarged 山tis photographed with a lo ng-focal-length lens o r ifit is close to the camera; it has to move o n ly a little before its image crosses en。ugh of th e recording surface to be blu rred

Obvio us ly, the sp四d of t h e motio n is also im portant: all other t h ings being equal, a dart- ing swallow needs a faster sh utter speed than d oes a h overing h awk . Even a fast-moving su b- ject, howev凹， may have a peak in its m ovement, wh en t h e motio n slows just befo re it reverses. A gym nast a t the h eig h t of a j u m p, fo r instan ce, or a motorcycle neg。tiating a sh arp cu rve is moving slower than at other times and so can be sh arp ly p h otograph ed at a relatively s low sh utter speed.

See the project o n m。tion, page 161.

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1/ 8 sec 1/ I S 1/ 30

Shutter speeds appear in the camera's vie,听·nder (near righ从 on 阶e shutte问：peed dial (cen - ter), or as data panel readout (far r，妙。 Here, the camera is set to 巳生so sec. Noti，臼 that on如 the bottom number of the frac- tion is shown on the camera

Shutter-speed settings are in seconds or fractions of a second: 1 坦c，始sec., l4，扮，约5，约O, 始O, !-fas，始so, 始田， V.ooo, and sometim自始棚， L岳阳， and L也曲。 Each setting Jets in twi，臼 as much light as the next faster settin阜 half as much as the next slower setting. L告so sec. lets in twice

as much light as ~oo sec., half as much as 约2s sec. With many臼meras, e写pecially in automatic operation, shutter speeds are "stφless，”阶ecamera 臼n set the shutter to b全2S sec.，均•oo sec, or wha胆ν·er speed it calculates will produce a correct由p出ure.

18 CA M E R A

I ~---1

I d理｜

A focal-plane shutter consists of a pair of印刷ins usually located in the camera body just in 卢·ont of the 且时or. Duringe气posure, the 印刷ins open to form a slit that moν·es across 伪el.也•ht sensiti·时surface.

7百e size of the slit is adj us阳hie: the wider the slit, the longer the exposure time and the more l也•ht that reaches the sensor or film Focal-plane shutters are found in most single-lens ref/，自cameras and some range{inder cameras.

@ 0 () C • A leaf shutter is usually

built into the lens instead of 阶e 臼mera body. The shutter consists of overlapping leaves 伪at open during阶eexpo sure, then dose again

The longer伪e shutter s伺ysope叽 the more light that刷ches阶e l也fit－坦肘此i时 SU，仿ce. Leaf shutters are found on m时t compact, point-and-shoot, rangefinder, and twin-lens ref/，自由meras, view 臼mera lenses, and some medium-format sinie-lens reflex cameras.

‘. 1/ 30 sec

一－－幽 Slow shutter spee叫， subject blurred. The direction a su句iect is moving in relation to the 印刷阳臼na所ct the sh呻•ness of the picture. At a slow shutter speed, a driver moving from right 阳 left is not sharp.

’ 1/30 坦C

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Slow shutter speed, subject sha’-p. Here the driver is sha’'Pe时n阶outJ, photographed at the slow shutter speed阶at recorded blur i，，，阶e卢刚picture (top left) . She was moving directly 阳ward阶e 臼’”era, so her image did not cross enough of the recording su彷ce 阳 blur. The other g，。如rt, turning 阳 mo时across the frame, becomes blurred

Blurring to show m o tion. Freezing motion ts one way of representing ir, bur it is not the 。nly way. In fact, freezing motio n sometimes eliminates the feeling of movement altogether so that th e su均ect seems to be at rest. Allowing the su bject to blu r can be a graphic me血1s of showing that it is moving.

.. 1/ 500 sec

一－－幽

Fast shutter spee叫： subject slra’-p. Photographed at a faster shutter speed, the same drj,时rmoving巾 the 如me direction issha’p. During 伪e shorter exposun窑， her image did not cross enough 矿the recording su彷ce 归 blur.

. . 1/ 30 sec.

影疆乌 Pa’”’ing with the vehicle is another way 阳 keep it and the dri，时rre归ti，时。sharp. During the exp_osure, the photographer ’”。时dthe camera in the same direction 阶at the go-kart was moving (a ho斤zon阳I sweep from r，也•ht to left). Notice the streaky look of the 切ckgro川d, characteristic of a panned shot.

Pa nning to s ho w m otio n . Pann ing the camera- moving it in the same d irectio n as th e su bject’s movement during the exposure-is another way of showing motion (bot tom right). The backgroun d will be blurred, but the subject will be sh arper than it would be if the camera were held steady.

R ” 19

Sh utter Speed USE IT CREATIVELY

M ake a decision about s hutter s p eed for every sho e; don' t si m ply inherit o ne fro m your previous exposure o r lee t h e camera choose for you . Experiment with arresting motion, like the ph otographs o n the opposite page, and with the p。ssibili ties of blur. Try making a lo ng exposure of a m oving subject wi th a motionless camera, as shown on page 160, and by pann ing, as above. Every photograph you decide to make can capcure multiple variations 。f m ovement, and each can still be a correct exposur巳

20 CAMERA

John Divola. D07F12, from the series D。gs Chasing My Car in the De坦问 Morongo Valley, California, 199 7. Creating blur can e萨ctively suggest motion and can often be a better choice than freezing a moving su句：＇ect. Panning (page 19) is most often accomplished by sweeping the camera across the field of view from a fixed van阳，ge point. Divola held his 臼mera out the window of his mov- ing臼盯 the dog cooperated by matching阶e写peed 。,fthe vehicle.

Josef Koudelka. Spain, 1971 . A shutter speed that captures rapid motion also freezes anything slower. The posture and gestures of 阶e partfo仰nts in 伪位

event are held in place for our close inspection.

Naoya Hatakeyama. 8/ast#5416, 1998. n阳e shutter arrests action but it do臼n't protect阶e photogra· pher. For his own safety, making 伪ιseries of pictu的田。f由:plosions at a quar，饥 Ha阳k电yama used a remote control 归 trigger阳切酬，sec.

exposur，臼e He relied on advice from the blasting enfineer, who u，由rstood 阶e "nature" of the rock, 阳 locate his camera to capture the ”nature" of violence without damage

R ” 21

Aperture AFFECTS LIGHT AND DEPTH OF FIELD

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Aperture settings appear on a 臼mera's Jens aperture ringβhownabo昭•）， in the vieiν'finder (below /efi), or as da阳仰nel r臼dout (below r也＇ht). He鸣 the camera isset 阳f/5.6.

22 CA M E R A

size of the diaphragt” ’ a ring of overlapping meta l leaves inside the lens. (In automatic operation, the camera can do this for you.) Like 巾 iris of your eye, the d iaphragm can get larger (open u p) to let more ligh t in ; it can get smaller (stop down) to decrease the amount of light.

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Light and the aper阳re. 7百e size of the lens oJ地F ing－阶e aperture, or f-stop-ccntrols the amount ofl敏t阳tpa出s thro~gh the Jens. Each aperture is one “stop" from the n叫 that is, each lets in twice as much l也·ht as 阶e next smaller opening, half as much light as the n臼t larger opening. No- tice that the lower the f-stop number, the wider the Jens opening and 伪emore/ight that is let in. For example, f/8 is a wider opening and lets in more I，也＇ht than {/11, which lets in morel也ht阶an does f/16, and so on.

Ape阿ure settings (f-st ops ) . Aperture settings, from larger lens openings to smaller ones, are f/ 1,

f/ 1.4, f/ 2, f/2.8，例，疗5.6，例，们1, f/16，疗22, and f/ 32. Settings beyond f/ 32 are usually fo und on ly 。n s。me view-camera lenses

The l。wer the f-stop nu mber, t he wider the lens opening; each setti ng lets in twice as much ligh t as t he next f-stop number u p the scale, half as m uch ligh t as the n ext number down the scale. For example，加l lets in double the light 。ff/16, hal f as much as f/ 8. Larger openi ngs have sm aller n u mbers because the f/ n umber is a rat旺 the lens focal length divided by t he diameter of th e lens open ing.

Referring to a stop (wi thout the “ f ”) is a short- hand way of stating t h is half-or-double relation- sh ip. You can give 。ne stop more {twice as much) exp。sure by setting the aperture to its next wider opening, o n e stop less (half as much）四posure

by stoppi，毯（closing) do叭响 the aperture to its n四t s maller openi ng.

No lens has t he entire range of f-s tops; m ost have about seven . A 50mm lens may range from f/ 2 at its widest open ing t。 f/16 at its small- est, a 200mm lens may range from f/ 4 to f/ 22. Most lenses can set intermediate f-stops partway between t he whole stops, often in o ne-th ird-stop increments. T he widest lens setting may be an intermediate stop, for example, f/ 1.8.

D e p t h o f fi eld a nd t he aperture. T h e size of the aperture setti ng also affects how m uch of the image wi ll be sharp. T his is known as th e depth of field. As th e aperture 。pening gets smaller, the depth of fie ld increases and more of t h e scen e from near to far appears sharp in t he photograph (see photos bel。w an d pages 42 and 45). See t h e depth of field project on page 159.

Small Aperture M。” Depth 。f Fie ld

Dep伪。ffield and the aperture. 7百e smaller the aperture openin阜 the greater the dep伪 offield. At {/16 (left，阳”，时th 阶e hands and string 巾 the foreground cri.写ply i，，阳吨， the face in the backgro川dis a/sosha’?- Ata much la嗯er aperture, {/1.4 (left, bo阳时， there is very little dep伪。f{ield 7百eh出的 the back- ground is completely out of focus.

Large Aperture Less Depth 。f Fie ld

R ” 23

Aperture USE IT CREATIVELY

A choice about a p erture is a choice about f ocus, one of the most impo rtant decisions you can m汰e about a picture. For all th e similarities, a camera doesn't really see the way your eye does. A picture freezes focus; sharp par臼 stay sharp, blur and softness remai n no matter how much we

stare at a photograph . O ur vision, though, is fl uid. Our eyes dart around a scene so we can perceive it as a whole，血1d they are constantly-and involun- tarily-refocusi ng. Knowing the difference between human vision and photographic visio n can be a powerful tool，目 these 四amples show.

24 CAM E RA

----- \\

Joel S ternfeld. The Spa回到uttle Columbia londs at Kelly Air Force Base, San Antonio, Texas, March 1979. A small aperture gives great depth of field 阶at 臼n make all parts of an image equal如 sha’p. This can seem, as

here, to flatten three dimensions into two Sternfeld uses that flatness for a playful ambi- guity. The foreground spectator appears to be inspecting a wall-sized photograph or watching a giant television.

Terri Weifenbach. Untitled, 2014. A 旬，-ge aperture creates a narrow band of focus that can slice 阶rouiJ, the middle of a s臼吨 leaving o侬出blu句both in front and behind. This

image-of an evergreen that produces red winter berries-was the ”咿，off• at the end of a long visual conver回tion carried out via email between 灿ifenbach 的 the US and another artist in Japan.

c…ER ’ 9l 2s

Shutter Speed αndAperture BLUR VS. DEPTH OF FIELD

Cameras set shutter speeds between whole stops. Older shutters on如had full stoJ后， each double the amount of time of the shutter speed before it or half that of the one a~er it. 而day's shutters set shutter sp出ds in incre- me础。,fone-half or one·

C ont ro lling ti、e expos‘ . B口th sh u and apenure affect d飞e am。un t 。f light reach ing the camera's light-sensitive rec口rding surface. To get a correctly exposed p ictme, o ne that is neith er too light nor too dark, you need to fi nd a com- bi nation of sh utter speed and aperture th at will let in the rig h t amount of light for a particular scene an d ISO setting. (Pages 60-73 explain h ow to do this.

Equivalent exposur es. O nce you know a correct combination of sh utter speed and aperm re, you can change one setting an d still keep th e exposure the same as long as you change t he o ther setting the same amount in the 。pposite directio n. If you wan t to use a smaller ap凹ture (wh ich lets in less lig ht), you can keep t he exposure the same by usi ng a slower shutt er speed (which lets in more light), and vice versa.

A stop o f expo s u re ch a nge. Each full ιstop setti ng of the aperture lets in h alf (or dou- ble) the amount of lig h t as t he n四E full setti ng, a o n e-stop differen ce. Each shutt er-speed setting does the same. The term stop is used whether the ap盯ture o r sh utter speed is ch anged. T h e exp。－ s ure stays constant if, for example, a m ove to th e

Slower shutter speed: M。re light enters M。re chance of m。tion blurri啕

118 sec. 1/1 5 1β0

next fas ter sh utter speed (one stop less exposure) is matched by a move to the n ext larger aperture (one stop more exposure).

W hich com b ination do you choose? Any 。f several com binations of sh utter speed and aper- cure could make a good exposure, bu t t h e effect o n t h e appearance of t he image wi ll be different. S hurter speed affects the s harpness of moving objects; aperture size a仔ects depth of fie ld (t h e sharpness of a scene from near to far). S hutt er speed also helps prevent blur caused by can1era moti。n during the 四p。sure. If you are holding the camera in your hands, you need a faster sh ut- ter speed than if you have t he camera o n a tripod (see page 28 fo r details).

y。u can decide for each p iccure whether

stopped m。tion or depth of field is more impor- tant. More depth of fie ld and near-to-far sh arp ness with a smaller apenure means you would be using a slower sh utter speed and so risking that m otio n would blur. Using a fas ter sh utter speed to freeze motion means you would be usi ng a larger aperture, with less of the scene sh arp n ear co far. Depending o n the sicuatio n , you may have to comprom ise on a m oderate amount 。fdepth 。f field with some possibi lity of blur.

third s阳，ps T丑，s chart sh由屿， in gray, those fractional stops

Some cameras allow you 阳choose among dφrent ways 阳set shutter speeds (and ape时ures), use full stops while l国rnmg

Speeds a臼meradi制制， d晤，e an fractio,晤，

8 on a display is 1/ 8 sec.

’ / 3 STOP ’ / 2 STOP

1 1 1.3 1.5 1.6 2 2 2.5 3 3 4 4 5 6 6 8 8 10 11 13 15 15 20 20 25 30 30 40 45 50 60 60 80 90 100 125 125 160 180 200 250 250 320 350 400 500 500

Faster 由utter spe副

Less light enters Le目chan国 of m。tion blurri啕

Shutter speed and aperture combina- tions. Both the shutter speed and the aperture size control the amount of light. Each setting lets in half(ordoubl，ψ

1厄0 1/125 1/250 1/500

Shutter speed

Aperture

C) ~l)t） ‘）。－－ 00000 00

the amount ofl也ht as the adja时nt setting-a one-stop difference

!{you decrease 阶eamount 咐，ight ones.阳，p by moving to the next smaller aperture settin阜you can keep the exposure cons阳nt by also moving归 the n田t slower shutter 写peed. In automatic operation, the camera makes these changes for you.

Each combination of apertu趴在 f/16 1/11

Smal幅r aperture: Less light enters More de pth of field

26 CAME RA

1/8 1/5.6 1/4 町2.8

Larger a阳同ure: More light enters

Le臼depth of fi eld

1/2 and shutter speed shown at le~ lets in the same amount oρight, but see the photographs on 阶e opposite page: the combinations change归纳呻n甜。f the picture in different w咿S

Fast shutter speed (!lsoo sec.）：伪emoving阳·ingissha’？ ”币＇de aperture (f/2) : the trees, picnic table, and person in theba咆round are out of focus. On归价出the same dis- tan臼as the foreground posts, on which the lens was fo阳sed, are sharp

－、电

Shutter -..-

speed -

sec. 1111 1/15 1启0 1160 1/1 25 1尼50 1/500

f/16 的 1 f/8 f/5.6 f/4 f.古2.8 I，尼

。 Medium-fast shutter speed （~也o sec.): the moving swing shows some blur. Medium-wide aperture (f/5.6）：阶e background is still a little h乓y but the middle ground appears 巾focus

t): r sec. 1启 1/15 1启0 1尼0 1/125 1尼50 1/ 500

f/16 f/ 11 1/8 1/5.6 f/4 f/2.8 f/2

@… Slow shutter speed （始sec): the moving swing is completely blurred. Small aperture (f/16）：阶e middle- and切c代ground are completely sha’?

（善如r 提C. 1111 1/15 1/30 1局0 1/125 1尼50 1/500

f/16 的 1 f/8 f/5.6 f/4 f/2.8 I，尼

＠仰erture

This image was intentionally remov巳d for this version.

Shutter speed and ape时ure combinations. Each of the 由：posure combinations for this scene lets 的 the same 阳阳I amount of light, so the o时阳II exposure stays the same. But the motion of the swing is blurred with a slow shutter speed, sha’p with a fast shutter speed. 7百e depth of field 白时rail sharpness of nea俨归－far objects) is shallow with a 阳也uaperture，自tends farther with a small aperture.

R ” 27

Getting the Most from Your Cαmerααnd Lens

C am era motion causes blur. Thoug h some ph otographers claim to be able to hand h old a camera steady at slow shutt er sp eeds- 1/15 sec. or even slower－此时悦。nly a slig h t amoun t of cam- era motio n d uring exposure to cause a no t iceable blur in an image. If a sharp picture is you r aim , usi ng a fast shutter speed o r supporti ng t h e cam- era o n a tripod is a m uch su rer way to prod uce a s harp im age.

W h e n h a nd h o lding t h e cam er a (see righ t, cop and center), use the focal length of your lens as a g uide to how fas t your sh utter speed should be. The longer the focal length, the fas ter th e shutt er speed must be, because a long lens m agn ifies any motion of th e lens d uring the 四posure just as it magn ifies t he size of t he objects photographed.

As a general rule, the slowest shutter speed that is safe to hand hold is ma tch ed to t he focal length 。f the lens. T h at is, a 50mm lens should be hand held at a sh utter speed of Vso sec. 。r fas ter, a 100mm lens at V100 sec. o r faste r, and so o n . Th is d。esn't mean that the camera can be free ly moved d u ri ng the 口posure. At these speeds, the camera can be h and h eld, bu t with care. At the mo m ent of exposure, ho ld your breath and squ eeze the shu t- ter release smooth ly.

T h e camera itself can affect your ability to hand h old it; som e cameras vibrate more than oth ers d urin g exp。sure. A s ing le-lens refl ex cam- era, wit h its moving m irror, fo r example, vibrates more t han a ran gefi nder or compact camera. Some lenses an d ca m era b。dies have electron ic s ta bilizat io n system s t hat help yo u take s ha rp p hotographs at l。nger exposures.

A tripod and cable r e lease (shown righ t, bot- tom) will keep the camera absolutely sti ll duri ng an exposure. T h e t ripod supports the camera s teadily; the cable release lets you trigger the shutter wit h - out having to to u ch the camera directly. A t ripod and cable release are useful when you need a s lower shutter speed than is feasib le fo r hand h。lding; for example, at d usk when the ligh t is dim. They also

28 C AM E RA

help when y。u wan t to comp。sea p icture carefully o r do close-up work. T hey a re always used for copy work, such as ph otographing a pain ti ng, an other photograph，。r someth ing e。m a book, because hand holdi ng at even a fast sh utter speed will not produce cri tical s harpness for fi ne details. A view camera is always used on a t ripod.

T he job of a cable release, to trigger the sh u t- ter with o ut t ransm itti ng movement, may also be accomplished at a d istance with a variety of remote wireless triggers that use radio 。r infrared signals.

T o protect a ca m e ra in use, use a neck st rap, eith er worn arou nd you r neck or wound around your wrist. It keeps th e camera handy and makes you less likely to drop it . Lenses can be kept in lens cases or plastic bags to protect them from dust, with lens caps both back and front fo r add itional protection of lens su rfaces.

A padded bag, case, or backpack will protect your equipment from bu mps and jolts when it is carried o r moved, a camera bag makes your acces- sories and extra fi lm readi ly available. Alu m inu m o r mo lded plastic cases with fi tted foam com- part men臼 provide th e best protection; some are even waterproof. T h ei r disadvantage is th at they are bulky, not conveniently carried o n a shoulder strap, an d the camera may not be rapidly accessible.

Baαery power is essential to t h e func tion ing of m ost cameras. If your viewfin der display 。r o t her data d isplay begi ns to act er ratically, the batteries m ay be getting we汰 Many cameras have a bat- tery check that will let you test battery strength o r an indicator that warns of low power. It’s a good idea to check batteries before beginni ng a day’s shooting or a vacation outing and to car ry spares in your camera bag. If you don’t have sp缸es and t he batt eries fail, t1y cleaning the ends of the bat- teries and the batte1y con tacts in th e camera with a pencil eraser or cloth; the problem may j ust be poor electrical contact. 飞:Varming t h e batt eries in the palm of your han d m ight also bring them back to life tem porari ly.

To hand hold a camera, keep feet apart, rest the camera lightly against your face. Hold your breath as you squeeze the shutter release s/o叫y.

With the camera in a vertical positi，。”， the le~ hand holds and focuses the le问伪er，也＇ht hand releases the shutter.

A tripod and cable release 阴阳en阳I if you wantasha’p image at slow shutter speeds. Keep some slack in the cable release so it doesn 't tug阶ecamera

Clean the sensor and inside the camera 昭q 臼reful如 Whenyou blow air inside the camera, t伊 the camera so the dust falls out and isn't pushed in归 the mechanism. Don’t touch a’~伪的阜 e时nwi，阶a brush, unless absolute如necessary.

、

~ Clean the lens. F守时t, blow then brush a’~ visible dust o厅 the lens surface. Hold the lens upside down to let the dust fall off阶e SU拍出instead ofjust circulating on it.

事 Use lens cleaning fluid. Dampen a wadded piece of lens-cl，臼ningt.凶ue with the fi~id and gently wiP: the lens with a circular motion. Don’t put lens fluid direct.吻。n the lens because it can run to the edge and soak into the barrel. Fi ,ish with a gentle, circular wipe using a dry lens tissue.

Cam e ras and m e mory card s in t r a n s it s hould be protected fro m s t rong magnetic fie lds, sh ock, excessive h eat, and su dden temperamre changes. Avoid leaving equipment in a car o n a su n ny day. Excessive heat can soften t h e oil lubricant in the camera, causi ng the oil to run out and create prob- lems, s uch as jam ming lens d iaphragm blades. At very low tem peratures, m oving m echan isms, both oil-lubricated an d d1y, as well as camera, flash , and meter batteries m ay be sluggish, so on a cold day it is a good idea to keep t h e camera warm by cany- ing it u nder your coat unti l you ’re ready to take a pictu re. 飞.Vhen you bring a camera in fro m the cold, let it W缸m up before rem oving the lens cap to keep condensation off the lens. O n the beach, protec- tio n fro m salt spray and sand is vital.

If a cam e ra will n o t b e used for a whi le, cu m off any o n/ off sw旧hes, and store t h e cam era away from excessive heat, h u m id ity, an d d us t . For l。ng-term storage, remove batteries because they can corrode an d leak . Retu rn t h e batteries tempor arily and operate t he shutt er occasio nally becau se it can become balky if n ot u sed.

Protect your cam era from dust a nd d irt. Replace memory cards and ch ange lenses in a d ust- free place if you possibly can . y。u should blow occasio nal dust off the focus ing mirror or screen, but it’s wise to let a competent camera techn ician do any work beyond th is.

D ust an d specks t hat appear in your view- finder are usually o utside t he optical path and will likely n ot appear in your photographs. However, any dust or d irt o n a digit刻 sensor (actually, on the bui lt -in glass fi lter that covers it} w ill appear on each p icture. Some cameras have a built-in mech a- n ism to shake the sens。r clean but when you see unwan ted marks in the same location on all your pictu res, consider clean ing th e sensor.

D igital SLRs have a men u comman d for sen- sor cleaning, wh ich locks t he m irror up so you can access th e sensor by rem。ving the lens. It also cuts th e sensor power to reduce static ch arge.

Touchi ng t h e sensor can b e risky; scratches are permanent. Start by t巾ng to blo胃口仔unwanted d ust gen tly. A rubb盯 squeeze bulb is safer t han a can of compressed gas that may produce eno ugh force to damage comp。nents. A squeeze bulb that blows ionized air will do a better job 。f removing d ust held by an electrostatic charge.

If your came阻’s sensor needs a more thorough clean ing, special bmshes, pads, or swabs are avail- able. But touch ing t he sensor may make perman ent marks, and voids a cam盯白 warranty, you may want to h ave your sensor cleaned professio nally.

A ny le n s s urface must b e clean for best per- fo rmance, but keeping dirt off in t h e firs t place is much better t h an frequent cleani吨， wh ich can damage the delicate lens coating. Avoid touch ing the lens surface wit h your fingers because they leave o ily prints t h at etch into the coating. Keep a lens cap o n t he fro n t of the lens when it is not in use and one on t he back of t h e lens when it is

removed fro m the camera. Clean back caps t h or- o ughly before using t h em; dust 。n the cap will often find its way to your sensor.

D uring use, a lens h ood helps protect t he lens surface in addit ion to sh ield ing t h e lens from stray light t hat may degrade t he image. A UV (ult raviolet) or lA fi lter wi ll have very little effect o n t h e image; some photograph ers leave one on the lens all t h e time for protection against d irt an d accidental damage.

To clean 由e len s you will need a mbber squeeze bulb or a can of compressed gas, a soft brush, lens tissue, and lens cleaning fluid. Use a squeeze bulb o r compressed gas to remove d ust, lens clean ing flu id and tissue if you have fingerp rints o r smears. Cans of compressed gas may spray propellant if t ilted; keep them vel'tical for use. Av。id using clean ing products made for eyeglasses, particularly any t reated cloths; they are too harsh for lens sur- faces. A clean cotton clot h or pape门issue is usable in an emergency, but lens t issue o r an untreated m icrofiber clot h will be m uch better.

R ” 29

G E。FFREY Roe，例SON

Press photographers outside Buclcingham Palace on 曲e royal wedding day of Prince William and

K,,te Midd/et酬， Lt,ndo”， 2011 Wo成ingpho阳，graphers ore often constrained

to a prea"anged A。但旧” at major events Robinson sht1Ws us w曲!Y it can be difficult 阳

report the m咽from刷刷usual阳ntoge point.

Lens Focal Length .. ...... ..... 32 The basic d伊rence bet附·en 阳S自.. 32

Normal Focal Length ..... ..... 34 The most like human vision .. ..... 34

Long Focal Length .. ...... ..... 36 Telepho阳 lenses ..... ...... ..... 36

Short Focal Length . ...... ..... 38 \Vide-angle lenses .... ...... ..... 38

Zoom, Macro, and Fisheye Lenses ...... ..... 40

Focus and Depth 。fField ........... ...... ..... 42

Automatic Focus .. ...... ...... 43

Depth of Field .... ...... ...... 44 Controlling sharpn臼S in a photograph . ... ...... ...... 44

More about Depth 。fField .......... ...... ...... 46 How to preview it ... ...... ...... 46

Perspective ........ ...... ...... 48 How a photograph shows depth . ...... ...... ...... 48

Lens Attachments . ...... ...... 50 Close-"

In this chapter yo,i'Ll ie<Lrn ...

• the focal length of a lens 』S the most imp。rtant difference between lenses, the longer the focal length, the larger a subject appea目

• that a viewer a l m。st a lways looks at the sharpest part of a ph。t。graph f,阳t, and you can control y。ur photograph’s sharpness in several ways.

• perspective is the impression of depth in a two- di『γ，ens’。『、al image; we gauge ,t by the relative sizes 。f。均ects, detern、l『 distance fr。『Y、 y。ur subject.

On 伪e lens ba"e/ ( as shown belo吵are controls such as a ring that focuses the lens. Cameras and lenses va,y in des驴， so check the features of your own camera. Fore.κample, m叫印刷刷 have push-but阳nor dial controls on the camera body instead of an aperture control ring on the lens. Markin~ on the lens (shown belo吨 r也•ht) always include its focal length and maxim n aperture (ora range for each ifit is a zoom), usually alongwi，阶a serial number and the maker's name.

Focusing ring rotates to bring di何erent pam 。fthe

scene into focus

Aperture-co阳。I ring selects the f-stop or size 。f the lens 。pening

Oep由咱f-field scale shows h。w much of the scene will be sharp

indicates on the distance scale the d眩目nee 川 feet and meters on which che lens is f。cused

Lens 2 F叫an im鸣e. Alchoug

s h arp photographs, y。u d。口，E actually need 。ne to take pictures. A primitive camera can be constructed fr口m liccle more than a shoe box

with a tiny pinhole at 。ne end a nd a digital sen sor, a piece of自Im, or a sheer of light-sensitive photographic paper at the other. A pinhole won't make as clear a picture as a glass lens, bur it does form an image of o均ects in front of it

A s imple len s, s uch as a magni今mg glass, will form an image that is brighter and sharper than an image formed by a pinhole. Bu t a simple len s has many optical defects (called aberrati.ons) that prevent it from forming an image that is sharp a nd accurate. A m odern compound len s s ubdues these aberra- ti。ns by combining several simp le lens elements made of diff盯ent kinds of g lass and ground to different thicknesses and curvatures so char they cancel out each och e r' s aberrations.

T h e main function of a len s is co project a s harp, undistorted image onto the light-sensitive surface. Lenses vary in design, and different types perform s。me jobs bette r than 。thers. Twom司jordi仔erences in lens characteristics are focal len g th and speed.

Le n s focal le ngth is, for a photograph凹， the most impo rtant characteristic of a lens. One 。f the primary advantages of a s ingle-len s reflex camera or a view camera is the interchangeability of its len ses; many photographers o叭响 more than one lens so they can change lens focal length. More ab。Ut focal len g th appears on the fo llowing pages.

Le n s s p eed is n ot the same 臼 shutter speed. More co盯eccly called maxiη1um ape时U陀， it is the widest aperture co which the lens diaphragm can be opened. A lens that is "faster” than another opens co a wider aperture a nd admi臼 more light; it can be used in dimmer ligh t or with a faster s hutter speed.

Focal lengtl’ . The shorter the focal length, the wider the 川ew 。fa scene. The longer che 岛cal length, the narrower the 川ew and the m。re the su均ecc is magnified

Manufacturer

／阳im…阳U陪 The lens' s widest 。pening or speed Appears as a rat山， here 1 :2. The maximum aperture is the lase paπ 。fthe ratio，町2

\ Filter size. The diameter in mm 。fthe lens, and so che size 。f fi lter needed when 。ne is added onto che lens

Lens Foeαl Length THE BASIC DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LENSES

P h otographers d escribe lenses in terms of t h e ir focal le ngth; gen erally t h ey refer to a n。rmal, I。ng, or s hort lens, a 50m m lens, a 24 - l OSmm zoom lens, and s。。n Focal length affects t h e image form ed o n the sensor o r film in two important an d related ways: th e amo unt of the scene s hown { t h e aniJe of归功 and thus th e size of objects {the ir magn ificatio n ). A lens with a single，。r fixed, fo cal length is called a pηme le ns; a va口，able or ac句ustable focal - a zoom lens

How focal length a仔·ects an image. The shorter the focal length of a lens, the more of a scen e th e lens takes in a nd the smaller it m akes each 。bject in the scen e appear in the image. You can dem- onst rate this by looking throu gh a circle formed by your th u mb a n d fore自nger. T h e shorter th e d istance between you r hand (the lens) and your eye (the digital sensor o r fi lm), th e m。re of th e scen e you will see (the wider t h e angle of view). T h e more o均ects t hat are shown o n t he same size sensor （。g negative), t h e smaller all of them will h ave ro be (the le臼 magnification). Si milarly, you cou ld fill a sensor e ither wi th an image of one person's head or wi th a grou p of twenty people. In the grou p p。rtrait, each pers。n’s head must be smaller.

The size of 由e record ing surface a仔ec也 the angle of view. With t h e same le ns, a smaller sensor will captu re less o f a scen e. Some digital

sensors a re the same size as a fra me of 35m m fil m {24 x 36mm); these are called户H乔·ame sen- sors and a re usually fo und o n relatively expensive cameras mar keted to profession a ls. Wi t h cameras t hat use oth er, usually smaller, size senso凹， lens fo ca l lengths are o日i:en g iven in terms of a 35mm eq1'ivalent. A camera with a n APS-C sensor (ab。Ut 15 x 22m m) us ing a 3 1mm lens h as t h e sam e a n g le o f view as a full-frame cam era with a 50m m le ns (see the opposite page). Focal lengths in th is book a re g iven as 35mm equ ivalents. A camera with an APS-C sensor is also said to h ave a 旷·op

j如ctor of 1.6. Mui叩lying its lens focal length by 1.6 will g ive the 35m m equ ivalent.

Interc hangeable lenses are convenient. T h e 副11oun t of a scene sh own and th e size of 。均ects can be changed by m ovin g th e camera closer to o r fa巾er from 巾SU均ec呐ut the option of chang- in g lens focal length g ives you more flexibility a n d co n trol. Sometimes you can’E easily get closer to your s u bject-for example, s ta n di n g on s h o re photograph ing a boat on a lake. Someti m es you can't get far enou g h away, as when y。u a re p h oto- graphing a large grou p o f people in a s m all room.

飞;vith a camera t hat accepts d iffe rent lens-

凹， such as a s ingle-len s reflex camera, you can remove o n e lens and p u t o n another when you want to ch ange focal length. Interch angeable lenses range from sup盯－wide-angle fis h eye lenses to 四tra-long teleph。tos.

100mm focal le ngth

32 LENS

Focal length is measured from an optical point near the back of a lens 阳the image it forms on the film ord也i阳I image旦时or. It is ’”臼sured when the lens is sharply focused on an o侬d巾 the far distance 。echnically known as 巾finity) . Magnifi臼tion, the size of an object in an image, is directly re归ted 阳fo臼I length. As the fo臼I length increas，白， the image size of 伪e object increases. A 100mm lens produ臼san im- age twice as large as one produced by a 50mm lens.

Project: LENS FOCAL LENGTH

YOU W ILL NEED A ca mera either with a z。om lens or with lenses of two di仇rent focal lengths. The g陀ater the di自由nee in focal lengths, the easier it will be to see the d i仇rence between them. If you can, use a shoπ－focal length lens (35mm or sho陀er) and a long lens (85mm or longer)

PROCEDURE Put the sh。『ter lens on the came阻。ra句ust the z。。m lens t。 its shortest 币ocal length (i臼widest view). Make a head -to－ε。e phot。． graph of a “end. N。目 the distance you have to stand from your sub- ject to have his or her 也et j ust touch the bot- tom edge 。f the view- finde r frame while the top of the head g日zes its upper edge.

Do the same with the l。nger lens or with the z。。m lens a句usted to its longest 而ocal length (its narrowest view). Make a similar pair 。f views of a h。use or a chair, fitting your SU同ect exactly into the image frame

HOW DID YOU DO? Compare the pairs of views How d id the d istances you had to be from your su时ect with the sh。π lens compare to th。se needed with the l。ng lens? H。wd。 the backgrounds in the pairs of views di何er? Did the impression of depth in the photo- graphs change when you switched from the short to the long lens> What else changed?

j…·…用． - 7:~; ”.. fi?t

忧国可回圃’

i , '

200mm I I 12° focal len圳、 r I angle of view (APS-C: 125mm) \ /

11 45== FFF

‘A V J尸’ ’ ’ ’’ ’5 4 5 4

机

E Lf－－＋

－m

o g －卢ZE F H

m E z－－

－d r · －4卢 5 4E

问 E h－－

－w －

『 H Z♂S S E

.. ,

川 … … － M N －

，

E E－g

回

It 50mm \ I 47° focal length ＼.－－一－『飞／ angle of view (APS-C : 31mm) \ /

且当」：．．．：：且［

· 竭而？

！？叮男ill＂吨 lh -

A俨到

mMc mwm 5。 angle 。fview

What happens when you change lens focal length? If every- thing else stays the SlJme, changing the focal le咆',lh of the Jens changesbo阶 the amount of a s臼ne included in the image (anue of view) and the size of o侬出（magn币，cation). To make 阶市 sequence, the photographer cl时，啄~d only the 卢>cal length of the tenseι the distance from Jens 阳SU句；ect remained the same. As the focal length increases (fore.κample, from 24mm to 50mm), the angle of view narrows and the size of objects increases.

7百ese illustrations are ac，阳rate for comparing anues of view on a full-frame digi臼I or 35mm film camera or when using 何35mm equivalent" focal lengths. Focal lengths that match the angle of view on an APS-C camera are shown in paren伪eses.

100mm I I

focal length 怡’一一叫 (APS-C: 62mm）飞／

24。

angle 。fview

1000mm I I

focal len忡忡一，l (APS-C:“5mm) I f

2.s• angle 。fview

R 2 e 33

NοrmalFocαl Length THE MOST LIKE HUMAN VISION

A le n s o f normal focal len阱， as you m ight expect from the name, produces an image that see m s normal when compared w ith h uman vis ion. T he image includes about the same angle of view as the human eye sees clearly when looking s traight ahead, and t h e relative size and spacing of near and far objects appear normal. For full-frame cameras （。r a 35 mm film camera), this e仔ect is produced by a lens of about 50mm focal length. Manu facturers that supply t hei r can1eras with a prime lens usually fi t a lens 。f that length.

T h e size 。f t h e lig h t-sensitive surface used in a particular camera determines what focal length is n ormal fo r it; a normal lens has a focal length

34 L E N S

approximately equal to the diagonal of the sen- sor or film frame. T he normal focal length for a view camera wi th 4 x 5-inch film, for example, is 150mm. Most digital sensors are smaller than fu ll frame so their n。rmal lens is shorter than o ne for a full-frame or 35mm camera. See the s ize chart at the b。ttom 。f page 45.

N orma l lenses h ave many advant a ges. Compared wi th lenses of much shorter or m uch longer focal length, normal lenses are generally faster; t hey can be designed wi th wider maxi mum apertures to admit t he maximum amount ofl igh t. T herefore, they are convenient for use in d im light,

Alison Carey. Graze, 2009. A normal-focal-length lens is a useful all-purpose lens in the studio. Carey fabricates her imagined lands臼pes indoors on a small scale with clay and paint. Carefully controlled art伊cial light and a pain阳d切ckdrophelp mimic reality. Her normal- fo臼I-length lens provid，出a com for臼blewo成ing distance and opens to a wide aperture when she wants shallow depth of field.

especially where action is involved , as in cheater o r indo。r sports scen es o r in low lig ht levels o utdoors. T hey are a good choice if th e camera is to be hand h eld because a wide m皿imum ap盯ture p凹mits a shutter speed fast en o ugh to prevent blu r caused by cam era m ovemen t during 田posure. Generally, the normal lens is m o re compact and lighter, as well 臼 somewhat less expensive, than len ses of much longer o r much sho rter focal length.

Choice of focal length is a ma优er of p e rsonal prefere nce. Many photographers with full- frame cameras regularly use a lens with a focal len gth of 35mm rath er than 50mm because they like the wider view and greater d epth of fi eld that a 35mm lens has compared to a 50mm lens. s。me phorog- raphers use an 85mm lens because they prefer its nar rower view, which can concent rate th e image on the central o均ects of interest in the scen e.

Henri Cartier-Bresson. Greece, 1961. A lens of normal focal Ieng姊produ臼s an image 阶at appears similar to that of normal human vision. Cartier- Bresson made many of his best-known pho阳，graphs with a 50mm lens on his 35mm Leica camera. The amount of the scene included in the image and the

relative size and pla臼ment of near and far ot庐cts are what you would 由：pect to see if you were s阳，，ding next 阳 the camera. The scene does not appear exaggerated in depth, as it m也·htwi阶a short-focal-length lens, nor do 伪eo句；ects seem compressed and too close together, as sometimes happens wi阶a long-fa臼I-length lens.

R 2 e 35

Lo TE l 隔EPHOTO LENSES

A prime lens of long focal l凹，h seems t o bring things closer, just as a telescope does. As the focal length gets longer, less of the scene is shown (the angle of view narrows), and what is shown is enlarged (the magnification increases). This is useful when you are so far from the sub- ject that a lens of normal focal length produces an image that is too small. Sometimes you can’t get really close-at a spmts event, for example. Sometimes it is better to stay at a distance, as in nature photography. An Olympic finish line, t he president descending 企om Air Force One, and an empting volcano are all possible subjects for which you might want a l。ng lens.

How long is a long len s? A popular medium- long lens for a full-frame camera is 105mm; t his focal length magn ifies your view significantly but

36 LENS

not so much that the lens’s usefulness is limi ted to special siruations. A lens of 65mm has a com- parably long focal length fo r an APS-C camera with a l.6x crop (or le阳conversion) factor (see page 32), so does a 300mm lens on a 4 × 5 view camera The difference between a medium-long lens and an ext remely long one (for example, a 500mm lens with a full-frame camera) is rather like that between a pair of binoculars and a h igh-power telescope. You may want a telescope 。ccasionally, but usually binoculars will do.

A long len s provides relatively little d epth of field. When you use long lenses, you’II n。rice t hat as the focal length increases, depth of field decreases so that less of the scene is in focus at any given f-stop. For example, when focused at 巾 same distance, a 200mm lens at f/ 8 has less

Ed)ones. Fisherman's Dragon Boat Race, Hong Konι 2010. A long lens can seem 阳 compr，白S space. I引arced to shoot from shore,Jones chose a 500mm lens to fill his frame with the action. The boats and oarsmen seem to be s阳eked on top of one another in a jumble of action and color. When do you get阶is effect and why? See pages 48-49 to find out.

Andreas Feininger. 7百e Ocean Liner Queen Mary, New York Ci弘 1946 A long lens mag，”伊esa distant subjec电 letting you shoot from a distance. Feininger used a 1000mm lens to shoot across the Hudson River from the New Jersey shore, two miles aw.吨y. Built as a luxury liner, the Queen Ma叩served 伪rough the war as a troop transport beginning in 1940, and was decommissioned sho时如after this photograph was 阳ken.

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A medium-long lens is use句l for portrai岱 because the photographer can be relatively far from the SU均ect and still fill the image fram巳 Many people feel more at ease when photographed if the camera is not too close. Also, a moderate distance between camera and su悖ct prevents the exagger- aced size of fac ial features closest to the camera that occurs when a lens is very close. A good work- ing distance for a head-and-shoulders portrait is 6-8 丘（2-2.5 m), easy to do with a medium-long lens-from 85mm co 135mm focal length.

A long prime le ns, compared with one of normal focal length, is larger, heavier, and somewhat more expensive. Its largest apei-ture is

relatively small; f/4 or f/5.6 is c。mmon. It must be focused carefully because with its shallow depth of field there will be a distinct difference between

o均已cts that are shat ply focused and those that are not. A faster shutter speed is needed to keep the image sharp wh ile hand hold ing the camera （。r a trip。d should be used for support) because the enlarged image magnifies the effect of even a slight movement of the lens during 四p。sure. These disadvantages increase as the focal length increases, but so do the long lens’S unique image· forming characteristics.

Photographers often call a ny long lens a tele- photo lens, or tele, although not all long-focal- lengt h lenses are actually of telephoto design. The optics of a true telephoto make it smaller than a conventional long lens of the same focal length. A tele-extender, or teleconvert er, contains an optical element that increases the effective focal length of a lens. It attaches between the lens and the cam-

era. The optical performance, however, will not be as good as the equivalent long lens.

ω…2 e 37

Short Foeαl Length WI DE-ANGLE LENSES

L e nses of s hort focal len阱 are also called wide-angle or sometimes wide-field lenses, wh ich describes their most impo rtant feature-they view a wider angle of a scene than normal. A lens of normal focal length records what you see when you look at a scene with eyes fixed in one position. A 35m m wide-angle lens records t h e 63。 angle of view that you see if you m ove your eyes slightly fro m s ide to side. A 7.5mm fisheye lens records th e 180。 angle you see if you turn your whole head to

look over your left shou lder and then over your right sho ulder.

A popular short lens for a full-frame camera is 28m m . Comparable focal lengths are 55mm for a medium-format film camera with 6 x 7cm for mat, and 90mm for a 4 x 5-inch view camera.

38 L E N S

David Leventi. Opera de Monte- Carlo，如fonaco, 2009. A shorte俨 focal-length lens lets you show a more &omplete view of the s&ene from any viewpoint. For his 切ok Opera, Le时nti photographed the world's great opera houses-this one opened in 1879-al/ from the central vantage point of a 目lo performer. Usi，，飞g a wide lens he could ga伪eι 斤。m his fixed lo臼tion, n臼rly阶eentire ornate mtenor.

Wide-angle lenses are also popular with photojournalist.ι feature pho-

tographers, and others who shoot 巾 fast－’”。ving and sometim由crowded situations. For由ample, many pho- tojournalists regula吵use 35mm or 28mm as their 、ormal'’ lens instead of a 50mm lens 7百ese medium-short lenses gi，时a wider angle of view than do由a 50mm lens, which makes it easier to include the setting in close quarters. Shorter lenses also give you more dep价。,ffield, which can let a photographer focus the lens appro.刀－ mately instead of having to fine-focu

t. eve.吃y sho

Short lenses show a wide view. Short-focal-length lenses are useful for including a wide view of an area. 7百eyare 臼pable of gr，臼t depth of fi, Id so 阶at o向；ec臼bo伪 close 阳 the lens and far from it will be in focus, even at a relative忡rge ape刷甩

Objects up close appear larger. A short lens can produce strange perspective effe出 Be臼use it can be focused at 时可y close range, it can make ot庐cts in the foreground large 巾 relation 阳those M伪e background. Wi阶 the lens close 阳 the resting man's feet, they look monumental, making a pho臼,graph M伪 an entirely different m臼ning 伪an the one abo昭

A short len s can g ive great d epth of fiel d . The shorter the focal length of a lens, the more of a scene will be sharp (if the f-stop and distance from the SU均ect remain unchanged). A 28mm lens, for example, when stopped down to f/ 8 can produce an image that is sharp 台om less than 6.5 丘（2 rn) to infin ity (as far as the eye 。r lens can see), which often will eliminate the need for further focusing as long as the su均已ct is wt巾n the range of dis tances that will be shar p.

The focal length of what’s called a wide ( or normal or long) lens depends on 巾 size or for- mat 。f the fi lm or d igital sens。r you are using. The light-sensitive recording chip in many digital cameras is smaller than full frame and, if it is, it will capture any given angle of view with a shorter- focal-length lens.

Depth of field, on the other hand, depends on the actual focal length of the lens; if everything else stays the same, a shorter lens will always give you greater depth 。f field. The compact camera on page 12, left, has a fixed zoom lens (see page 40) with a focal length of 4.3-86mm. Because of the small sens。r size, its 35mm equivalent is a 24-480mm zoom. Using that camera, you would get much g reater depth of field for any photo- g raph than you would using its 35mm-equivalent lens with a full-frame camera

Wide-angle 吐istortion.” Aw由－angle lens can seem to d istort an image and produce strange perspective e自ects. Sometimes these effects are actually caused by the lens, as with a fisheye lens (page 4 1 bottom). But, m。re o丘e口， what seems to be distortion in an image made with a wide-angle lens is caused by the photographer shooting very close to the su均ect.

A 28mm lens, for example, will focus as close as I 丘（0.3 叫，and shorter lenses even closer. Any o均已ct seen from close up appears larger than an o均已ct of the same size that is at a di ance. Whil y。u are at a scene, your brain knows whether you are very close to an o均ect, and ordinarily you would not n。rice any visual exaggeration. In a photograph, however, you notice size compari- sons immediately. Our impression of perspective is based on size relationships that depend on lens- to-subject distance. See the photographs at left.

R 2 e 39

Zoom, Mαcro ， αnd Fisheye Lenses

O ther lenses can view a scene in a new way or solve certai n problems with ease.

Zoom lenses are popular because they combine a range of focal lengths into one lens (see below). The glass elements of the lens can be moved in relation to each other; thus infinitely variable focal lengths are available within t he limits of t he z。oming range. Using a 50-135mm zoom, for example, is like having a 50mm, 85mm, 105mm and 135mm lens instantly available, plus any focal lengt h in between. Compared to prime, or fixed- focal-length, lenses, zooms are s。mewhat more expensive, bulkier, and heavier, but one of them w ill replace two or more fixed-focal-length lenses. z。。m lenses are best used where light is ample because they have a relatively small maxi mum aperture. Older zoom lenses were significantly less sharp than fixed-focal-length lenses but new designs nearly march them. T he “ kit” lenses s。ld as a package with DSLRs are usually zooms. Most current zoom lenses are also autofocus.

“ D igital” zoom, a feature found on some digital cameras marketed to amateurs, only crops the image, enlarging the pixels in the part of the image th挝、 left. Quality is less than you’d get by using a longer lens or moving closer for the shot

40 LENS

Macro lenses are used for close-up photography (oppos町， top). Their optical design corrects for the lens abel'l"ati。ns that cause problems at very short focusing distances, but they can also be used at normal distances. Their disadvantages are a slightly smaller maximum apertu叭。fren f/ 2.8 for a 50mm lens, and sligh由 higher cost. (More about making close-up photographs on page 50.) Longer-focal-length macro lenses let you magnify an image, like t he one opposite, top, without dis- rurbing the subject.

Macro-zoom lenses combine both macr。 and zoom features. They focus relatively close, although usually not as close as a fixed-focal- length macro lens, and give a range of focal length choices in one lens.

Fisheye lenses have a very wide angle of view-up to 180。－and they exaggerate to an 四treme degree differences in size between 。均ects that are close to t he camera and those that are farther away. They actually distort the image by bending straight lines at the edges of the p icture （。pposi te, bot- tom}. Fisheye lenses, because of their ve1y short focal length, als。 produce a great deal of depth of field: objec臼刷刷n inches of the lens and those in t he f缸 distance wi ll be sharp.

A zoom lens gives you a choice of different focal lengths wi伪M the same lens. The re巾nues overlaid on 伪epiaure show you some of the ve,y different叫rs you could have made this photograph by zooming in to shoot at a long focal length or zooming back to shoot at a shorter one.

Stanley Rowin. A阳，punc· ture, 1995. Tl』e therapist's hands were shot with a macro lens. ”，e切ckground waspu’？出efi,lly rendered dark and feature／，四to avoid distracting from 伪e subject.

Donald Miralle. Woodlake Rodeo, G,liforn巾， 2005. A fisheye lens and unusual van阳，ge point help capture the fu,y of a bull breaking 卢·om the gate at the start of a bu/I-riding competition. The fen臼且bent into a curve 句y the lens. O与ects at 伪e edge of the fisheye's image circle are distorted more than those at the center.

R 2 e 4 1

Focus αnd Depth of Field

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S h a rp fo cu s a忧阳也 the eye. Sharp focus acts as a signal to pay a ttentio n to a particular part of a photograph, especially if o ther parts of the im age are no t as shar p. If part of a picture is sh arp an d part is our of focus，忧 is n amral to look fi rst at the sharply focused area (see p hotograph s, pages 158- 159）. 飞.Vhen you are ph。tographi ng, it is also natural to foc us the camera sharply on the most importan t area. You can select and, to a certain extent, control wh ich parts of a scene will be sharp.

phot，怨rapher actually focused on the dots eye. For another pictun电 abo昭 r也·ht，阶e photog-

rapher wanted shallow depth of field，时阶only some of the scene sharp. Here the only sha’? part of the picture is the eye on which the Jens was focused.

Depth of field h伪e part of a scene that appears acceptably sharp in a pho阳•graph. Dep阶offield臼n be deep，时阶eve,ything sha’p from near 臼far. In the photograph above, le~, it缸tends fro’”阶e dots paws in the fore- ground to the fluted column behind him. 7百e

Depth 。ffield where the E川e is accep阻blysharp

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Whe n you foc us a cam er a o n an o均ect, the dis tan ce between lens and fi lm （。r d吸时 image sensor) is adjusted, au tomatically wi th an inter- nal motor or m anually by your rotati ng a ri ng o n the lens barrel, until t h e 。均ecr a ppears sharp o n the viewi ng screen . You fo cus man ually by turn- ing that focus ing ring until t h e 。bject appears sharp in your viewfin der or a m ark o n t h e lens barrel conesp。nding to its distance aligns wi th a foc using m ark. If you are using an auto matic- focus camera, you fo cus by ai m ing the foc us ind icator in your viewfind er (us ually a spot in the cen ter) at t h e 。均ect an d partially depressing the shutter-release button. T h e m otor in the lens moves the lens elements away fro m o r closer to the fi lm or sensor u ntil t h at spot is in foc us.

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Imagine the p归ne of critical focus (the distance on which you focus the lens) to be some- thing like a pane of glass stretched from one side of the scene to the other. Objects that lie along that plane will be sh呻归front of and behind the plane of critical阳，s Ii，自由depth of field, the area that 嗣ii/ appear acceptably sharp. The farther objects are from the plane of criti- cal focus in a particular photograph, either toward the 臼mera or away fro’”也向 less sh呻 they will be. If o与ec臼are far enough from the plane of critical focus 阳 be outside the depth of field, they will appear notic，臼均out offocus.

Notice that 阶e depth of field extends about one-third in front of the plane of critical focus, two thirds behind it. 7百is ι true at normal focusing dis阳nces, but when focusing ve,y close 归a sut庐饨 the depth of field is more e时nly di，时ded, about half in front and half behind the plane of criti，臼I focus.

D e p t h of 行eld . In theory, a lens can o nly focus on a fla t plane at o n e single dis tance at a ti m e an d o均ects at all oth er d is tances will be less sharp. T he distan ce fr。m your lens to that p lane, the pla肘。fcηitical foe剧， is called t h e 。与ect distance and is usually indicated by a distance scale o n the lens. In most cases, howev，凹， part of the scen e will be acceptably sh arp both in 命。nt of and behind the most sharp ly focused p lane. O悖ccs will grad u ally become more and more out of focus the farther th ey are fro m the m ost s harply fo cused area. This region with in wh ich objects appear acceptably sharp in the image-the depth of field-can be increased o r decreased (see pages 44 -45).

L E NS 42

Au阳 focus can mean out of focus when a scene has a ma时SU句；ect (or subject，沙off to one side and at a differ- ent distance from whatever 。与ect is at the center. Most autofocus cameras will focus on 伪e。与ect at the center of the frame, here within the small bracketed area，。时r the shoulder of阶e subject.

To correct this, first choose the focusing distance by p归。 ing the autofocus brackets on the main subject and partial如 pressing do附the shutter- release button. Lock the focus by keeping partial pressure on the shutter release.

Reframe your picture while keeping partial pressure on the shutter release. Push the shutter button all the way do附to make 伪e臼-posure

Automαtic Focus

A u t om atic focu s used co be found only o n point-and-shoot snapshot cameras. But now it is s tandard equipm ent o n alm ost all cameras. When you push do叭响 the shutt er-release bu tton part way, the camera adjusts t he lens to focus sh arply on what it th inks is you r subject- us ually what- ever 。同ect is at the cen ter of t he viewing screen.

Someti m es you will want to focus the cam- era m anually. J us t as with automatic 四posure, there will be ti mes when you will want to oven-ide

the automatic m echan ism and focus th e camera yourself Most single-lens reflex and full-featured compact cameras wi th automatic focus will also let you focus man ually.

The most common pro b le m occurs when your SU均ect is at the side 。f the frame, not at t h e center (see pho tos, le丘）. A camera may also have prob- lems focus ing t hrough glass, or if a subject h as very low contrast, is in ve1y d im ligh t, or consists of a repeti tive pattern.

Moving subjects can also cause problems. The adjustment 。f t he au co focus m echan ism can someti mes ta!忧 l。ng eno ugh for a fast-moving SL问ect, such as a race c缸， to move 。ut of range. The lens may “ hunt” back and forth, u nable to foc us at all or may make an exposure wit h t he SU均ect 。ut of focus.

Some cameras h ave more soph isticated electron ics co deal with these problems better . Automatic foc us is more rapid, for example, when the focusing motor is located in t he lens instead of the camera body. S。me cameras can be set so the lens, once it is focused o n a m oving o均ect, will keep it in foc us for a series of exposures. Read the instructio ns for your camera and lens so you know how the au tofocus mechan ism operates.

Take a mome nt to evaluate ea ch situ a tion.

Over ride the au tomatic system when it is better to do so, rather t han assume that t he right pan of the p icture wi ll be sharp si mply because you are set for automatic foc us.

E R 2 e 43

Depth of Field CONTROLLING SHARPNESS IN A PHOTOGRAPH

D e p t h of 而eld. C。mple呻sh呻 from fo陀 ground ro background , to tally out of focus except fo r a shallow zon e, or sh arp to any extent in between-you get to ch。。se how much 。fy。ur image will be sharp. Wh en you m冰e a picture, you can manipulate t h ree facrors that affect the depth of field (the d istance in a scene between the nearest and fa rt hest points t h at appear sh arp in a phorograph). Not ice in the illustratio ns opposite t hat doing so may change the image in other ways.

A p ertu re size. Stopping down the lens ro a smaller apenure, for example, from f/ 2 ro f/ 16,

44 L E N S

increases the depth of fie ld. As the aperm re gets smaller, more of t h e scene will be sharp in t he photograph.

Fo c al len阱. Using a shorter缸al-le咿h lens also increases th e depth of field at any given aper- ture. For example, more of a scene will be sharp when ph orographed w油a 50mm lens at f/ 8 than with a 200mm lens at f/ 8.

Lens-to -subject distance. Moving fanher away from the subject increases the depth of field most of all, particularly if you started o ut very close to the subject.

Marc PoKempner. Rev. Ike, Chicago, 1975 Shallow dep伪。ffie/d lets you draw immedi- ate attention to one area; we tend to look fi.市t at阶esha’pest o向；e，出ina pho吨•raph. 7百e刷刷，ge of preacher Re时rend欣e is that God is generous and will s问you exact/ what you ask foι includinι fore.κample, a diamond-studded watch, ring, and cuff/inks, on which the photographer focused.

。＠ The smaller the aperture (with a given lens），伪e greater the depth of field. Using a smaller aperture for 伪e picture on 伪e (arr，也·ht increased阶e depth of field and made the image much s阳’pero时raff. M斤阶 the smaller apertu鸣 the amount of l也·ht entering伪e camera decreased, so a slower shutter平时d had to be used 臼 keep the 阳阳l exposure 阶e same.

回 The shorter the focal Ieng份。f the lens, the greater the depth of field. Both of these photographs were 臼ken from the samep由此ion and at the same aperture. Notice that changing 阳a shorter focal length for the picture on 伪e far r，也·ht not on如 increased伪e depth of field but also changed the an~e of view (the amount of the scene shown) and the magnification of 。句iects in the scen

回函国回 ~ The farther you areρ·om a subject，伪e greater the depth of field, at any i时n focal length and aperture. The photog- rapher stepped back to take the picture on 阶e far right. If you focus on an object far enough awa民 the lens will form a sh呻 image of all objects from 伪at point out to infinity.

Small Sensor 昌 Great Depth of Field

Digital camer as with s m a ll sen so rs can give you unexpected d e p t h of fi e ld. T he sh。rrer a lens’s focal length (at the same apertu re and d臼 tance fro m the subject), the greater the depth of fi eld. T he size of a camera’s sensor affects what is considered a norm al-, sh。rt-, or long-focal-length lens for that camera.

A “ normal” lens for a camera (see page 34) is o ne with a 岛cal length ab。ut the same as the length 。fa diag。nal line across the light-sensitive su rface in the cam era A full-frame digital o r 35mm fi lm camera has a 24 × 36mm light-sensitive sur- face: a normal lens for th at c血11era is 50mm.

Sh。，t Lens

Far由er Back

T h e sensor in m ost digi tal cam eras is small- er-i n many cases, considerably smaller. A normal lens for that type of cam era will be shmter than the 50 mm lens chat is no rm al for a full-fram e camera, and so will have more depth of field. The compact digital camera pictured on page 12, top, f。r example, has a sensor of 6.2 × 4.55mm. The nor mal foc al length is 8mm. If everyth ing else is equal, the 8 mm lens will give you much greater depth of fie ld t han the 50m m lens.

Small sensors use an obscure naming system devised for TV camera tubes in the 1950s Here are坦·nsor diagonals-hen臼 normal lens lengths-for拙，，e common sizes.

Sensor Name Diagonal

飞／2" 8.0mm

1/ 1.8’ 8.9mm

2/ 3 ’ 11.0mm

F。ur Thirds " 22.5mm

1 .8’ （AP5元C) 28.4mm

R 2 e 4 5

Mοre αbout Depth of Field HOW TO PREVIEW IT

K now the extent of 由e d e pth of field when ph otograph ing a scene-how much of the scene from near to far will be sharp-to ma!也 better pic- tures. You may want to be sure that certain objects are shat p . O r you may want something deliberate- ly o ut of focus, s uch as a distracting background. To control what is sharp, it is useful to have some way of gauging the depth of fiel d.

C h ecking the d e pth of field. 飞.Vith a si ngle- lens reflex camera, you view t he scene throu g h t h e lens . No matt盯 what aperture setting you have selected, t h e lens is o rdinarily w ide open for viewing to ma!忧 the viewfinder image as bright and easy to see as possible. However, t he large aperture s ize m ean s that you see t h e scene w ith depth of field at it s sh allowest . Wh en you press t h e shutter release, t he lens automatically closes down to the t aking aperture. Un less yo u are tak- ing a picture using t h e widest apercure, the view- fi nder image will n ot have the same depth of field as the final p hotog raph . Some single-lens reflex cameras have a previewing m echanism t hat lets you, if you wish , stop down the lens to view t he scen e at t he taking aperture and see how much will be sharp.

Unfortunately, if the lens is set to a very small aperture, the stopped-down image on the viewing screen may be too dark to be seen clearly. If so, or if your camera doesn' t have a preview feature, you may be able to read the near and far limits of good foc us on a depth－。ιfield scale o n the lens barrel (this page, bottom). Many newer autofocus lenses don’t have them, but you can use tables showing the depth of field for diffe rent lenses at vari。us foc using dis tances and f二stops. Such tables were origi nally printed in books, now 。n l ine and pore- able calculators and smartphones provide the same infc口rmati

A rangefinder 。r viewfinder camera sh。叭，s you t h e scene throug h a small window in t he cam- era body throug h which all o同ects l。ok equally sharp. S。me digital cameras without a viewfinder w indow let you zoom in to a test shot on the m。nitor to judge depth of field verγaccurately. You can also use a depth-of-field scale o n th e lens

46 LENS

barrel, a printed table, or a calculator to estimate depth of fie ld with these cameras as well. An elec- tronic vie叫nder can preview depth of fie ld.

Zone focusing for action. Know the depth of field in advance wh en you want to preset t he lens to be ready for an action s hot wi thou t last- m inu te foc using. Zone focusing uses a table o r the depth-of-field scale o n the lens to preset manual focus and apenure so that the action wi ll be ph。tographed well with in t he depth of field (see below and吨ht).

Depth of fie ld ，＿叫

Aperture ring lines up opposite the p。incerco show the aperture to which the lens 咀 S旺

Distance scale lines up 。pp。site the pointer co sh。W the distance from the came阻 to the most sharply focused obj旺E

Depth·of-field scale lines up 。pp。site the d略目nce scale to sh。w the range 。f distances that 叫II be sharp at 咀rious apertures

Chris阳•ph Oberschneider. Dolomi胆ι ／ta仇 2015. With zone focusing you con be ready for an action shot句y manual.ψfocusing in ad时nee, if you know a~pro刀mate如 where the action will take place. Suppose you are on a ski slope and you want to photograph a skier coming down the hill. 7百en阳的回t point at which you m也•ht want阳阳ke the picture is 1 5 作（4.5 m) from the action; the farthest is 30 fi. 伊m).

Line up the distance scale so that these t附dis臼nces are opposite a pair off stop indico- 阳rson阳depth、offield scale (wi伪 the lens劝own at Jefi, the two distances fall opposite 伪e f/ 16 indico阳rs). No吨扩 your aperture is坦t to f/ 16, 例伊fiing(rom 15/i. 臼 30/i. (4.5-9 m) will be wi伪的价e depth of field and in如us. It doesn't matter阳彷呻ere 伪e subject is when you shoot, aslo，结as it is somewhere within th田e distances. Pre- facus an autofocus Jens 句yaim ing at a spot the same distance the actio, will be and holding the shutter but缸，，down half way until you frame and pr，由此then田t of the way.

Ansel Adams. Te阳nsand the Snake River, ＼，＼少·oming, 1942. Tl』e smaller the aperture the greater the depth of field. Every伪ingin the picture at r也·ht is sharp. Adams usually used a ν'iew 臼mera (page 11 ), which offers additional control over focus, and he preferred i缸 la’y,e-format film for making prints of greater clarity.

View cameras are a/w.φe used on a tripod. Even if you are using a small camera, a tripod is a good idea to avoid motion blur when the aper- ture is small and the shutter speed且corre.与pondingly slow.

Focu sing fo r the g reatest d e p t h o f fie ld . When you are shooting a scene t hat includes importan t objects at a distan ce as well as close u p, you will want m axi mum depth of fie ld. Sh own in t he box a t righ t is a way of setting the lens to p凹mit as m uch as possible of the scene to be sh arp. It is easy if you h ave a lens that h as a depth－。ιfield scale. If n ot, you can look up the depth of fie ld in a printed table or by using a depth of fie ld applicati

Depth-of-field tables list, for each lens focal length, 向using distance, and aperture, the near and far limits of good focus and the hype，而cal distance 仰e the box at right). At one time on/ya时ilable as a lengthy book, a full set of depth- of-field tables can now be downloaded as an app (a soft,.彻·are program) for your smartphone You can have complete focus information han咿whe陪同ryou are. At lefi 且 Simple D·。－F Calculat。r on an iPhone.

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When the lens is focused at infini飞y ( oo on the lens distances臼l纱， everything at some distance away and farther will besha’p: with this lens at f/22 everything will be sharp 斤。mSOβ （16 m) to infinity ( as far as 伪eeye 臼n see).

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You can incr时M伪e depth of field even more if, instead of focusing on infini，饥you set the infinity marlc ( oo) opposite伪e point on 伪edep仇。of-field scale (2勾thatsho昭 the f-stop you are using (f/22）. 沟uarenow向W盟donadi剧nce(SO仇 16m) sl，拗tly closer伪an infinity （，缸chni，臼l世臼fled 伪e hyperfc。由I

distanc钞 Noweve,ythingfrom 23 ft. (7 m) to the far切ck ground is within the depth of field and will be sharp in the image.

R 2 e 4 7

Perspecti-℃e HOW A PHOTOGRAPH SHOWS DEPTH

Perspective：由e im p r ess ion of d e pth . Few lenses (except t h e fis heye) n oticeably d istort t h e scen e t hey sh ow. T h e perspective in a ph oto- graph -th e apparent size an d shape of 。同ects and the im pressio n of dept h-is what you wo uld see if you were standing at t he camera position. Why then do some photographs seem to h ave an exaggerated depth , wit h the su bject appearing s t retched and expanded (th is page, cop), wh ereas oth er photograph s seem to sh ow a compressed space, with objects crowded very close together (t h is page, bot tom)? T h e brai n j u dges depth in a ph。tograph m ostly by compari鸣。均ects in t h e foregro u nd with those in the background; t he greater t h e size differences perceiv时， the great盯 the im pressio n of depth. 飞:Vhen viewi ng an actual scen e, t he brai n has other clues to t h e d is ta nces. Bu t, when looking at a ph otograph , t he brai n relies primarily on relative sizes.

P e rs p ective can b e cont ro lle d in a p hoto - g ra p h . Any lens verγ close to th e fo reground of a scene increases the impression of depth by increasing the size of foregroun d o均ects rela- tive to objects in the background. As shown o n the opposite page, perspective is no t a仔ected by changing t h e focal length of the lens if the camera rem副ns in the same posit ion. Ho，，四ver, the rela-

tive sizes of objects do change山he dis tance from lens to su均ect is changed

Perspective 国n b e exa ggerated if you change both focal length and lens-to-su均ect distance. A shore-focal-length lens used close to the su均ect increases di仔erences in size because it is much

closer E。 foreground o悖cts th an to those in t he background. T h is increases the impression of dept h. D is tances appear expanded an d sizes an d shapes m ay appear distorted.

The opposite e仔ect occurs w it h a lo ng- focal-lengt h lens used far from the subject. Differences in sizes are decreased because the lens is relatively far from all o均eccs. Th is decreases t he apparent depth and sometimes seems to squeeze objects into a sm aller space than t hey could occupy in real ity.

48 L E NS

Walter looss. Ali 昭. Terrell, Houswn, 1967. Expanded perspective seems w result from the very wide lens. But using a’!Y阳s 伪h close to a su协ct stretches distan臼s because it magnifies objects near阶e lens 巾 relation 臼 those that are far from the lens

Walter looss. 100 m s扭’变， Los Angeles, 1983. Compressed perspective is usual归阴阳tedwi阶a long-focal－阳，gth lens. It is because the lens is relati时＃ far from both foreground and background that size differences between near and far parts of the scene are minimized, as is the impression of depth.

Changing focal length alone does not change perspective-the apparent size or shapeofo侬础。r阶eir apparent position in dep伪 In the photographs above, the 臼mera was not moved, but the lens focal length was increased. As a result, the size of all the ob- jects increased at a comparable rate. Notice that the size of the fountain and the size of the windo附in the background both change the same amount. 7百eimp用坦ionofdep阶 remains the same.

Lens·阳－subject distance controls perspec· tive. Perspective is changed when the distance from the lens 阳。向；ects 巾伪e scene is changed. Notice how the size of the fountain gets much b也u while the size of the windo附remains about the same. η，edep阶seems 归 increase because the camera was brought closer to the nearest part of the su向；ect.

di .盖章

ER 2 e 49

Lens Attαchments CLOSE-UPS AND FILTERS

A macro lens is your best choice for sha’p c/ose·uf鼠 If you don’t have one, there are other w咿S归get dose.

C rose-up equipm en t, some of which is shown on the right, will let you m ove in ve1y close to a SU均ect. T h e closer your camera is to a su均ect, the larger the image on the sensor or film. A close-up is an i mage 。n the light-sensitive surface from about V10 life size ( 1:10) to life size ( 1: 1). Macr萨 photograp吃y refers to an image that is anywhere fro m life size (1: 1) co as big as ten ti mes life size ( 10: 1 ). Photo-micrograp抄 uses a microscope to get an image larger than 10: 1.

D epth o f fie ld is s h allow in close-ups. T h e closer the lens comes to the subject, the narrower the depth of field (the more the background and foregro und go o u t of focus). Focusing manually and moving the camera slightly forward o r back may help to get precise focus ing. Smaller aper- rures for increased depth of fie ld will increase the exposure time; a t ripod (used with a cable rel ease, remote trigger，。r self-timer) will prevent camera motion during exposure.

Incr eased exposures a r e a lways n eed ed fo r close-ups. Regardless 。f the m ethod-a macro lens, extension mbes，。E a bellows-the lens must move farther from th e sensor o r fi lm to focus

50 L E N S

closer to a subject. Bu t the more the lens is extended, the d immer the light that reaches t h e lig h t-sensitive surface, and the more exposure you need so t h e result will n ot be under口posed.

A camera that meters through the lens will increase the exposure automatically. But if the close-up attachment breaks the automatic coupling between lens and came问 you must incre臼e th e exposure m臼mally, follow the recommenda口。ns given by the manufacturer of the rubes or bellows.

Lighti ng close-ups. D irect ligh t on a subject can let you use smaller apertures fo r greater depth of field. To bring out texture, angle light across t h e subject from the s由 to pick 。ut eve1y ridge and crease. D irect lig h t can be ve1y contrasty, t h o ugh, with bright h ighligh ts and coo-dark shadows. If this is the case, fi ll lig h t can h elp ligh ten th e shad- ows (pages 142- 143). C lose-up subjects are small, so usi ng even a lett er-sized p iece of wh ite paper as a reflector can lig h ten shadows significan tly.

To copy a fla t su均ecr, such as a page fro m a book, lig h ting sh ould be even. Two ligh ts of equal intens呵，。ne o n each side of the subject an d at the same d istance and angle, will illumi- nate it uniformly.

如 A close-up lens at· tach由to the front of a camera lens. They come in strengths measured in diopters；阶ehigher 阶e diopter number, the closer you can focus. Close-up fen蜘are relative.仙e略地·nsiveand small, but image quality will not be as good as with other methods.

Bellows ( and similar臼－ tension tub出：） fit between the lens and the camera to increase the distance from the lens to the sen- sor or film, the greater this dis臼，，ce, the closer you 臼n bring the lens M阶e SU句ect. Extension tubes come in fixed siz，臼J a bellows is more adapt· able be剧，se it can be 由：ponded to any length. Usingei阶er will require increasing the a平由ur电 see伽缸剧协ve left.

Laurisa Calvan. Cold teeth, Dallas, T，田：as, 2011. Cetting close can o~en make the strongest photograph, as in thι image 。fa man showingo厅his “'grill" in South Central Dallas. Although not then a resident, Gal阳n began to document the notorious neighbo础。od for an assignment in her college photography class. Now a dai.非fixture on the street corners and accepted as a local, she has continued the project for several years.

With。”愈 polarizing filter

A fi lter can b e a useful camera M醋。早 Glass filters attach to the front 。f the lens and are made in sizes to fit various lens diameters. T o find the diameter of your lens, look on the ring eng raved around the front of the lens. The diam- eter (in mm) usually follows the symbol 0. Less- expensive, but fragile, gelatin filters are available that can be cut to size with scissors and taped in place over the lens or held with an adapter.

Expos ure m u st increase when fi lters a r e used. Filters work by removing some of the light that passes throug h them; you must increase the exp。sure to prevent underexposure. A thrnugh- the-lens meter sh。uld compensate accurately, but check your camera’s response with a test shot. Look at 巾 histogram (pages 60- 61) and a中lSt the settings manually, if needed. Using a hand-

W抽 polarizing伽．，

Wiren shooting /andscap吨 using a polar- izing filter mak臼dis阳nt o向；ects clearer and the sky darker，町的伪e由ampleabo昭r也•ht. The effect is stront出t when you are shooting ata 90。 angle to the sun

Reflections are a distracting element in this photograph (above, lefi) ofa dimetrodon inside the museum case. A polarizing filter on the 臼mera lens removed most of the re flee- tions (above，鸣•ht) . The filter works b臼tat a 30°-40~nt}e to the reflecting surface.

held meter, read filter instrnctions for a rec。m mended exposure increase in stops or a filter fac- tor that tells how many times the exposure should be increased

A polarizing fi lter can remove re何ections. If you have ever phot。graphed through a store window and got more of the reflections from the street than whatever you wanted to photo- graph inside the store, you know how distracting unwanted reflections can be. Using a polarizing filter is a way to eliminate some of these reflec- tions (see photographs at left, bottom). The filter eliminates or decreases reflections from glass, wat凹， or any smooth nonmetallic surface.

Lands国pes c四 be s harper and clearer w ith a polarizing fi lter. Light reflected from particles of water vapor or dust in the atmosphere can m汰e a landscape look hazy. A polarizing filter will decrease these minute reflections and allow

you to see more distant details. It may also help to make colors purer and more vivid by dimin- ishing unwanted col。ring such as reflections of blue light from the sky. And using a polarizer will darken the sky (see the photographs above lefr).

A polarizing filter works best a t certain ang les; it attaches to the front of the lens and can rotate to increase or decrease the effect. Changing the angle E。 the subject also affects the polar iza- t

through the lens lets you see in the viewfinder d飞e effect 。f the filter; a test exposure 、飞lilt sho即 it i n a m。nitor. Adjust your position or the filter until you get the results you want.

Neutral-d ens ity (ND）何lters remove a fixed quantity of light from all wavelengths, conse- quently reducing the overall amount of light that reaches the lens. These filters make it possible to use a slower shutter speed or larger aperture than you othen•飞.，ise could. For example，还you want to

blur action but can’t use a slower shutter speed because you are already set to the lens’ smallest aperture and your camera's lowest ISO, an ND filter over the lens has the effect of dimming the light, letting you then set a slower shutter speed. Similarly, if you want to decrease depth 。f field but are already set to your fastest shutter speed and lowest ISO, an ND filter would let you 。pen the aperture wider.

R 2 e 51

J,w’ER MANZANO I Sensors and Pixels .. ...... ..... 54 Two rebel 皿ldiers in秒巾guarding their I

sni，严内 nest in the Korme协bl ne伊bo呻时， I Pixels and Resolution .… …… 55 Alepp乌勃巾， 2012. I Color in Photography. … …… 56

Color systems ....... ...... ..... 56 Color characteristics . . ...... ..... 57

Overriding an Automatic Exposure Camera .......... ... 66

Making an Exposure of an Average S cene ........ ... 68

Exposing S cenes that are Lighter

White Balance ...... ...... ..... 58 or Darker than Averag e .... ... 70

Using Histograms .. ...... ..... 60

Exposure Meters ... ...... ..... 62 \Vhatd.好'erent types do ...... ..... 62 Ho即to calculate and叫；＂st an expo闲时man11ally ..... ..... 64

Backlighting .... ........... ... 72

Exposing S cenes witl卫 High Contrast ........ ... 73

HDR ..... ...... ........... ... 74 HigJ叫ynamic range .......... ... 74

3 国。Ur u su o p-- X E

αnd Light

Y~'~! sor 阻四posed to light, a change oαu臼 that can be 阳orded and saved Light is rt、e visible P盯t of the elec口咀ma』口1etic ener窃F that 阻is臼 m a con口nuum from radio w寇vεs巾oughv阻ible lig归E to cosm rays. T hese energy forms differ only in thei r ＂咀velength, the distance from the crest of one wave to the crest of the n四E T he visible p缸t of this spectrum, the light that we se妃，阳1ges between 400 and 700 nanometers (billio n ths of a me阳） i n wa町length.

Expos ing your piαu陀s correctly (that is, setting the sh utt er speed and aper叽tr s。 they let in the correct 副11ount of lig如E fo r a given ISοand scene) m冰es a big difference if you want a rich image with realistic tones, dark but

Light is energy. When certain 附时l时，gths of ene’-gJ strike the detailed shadO\凹， and brigh t, delicate highligh巴， inst四d of a too dark, murky human 。毡， th吃yarepe明白ved as Jig由t Digital血nsors (and fi阳J picture or a picture that is bar叶y visible because it is too light. 。h回nge when struck by 伪市归叫ofthe e仰tromagnetic ene~ spect，阳m. 5-0阴阳n re.平ond 阳additional附ve.阳，gths阳t the eye At the simplest level, you can let your automatic camera set the sh utter 臼nnot s，时， such as ultraviolet and 巾(rared 炮声t speed and aperture for y咀U If your camera has manual settings, 归u can calcu-

late t hem by us ing a hand-held or builr-i口口posure meter to make an o四时l reading of the scen e. You can even use a simple chart of general exposure rec- ommendations like the 。neon page 7. In many cases, th ese standardized pro- cedures wi ll give you a satisfactory exposure. But standa rd procedures don’t work in all 剖ruations. If the light source is behind t he su均ect, for example, an overall reading will 剖lhouette the s ubjec t against the brighter background. T h is may n。E be what you w n t.

You will h ave more cont 1 ol ov盯 your piccures-and be happier wi th the results-if you know how to nterpret t he information your camera or m eter

1 ai provid臼 andαn adjust the e们mmended 口posure to get any variatio n you ... choose. You will then be abk tc select what you wan t to do in a specific situa-…. ti。n rather than exposi ng at ·a1 dom and hoping for the best.

·；卢－－…”…111111""'’-. rd

In th is ch apter yo,i'Ll ie<Lrn ...

• the doffe陀nee between add山ve and subcracc,ve c。lor systems, the pnmary colo目 ofeach, and cheor practical applicaci。ns.

• how to use a light meter or a histog目m co gee a pictu陀 chat is not m。 dark or to。 light.

• the ways light S。urces and the time of day can affect the colors in your image.

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Minor White. Vicinity of Alfred, New York, from Sequence 10: Rural Cathedrals, 1955. Infrared radiation is electromag- netic ene也yin wavelengths that are invisible 阳 the naked q鸟 butdii阳I sensors as well as special fi,m can record them. In an infrared photograph like this one, leaves and uass appear时q light because they reflect more in卢·ared radiation than non-living things. The result can be a strangely dreamlike lands臼pe. White said he used infrared-sensitive film because he “wanted归give contrast 阳 the lands臼pe, " but he also appreciated its surreal qualities. See page 108 for more.

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Sensors αnd Pixels

Yo u mus t cont r o l 由e a,响。unt of ligh t t h a t

falls on the sen sor during each picture so that you get a correct exposure. Too much light can overwhelm a photosi肥， making its m easurement inaccurate, and too little will cause it to record as a rand。mly-and undesirably-colored pixel called noise (see page 75). You need to determine, before you sho。t, an exposure that is correct for each scene. T he followi ng pages show you how to use the light meter that is built into your camera, or a similar but separate hand-held light meter, to set your aperture and sh utter speed for a correct exposure every time.

54 LI G ” T A ND EX P O SUR E

Expos ure d etermines 由e lig htness or d a rk- ness of t he image. The exposure you select (th e combination 。fιstop and sh utter speed) deter- m ines how much lig h t from a scene wi ll reach the sensor and how light or dark the recorded image wi ll be. The “correct”四posure for a given sirua- tion depends on h ow you want the photograph to l。此， and you may have s。me exposure latitude-a range of exposures within which your results wi ll be equally satisfactory. But with too m uch varia- tion from the correct 四posure, results begin to l。。k d isappointing (see page 61, bottom). T h e followi ng pages tell how to adjust the exposure to get the effect you want.

Your image is projected inside the camera onto a sensor （如me times called 伪e camera's chip) whichbr，臼ks it up into individual im- age squares, or pixels, each in a single uniform color. The more (and smaller) the pixels in the grid that forms your im- age, the finer the detail. 7百is picture grid 且 recorded as numbers on your camera垃 memory 印，划， which 臼n be transferred 阳 a compu阳r where it is reassembled on the monitor, r，臼dy to be edited and printed.

For the same image size, 伪eh也her the r，臼o/ution ρhe more pixels per inch), the finer the detail of the image, but the more pixels required. 7百e photographs at r，也＇ht show increased detail with smaller-therefore more-pixels. 7丁比image has 18 pixels per inch; at this size it is a 40 × SO pixel grid, or 2000 pixels

18 pixels per inch

Double the resolution makes four times as many pixels. This image is an 80 × 100 pixel gi id, or 8000 pixels. Many of the pixels are identical, pure white, so they are not visible as squares, but each must still be saved as part of the file.

36 pixels per inch

This resolution is the maximum 伪d can be reproduced in this book. 而且image is a 800 × 1000 pixel grid, 800,000 pixels, nearly one million.

360 pixels per inch

Pixels αnd Resolution

M o r e pix由 are need ed fo r a 而ner p ictu re. Each p ixel is a square of a un ifo rm color or, in a black-and-wh ite photograph, a shade of gray. In any individual photograph, t h e pixels are all the same size, and they can o nly be captured or dis- played in a specific nu mber of colo rs or shades. As y。u can see from the photographs on this page, an image looks coarse (pixelated'J when t he p ixels are large enough to be visible. T his usually results wh en there are too few pixels.

R eso lut ion m easures t h e fi ne n ess of an im age but resolut ion goes down when size goes up. A large number of very small squares can m汰e a picture with more detai l and smoother tones than o ne from a smaller number of larger squ缸四. More detai l m汰出 possible (but doesn' t g uarantee) a h igher-qual ity photog raph.

\Y/e measure resoluti。n in pixels per inch (ppi) or p ixels per cm; if you have a fixed number of pixels and make t hem bigger to cover a larger ar白， the pixels appear more coarse and image qual- ity seems lower. If your digital camera captures a ph otograph that is 2000 pixels across, you can make a print wi th a resolut io n of 200 ppi if you choose to make it 10 inch es wide, but only 100 ppi if you enlarge it to 20 inches wide.

Yo u can create m ore p ixels in 四 image d ur - ing editing. Image-edi ting software can turn your picture that is 2000 p ixels across into o ne that is 4000 pixels across by a process called re- sampling. Th is example creates more pixels and is called “,psampling;, making fewer p ixels is downsam· piing. By upsampling you can end up wi t h h ig h er apparent resolu tion. But to do that, the software must int，臼po/ate between your o riginal pixels, mak- ing an educated g uess at what the in-between pixels should look like. An upsampled file won' t display coarse, larger p ixels like the photo at top left, it will show s moother tones an d blended col-

ors. You may find upsampling useful when you want to make a large print. But t he software can’t invent fine detail, like the weave of a jacket or s mall text o n a sig n; fo r that, you need to capture h igher resolution.

Cθlor in Photogrαphy COLOR SYSTEMS

Au colo rs ca n b e cr eated by mixing 由m p r im a ry colors-eit her t he addit ive primaries (r时， green, and blu e) o r the su btractive primaries (cyan, magenta, and yellow). Most colors we see in nature cons ist of a blend, or spectrum，。fall pos- s ible colors, but any visual sensatio n or perceptio n of color can be m atched with th e righ t quantities of three specifi cally chosen pri m aries.

The a dditive process (be!。w, center) m ixes red, g reen, and blue light in va1ying proporti。ns to match any col。t Televis ion sets and com p uter monitors use addit ive colo r. Equal q uan tities of the three colors a ppear neutral gray or, if they are brigh t eno ug h, wh ite.

The s ubtra ct ive process (below, right) uses cyan (a bluish green), magenta (a purpl凶 pink), and yellow to match any color. Each color absorbs （。r subtracts) one 。fthe additive p rima ries. If you pu t cyan paint or pigment 。n paper, for example, it rem oves red from wh ite ligh t that sh ines o n it, and al lows green and blue to be refl ected. Your eye perceives t h at m ix of green and blue light to be cyan.

D igital color systems separate full colo r into pri mary E。lo凹， each saved as a channel of infor- mation. Every pixel h as a separate n u merical value for the amount，。r value, of each pri m a1y.

In a similar way, color fi lms have t h ree emulsi。n layers, each one sensi tive to o nly o ne color, to separate a full -colo r spectru m into primaries. 飞:Vhen working in color d igitally, you h ave your choice of two color modes, RGB o r CMYK (a th ird comm。n mode is grayscale, or black and wh ite). RGB (for Red, Green, Blue) is additive, and it is preferable for m ost photograph ic work. C如fYK is a standard used in com m ercial p ublish ing and printing. Th is mode adds black (abbreviated K ins tead of B to avoid confusio n with Blue) to the three subt ractive primaries to suit the needs of the printing ind ust ry. T h e t h ree pri maries togeth er can make black, but black ink is added to the darkest shadow areas in pictures an d is used to print text because it is less expensive and easier to keep neu tral than a m ix of the other three colors.

A ll prin te rs u se the s ubt ractive prim a ries. Devices t hat m ix ink or pai nt, pigmen t o r dye, to create p h otograp hic colo r on a r eflective su r face such as paper m ust u se t h e su btractive p rimaries: cyan , magen ta, and yellow. Bu t even t hough all desk top photo printers actually use C如fYK inks, t h ey are desig ned to receive fi les in t he RGB m ode fo r best resu lts; editing fi les in CMYK mode is r arely needed o u tside t he offset- p ri nting indusuy.

A color wheel sho附阶e relationsh伊ofthe subtracti，时 and additive primary colors.

The additive primaries produce whi阳l吵t when all three are mixed. Combining two at a time 臼n make each of the subtractive primaries.

The subtractive primaries each remo时one of the additive primaries. All three toge伪er ’”ake black

5 6 LIG ” T A ND EX P O SUR E

Maria Robledo. Cheese Still Life. 7百h photograph is enhanced by its low saturation, controlled句y 阶e photographer's sensi- U昭choices of su句；ect, film, and ／，也•hting.

COLOR CHARACTERISTICS

Color system s d ivide all co lors in to 由ree mea- surem ents- h ue, value, a nd saturation. H"e is the most intuitive of these; it is what we no rmally name the color of an object-a blue car, a green hat. Value (sometimes called lightness 。r lumi nance) is a measure of the brightness or darkness of the color, 。E 。f the gray that would be left if a colo r’s h ue were removed, as in a black-and-wh ite photograph. You can imagin e a blue car and a g reen h at that might have the same luminance. Sa阳ration ( or chroma) is a descriptio n of a color’S purity. You could have a tomato and a brick that 缸e the same red hue ( nei- ther one more blue or yellow than the other). The differe nce is t hat a tomato is a more p ure-or satu- rated-red than a brick. Various factors can affect

saturatio n (see box below).

Pho t ographic co lor can’ t d uplicate colors in a scene, it can only fool the eye. Light reflected from an 。均ect us ually contains all the wavelengths of the visible spect rum in va1ying quanti ties. T h e dayligh t that illu m inates a green apple contains al l waveleng t hs in more-o卜less equ al q u antities. The apple reflects a h igh per- centage of the g reen waveleng t hs an d very li ttle (absorbi ng t h e remai nder) of the red an d blue ones, so we see g reen

To reprod uce that sensation of seeing the g reen of an apple, photograph s a re lim ited to using t hree very speci白c pri mary colo rs t h at do not necessarily contain all the wavelen gth s of the spectrum. Photographic color can look accurate because 。f the way o ur eyes ident均 color. But the colors in a ph otograph are not actually the same as th。se of its s ubject, in the same way that the ph otograph itself is n ot actually t he same as its subject.

T h e way phot ographs are made gives you contr ol over some im portant ch aracteristics o f their color. Remem ber that the colors in a ph otograph o n ly reference, t h ey don ' t d uplicate, those of a su bject; it is u p to you, t h e phocogra- ph er, to control that difference for your own ends. You m ay want your viewer to believe s t rongly in the accuracy of your ph otographs, o r it may be more importan t t h at your viewer have a specific emotional response to them . T he way y。u treat color has a st rong effect o n t he interpretation of your piccures; experiment to fi nd out h ow to m汰e the best use of these importan t controls.

Characteristics of a Color Photo豆豆e_h

White balance. To our eye鸟 a white shirt looks white both outdoors in daylight and indoors in

Sa阳ration. The purity-or vividness, or inten· sity-of a color ι its saturation The color臼tura tion that 剧ists in front of the camera depends on 伪e physical characteristics of objects in the scene and on the kind of illumination. Saturation in the way colors are reproduced is also affected by the specific kind of sensor or film used to capture the

Contrast. 瓦崎kinds of contrast are impo巾ntina pho句mph：，切阶aree.剧blished 钞the kind ofil/umi- nation on the scene and臼n be altered句yyour tech-artificial light. But the 拙。也·ht sources do not

have the same mix of colors, our brains compen· sate in a way that lets us also see blue pants as the same blue in both places. Unless there are two l也•ht sources to compare, we 也·nore the differenc· es-but photographs record them. Regardless of whether you shoot d也i阳吵or 时伪卢Im, white bal- an臼 has an important influence o时r阶e impact and efl告ctiveness of your photographs. Even subtle sh扩ts in color balance can create dramatic changes in emotional content

image, and the manner of post-pro臼·ssing-film development, image editing, and printing. Some films are made 巾 different versions, producing more satu刷ion (ad昭rtised as ～ivid” colo吵。r less. Digital image editing gi昭s direct control over saturation (see page 98).

nique. 伽'all白，r~胁。contras; or咿amicrange, is the d很rence between the I.纷回tand darlc副 par苗。,fa scene or image. The range you 臼ncap阳re varie.冉 d附加sandd.也'ital sensors have d很刷tlim its on the ra’哩e that臼n beca严ured （，四月•e73).

Local contmst 且 what makes photographs look cri.与porso代and has 阳do with the e也出and Iran· sitions of color and tone. Mιafl♀，cted 句y the quality of the lens (and how clean that lens is), the kind of film or se旧or used, and 句yd.锣tal editing.

White Balαnee

Y our light source m a kes a di他rence wh e n you 缸e photographing in color. 飞~e idemt今a "~de vari- ety 。flight as “ white," or havin g no color of its 。wn. Despite our perception that dayligh t is “wh ite” 。r "n eutral” light, its color is constantly c h angi ng through o u t the day. 如fidday light is more blue (cooler）；阳ly morn ing a n d late afternoon light is more red (wanner). Other ligh t sources, such 出 light bulbs, also emit wh ite light of a specific color balance or white balance-the mixture 。fwavelengths of d iffe rent colors that it contains. This q u a lity of wh ite light sources 四 also called its color te,饲P旷d阳时， and it is measured in degrees Kelvi n （闷， an in terna- tional-s tandard tempera ture scale like Celsius (C) that starts wi th m担m a t absolute zero rath er than

a t the freez ing point of water二 Lig h t from a n o rdi n ary in candescent ligh t-

b u lb, \\~th a color tempera ture of about 2800K, has proportion a tely less blue a n d more yellow and 阳d than d。es dayligh t a t SSOOK. You can see th is d仔erence if you tu rn on an indoor lamp in a daylit room: the ligh t fro m the lamp looks quite yellow. At nig ht, with no daylig ht fo r com parison, you see the same lampligh t n o t as yellow but as white. Our b rai ns ign。re color balan ce w h en we look at a scene, perceiving e ither daylig ht or lamp- light as “ wh ite” if there is o nly o n e kind of light p resen t. Un less there are two di仔eremly balan ced light sources in a scen e (see the photograph on the opposi te page) colo r p h otograph ic im ages can be adj us ted, if desired, to match the colo r tempera-

ture of each p icture’s light source.

D ig ital c a meras can 呻ust them selves for c o lo r tem perature (in digital photography it is us ually called white balance). Built into each digi ta l camera is the ability to m easure t h e colo r te m perature of wh a tever lig h t is illu m inati n g t h e scen e, and to adjust its wh ite balance for each photograph. You can c h oose one of the came阻’s presets fo r several ki nds of ligh t, measure and set the white balance ma n ually before each shot, o r set th e camera to adjust 比selfa u tom a tically. Use a color conversion filte r (page 2 18) to s hoot colo r fil m under a n y source o t her t h an SSOOK.

lnclude a standard color for m ore accuracy. Sh。。E a color-n eutral gray card or a standard ized colo r chart o n an adjacent frame in the same light. y。u’LL be able to m a tc h it later wh en you edit t h e

file to correct all the colors a t o n ce. A chart (or target), cou p led wit h software, can c reate a camera profile (opposi te page, top righ t) you can use to a u to-correct the color in a grou p of photographs.

For t h e b est results，日pture your pictures in Camera Raw fo rmat (page 85) which lets you control the interpre tation of sen sor data d uring edi ting. The wh ite balance a句ustment is part of the processi n g that is applied to raw sensor data after captu re, so you can compensate a t that ti m e fo r t h e effects of d ifferent light sources w ithou t degrading the q uality of your image. If your cam- era captu res in JPEG or TIFF format, whi te bal- a n ce is applied by the camera

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because the l敏t 斤。m a blue sky has a higher color temperature than direct sunlight. If you use a day／，也·ht white balance (or color film) in the warmer I，敏t of an incandescent bulb (third photo, about 2800均， your picture may look more reddish

than you expect. 7百e fourth pho归 was 阳ken under fluorescent l也'ht, which tends 臼 ha时proportiona但如 more green than day，也'ht. In each, a piece of white 臼rdboard was held behind the man, and he is wearing the same g,叫yshi，此

White light takes m叩y forms . In addition to e时俨 changing daylight, you may encounter scenes il/umi- nated by a wide variety of standard bulbs in domestic and ω’””’ercial fixtures. This chart illustrates the color temperatures for several common sources. A light bulb may be measured by its brightness (in lumens; wattage only measures the power it consumes), its color temperature (if not a specific number, its “white- ness" may be named like those at r也ht), and a Color Rendering Index, or CR/'. a scale from 0 归100.

You can achieve pleasing and ac，臼rate color in your photographs made 巾 most sourceι although mixed 如urces (belo”。r a CR/ below about 80 will make accuracy more difficult 阳 achie时e

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Colors can be accurately interpreted with a camera profile (see page 84). Photograph a color chart like the Color汇hecker Passport shown and open it with the soft 时re supplied with the chart. Follow the simple on-screen steps 归generate a profile that can be used 臼 correct color-in one step, for any image made in the same l也·hting conditions. Most profiling soft,‘,are is made for interpreted, not m吨卢les but Adobe Camera Ra叫 Lightroom, and Pho阳shop can apply a profile to ONG files using the chart above and its software.

Gueorgui Pinkhassov. Murmansk, Russia, 2006. Mixed light can suggest mixed environments. Warm (lower color temperature, or more red) light from the interior in臼ndescent lamp presents a

ture, more blue) dusk daylight illuminating this winter scene. Because the port of Murmansk on the Kola B吨y remains ice-free year round, it pro- vides a safe ha础。r for Russian (and, previous少， Sov.巾。 ballistic missile s吵marines like this on sharp contrast with the cool 刊号her color tempera-

…TE R 3 自 59

Using Histogrαms

A hist brightness val ues (to nes) of all ti、e pixels in an image. The brightness levels in an image between black a nd white a re divided int。 a dis-

crete number，。ften 256, of di仔erent tones; the height of each bar in the chart represents the numb盯 of pixels of a particular brightness level that occur an沪where in the image. Usu ally co lors are merged in to a single display, b lack is dis- p layed as 0, middle gray 128, and white 255.

For m ost scenes, a rich image uses all of the 256 tones，企om the s u btle h ig h light values of a whi te cloud co the deep s hadows o n the side of an old barn. Empty space o n one end of a h istogram means a d ig ital image h臼 no bright h ighligh ts or no dark s h adows; it can be a sign of a careless scan or a poorly exposed image from a digital camera Empty space o n both sides of a h istogram ind i- cates a s u bject wi th a nar row dynamic range.

In this chapter, some histograms are dis- played a lo n g with t h ei r corresponding pictures to help you u nderstand h ow the information con- tain ed in them can be interpreted and used.

Histograms can g uide your adj ustmen ts duri n g image editing, in scann ing software programs, and in setting your camera 四posure. A histogram of any recorded image can be dis- played to direct your lightness, contrast, and color adjustmen也 The software displays a h川ogram (for example, see Curves, pages 96-9η， and you redistribute the tones in t he image according to the info rmation it presents.

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Histogram: A graph of a digital image. A sin1Je ( or combined) hist，怨ram sho晒伪ebr，也'htn出s values of all the pixels in an image. 7古ehe也htof臼ch section repr，出en臼the M阳I number of pixels ofa given brigh阳ess in 阶ewholepho阳

60 LIG ” T AN D EX P OSU R E

A二 2,二＝＝二 Christine Chin. Indian Paintbrushes, Colorado, 2004. A color pho阳，graph can have one histogram for each channel, plus a combined one that me也出 them. In the R, G, and 8 his臼－ grams for this photograph, shown above, you can see 臼H bumps from a cluster oρ也ht blue values in 伪esky, mediu肿toned green values from the foliage, and darker reds from the flowers. At the r.也•ht end of the histogram, the nearly identical bumps 的 the ve,y br也·ht h也<hi也hts for all three channels are from the neutral-colored snow.

7百e three channels are sho附below displayed simu阳ne- ous如 Where two additive primaries o时rlap it sho附 the result- ing subtractiν·e primary (page 56). Ad饭tal camera generally displays a single merged histogram (le仰

Bohnchang Koo. αae Shirah, 2004. A his阳•gram can be 伪e best Ii拚tmeter. Koo shot the Ko，四，，mo旧 star for a magazine using his DSLR in the indirect I，也＇ht 。,fan outdoor gard，削阶h consistent I，也h阳，gand 伪e time 阳阳ke a test sho; the camera's histogram is your m出t aaura胆呻osureguide.

Digital 国meras ca n be set t o display a his- t og ram of an image you have j ust 时何n immedi- ately after exposur巳 It will tell you if your picture was over- o r underexposed so you can adjust your shooti ng s trategy. If the si tuation allows, you can take a test exposure, review the histogran飞 correct your 四posure settings, and even delete the test image fr。m the m em ory card before making your intended photograph.

T h e histogram t h at app ears o n your 国m e ra’ s monitor 国n be u sed instead of a light m eter rea d ing. Like a light meter (also called an 田:pos"re meter, see page 62) it can provide very accurate information about exposure, including separate graph s s howing the valu es of each pri- ma1y color, but it is o nly available after the pic- ture has been made. T h e examples below sh ow you how to use the h istogram to adjust your n四t exposure.

Exp ose to 由e “ght. Gen盯ally, a digitally captured ph。tograph shou ld be given as much exposure as possible wi thou t push ing im portant h ighlights past the rig h t end of the h istogram (called clipping, see below). If there is empty space in the h istogram, it sh ould be at the left. Because digital sensors are linear and our eyes are no t, lighter tones are caprnred with m ore detail, leav- ing more room for later a刽ustment during edit- ing, t han darker o nes.

A camera’s h isto gram is m ade fro m a J PEG p r eview, so it is not completely accurate. Even if you sh oot o nly raw fi les, the camera’s built-in conversion software m汰es a small jpeg for the preview image it displays o n th e monitor. The h istogram is made from th is preview, bu t the con- version process clips a little h ig h light detail. You can extract t hat detail later in a more careful con- version of your camera raw file (see page 85) but it won' t be enough to save an over四posed image.

D o n ’t fo rget how to u se y our lig h t m eter . As useful as t he histogram is, there are many situa- tions-especially the fas t-movi ng ones-in wh ich y。u must be ready to shoot firs t, using your light meter as a guide. T he remainder 。f th is chapter tells you h ow. But if you have the l山uries of pre- dictable lighti ng and enough t ime to m冰e a test exposure o r two, you can learn even m。re with a h istogram t han you can with a light m eter and make each image perfectly exposed

Under，剧：posure shows 阳nes grouped at the /efi end of the histogram wi阶 little or nothi，哩。n阶e

Over，剧：posure clusters all the information at the Normal exposure for 伪is scene creates a his阳·

right. When 臼nal values pass one end of the histo- gram and are discarded it is called cl ipping.

right of the histogram, indicating伪at more subject tones 由ist 阳 the right of the cuto厅line but were not recorded.

gram with 阳nes distributed like this; it shows that all tones in dark areas (at lefi) and in l也·ht areas (right) have been recorded. &;J.

c ” A P TE R 3 111111 6 1

Exposure Meters WHAT DIFFERENT TYPES DO

E xposure mete川町in d臼ign, but t h ey all perfo rm t h e sa,胃e basic 句nction. T hey mea-

s ure the amount of light; then , for a given sensor or fi lm sensi tivity (ISO), th ey calculate f二stop and s hutter-speed combinations that wi ll produce a correct exposure fo r a scene that has an average dis tt ibution o fl ight and dark.

Meters bui lt into came ras measure reflected ligh t (see opposite page, top center). T h e lig ht - sensi tive part of the m eter is a photoelectric cell. Wh en the m etering system is turned o n and the lens of the cam era is pointed at a su均ect, the cell measures t he lig h t reflected fro m t hat s ub- ject. Wit h au tomatic exp osure o peration, you set either the aperture or the sh utter speed and the camera adjusts the o ther to let in a given am ount of lig h t . Som e cameras set bo th the aperture and th e sh utter speed for you. In manual expo- sure operatio口， you adjust t h e aperture an d the shutter speed based o n the m eter’s viewfin der or dat a-panel reado u t .

The scene v闹剧e in lhe view自nder

Whal lhe camera’s metering system 飞ees'

62 LIG ” T AND EXPOSURE

H and -he ld m eters m easure reflected ligh t o r incid ent ligh t (see opposite p age, top left and right). When the cell of a hand -held me阳（one that is n ot built into a camera) is ex posed to light, it moves a needle across a scale of numbers or acti-

vates a digital display. T he brig h ter the light, t he hig her the readi ng. The m eter (set for your ISO) then calcu lates and displays recommended f-stop and shu tter-speed com binations.

M eters are designed t o measure m iddle gray. A refl ected-light m eter m easures o n ly one thing-the am o unt of lig ht-and it calculates fo r o nly one result-an exp osure that will rep roduce that o verall level of ligh t as a m ed ium-g ray tone in the final p hotograph. T h e assumptio n is that m ost scen es, wh ich consist of a variety of tones including very dark, m ediu m, and very lig ht , aver- age o ut to a middle tone, o ne with equal c。lor valu es. Most, in fact, d o. Pages 68-73 tell how t o use a m eter to m easure an average scene and what to d o for scen es that are n。t average.

A through伪e-lens (TTL) meteη built into a camera, shows 的阶e臼mera's viewfinder the area that阶e meter ι reading. You 臼n see the details of the scene, but the 臼mera's metering system does not. Ma’!Y 气四”simply the overall light le时l Whether the scene is very l也htor very dark, the meter always calculates a shut阳rspeed and aperture combination 阳 render 伪at light le时I as middle gray 巾伪e picture. Some meters ( as shown opposite, bot.阳m) are more sophisticated and favor the exposure of certain parts of the image.

A付l meterιusually coupled归 the 臼mera to set the exposure automatically. This vie协作，derdisplay宫， below the ima~e, the shutter speed and aperture 臼 which the 印刷ra is set It also signals unde俨oro时rexposure when you choose an aperture or shutter speed for which there 且 no corresponding setting wi伪时 the range of those available on your臼mera.

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SEHOMIC

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A hand-held meter is separate from the camera. After measuring the amount of light, the meter's calculator dial or display panel sho附therecom mended fstop for your selected shutter-speed and ISO. This t)伊e of meter can read either incident or reflected light depending on 伪e position of the small dome on the me.阳r

Reading Reflec饵d Light

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Hand-held Meter

A reflected-light meter measures the amount of light reflected from an object. It 臼n be hand held (left) or built into a camera (right). To make a r臼dinι point the meter at the entire scene or at a specific part ofit.

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Built-in Meter

Reading Incident Ligh宫

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A ” incident-light meter measures 伪e amount of light falling on it-and扭，阶eamount咐，拚削＇ingona subject in similar light. To make a readinι point the meter away from the su侬ct, toward the印刷用

Meter Weightin~: What pa时ofa scene does a reflected-I，榕的 meter measure?

An averaging or overall meter reads most of the image area and compu阳an exposure that is the a时rage of all the 阳nes in the scene. A hand-held meteι like the one shown opposite，”ical如 makes an O时ra/1 reading.

A spot meter reads o吵a small part of 阶e image. Very ac，阳rate exposures can be calculated with a 平ot meteι but it is impor- 阳nt to select with care the ar，臼s to be read. Hand-held spot meters are popular with photographers who want exact measure- ment and control of individual areas. Some cameras with built-in meters have a spot meter,ng opt,on

Ave旦重_11£ Meter

Sf>Ot Meter

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Center响i垫ted Meter A center-weighted meter favors the l也'ht level of the central ar，臼ofan image, which is often the m出t important one 阳meter. Cameras with built-in meters usually use some form of center we也•hting.

A multi-segment meter is the most sophisticated of the meters built into a cam- era. It divides the scene into areas that are metered 巾dividua似 then analyzed against a series 。fpatterns stored in the 臼mera's memory. 7百e resulting exposure is more likely to avoid problems such as under，呻0- sure ofa su向；ect against a 时,yb斤。tsky.

3 自 63

EJ.;posure Meters HOW TO CALCULATE AND ADJUST AN EXPOSURE MANUALLY

H o w do you calculate a nd 叫ust a n expo - s ure m a nua lly? Even if you have an automatic exposure camera, it will help you to kn。w how to do so. Many automatic cameras do not 口pose correctly for backlit scenes or other simations where the overall illumination is not “ average,'’ and you will need to know how much and in what

direction co change the camera’s settings co get the results you want.

This page shows the way a hand-held meter works. It is likely you will never use one or even hold one in your hand. But once you grasp its operation, you will know how any meter func- tions, whether built into a camera or separate and hand-held. It’s also useful to understand that the functi。ns of your camera and those of a light meter, even the one inside your cam盯a, are inde- pendent from one another. Pages 68-73 tell how to use any meter for different types of scenes.

Exposure = Intensity × Time. Exposure ts a combination of the intensity of light that reach- es the light-sens山ve surface (controlled by the size of巾 apert旧e) and the length of time 巾 light strikes it (c。ntrolled by the shutter). You can a句ust the exp。sure by changing the shutter speed, aperture, or both.

Exposure changes are m easur ed in s tops, a doubling （。E halving）。f the exposure. A change from one aperture （ιstop) to the n四E larger aper- mre opening, such as from f/ 5.6 to 帆， doubles the light reaching the sensor (or 日lm) and results in one stop more exposure. A change from one shutter speed to the next slower speed, such as from 1/2so sec. to 1/12s sec., also results in one stop more exposure. A change co the next smaller aperture or the next faster shutter speed halves the light and produces one stop less 四posure. Doubling the illumination in a r。。m would als。 be referred to as a one-stop change.

It is worth your effmt co mem。rize theιstop and shutter-speed sequences, at least the whole- stop ones (see the box on page 2份， so you know

64 LI G ” T A ND EX P OSU R E

Pow理r Switth

M。de Switch Changes fi-om continuous light (like dayl唱ht) to elecct。nic fl ash

The f-stop se国ngs a吨。ne stop apa＂. 印S lets in half as much light asη5.6. Rememberchat the lower the f•number, the larger the lens apeπu吨， and so the mo,e l唱H let into the can、era

ISO but宜。”， speed 阳tings double each cime the sensitivity 。fthe sensor （。rof白Im) doubles. A seccing of ISO 400 险。ne stop 龟sterchan

a seccing of ISO 200 It needs only half as much l唱k as does ISO 200.

which way to move the controls when you are faced with an exposure you want co bracket or otherwise adjust.

Bracketing helps if you are n o t sure a b o ut t h e exposu re. To bracket, you make several photographs of the same scene, increasing and decreasing the exposure by adjusting the aper- mre or shutter speed. Among several different exposures, there is likely to be at least one that is correct. It’s not just beginners who bracket exposures. Professi。nal ph。tographers 。fren do it as protection against having to repeat a wh。le shooting session because none of their exposures was quite right.

To bracket, first make an exposure with the aperture and shutter speed set by the automatic system or manually set by you at the combination you think is the right one. Then make a second shot with one stop more 四posure and a third shot with 。ne stop less exp。sure. This is easy to do if you set the exposure manually: for one stop more 口posure，的ther set the shutter to the next

Shutter speeds are 。内e stop apaπA shuccer speed of Vm臼C lets in 队.vice as much light as a shuccer speed 。f Viso sec

Reads 份-actions

in between the wh。le f-stop seccings

A hand-held exposure me缸瓦 L吵t striking this meter's ／，也•ht-sensiti，昭

pho阳electric cell ，，由ults in the di.平lay of an fstop and a shutter speed on i臼electronic disp／.咿l window. You set the ISO and shutter speed, and it calculates the correct ap- erture for a normal exposure in l也ht of that intensity. An au阳mat,cexp出ure camera performs the same calcula- tion for you, using a light meter built into the camera

Most current hand-held meters will also calculate exposures when you are using electronic flash (s四pages 146-149) or mixing flash withdaylighι

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Original exposure 1/ 8 1/ 15 1/30 1/ 60 1/ 125 1/ 250 1/ 500 sec. f/ 16 f/ 11 f/8 f/5.6 例可2.8 们

T。bracket for 。ne stop less exp。sure, which would darken the scene, keep the shutter speed at l也o sec while changing to the next smaller aperture, f/ 8. (Or keep the original f/ 5.6 aperture 、而ile changing to the ne班faster shutter speed, ]i\2s sec.)

Bracketed for 。ne stop less exposure 1/ 8 1/ 15 1/30 1/ 60 1/ 125 1/ 250 1/ 500 sec. 可16 町11 f/8 f/5.6 例可2.8 们

T。bracket for 。ne stop m。re exp。sure, which would lighten the scene, keep the shutter sp四d at 驰。sec while changing to the next larger apertu吃仰（Or keep the origi- nal f/ 5.6 aperture while changing to the next slower shutter speed，均o sec.)

Bracketed for 。ne stop more exp。sure 1/ 8 1/ 15 1/30 1/ 60 1/ 125 1/ 250 1/ 500 sec. f/16 可11 印8 f/5.6 例可2.8 们

s lower s p eed o r th e a p e rture to th e n ext la rger

open ing ( the n ext s m aller f-nu1巾er); for one s t op

less 四posure, e ither set the sh u tter to the n四t fas te r speed or the a perture to t h e n ex t s maller

open ing {the n ext larger ιnumber).

How d o you bracket w it h an autom atic

exposure camera? I n autom atic operati。n, if

y。u change to the n ext larger aperture, the camera may s imply sh ift to the n ext faster s hutter speed,

resu lting in the sam e overall 四posure. Ins tead,

you have to override the ca m e ra ’s a u tom ati c sys- te m . See p age 66 for how to do so. Som e cameras

can be set to m ake th ree bracke ted exp osures in s uccessio n when you p ress t h e shutter 。nce.

Jack Delano. Union Station, Chicago, 1943号 Bracketing your臼：posures is useful w由enyou are not sure 扩 an 臼：posure is correct or if you want to see the results from different exposures of the same scene. Judging the 由：posure for this kind of 自tremefy contrasty s臼ne 臼n be ve,y difficult; bracketed 由：posures give you a choice. With more 由：posure in the photograph at /efi, detail 时 the interior would have been more visible but the beams ofsunl敏t would lose their drama. L阳已啡阳sure would darken eve伊hing so people on the benches would disap- pear entirely.

3 自 65

οverriding αn Automαtic Exposure Cαmerα

M any came r as w ith automatic 叫osure h ave a m eans o f o verriding 由e a u tomatic system when you wan t to increase th e exposu re to ligh ten a picture or decrease the exposu re to darken it . The ch ange in exposure is measured in stops. A one-stop change in exp。sure wi ll double （。r h alve) the amount oflight reaching the sensor or fi lm. Each apenure or shutt er-speed setting is one stop from t h e next setting.

Exp osure lock. An exposu re lock or memory swi tch temporarily locks in an 四posure, so you can move up close o r point the camera in a d能r enr direction to cake a readi ng of a particular area, lock in the desired setti ng, step back, and then ph otograph the entire scene.

Exp osure compe nsation. Moving th is dial or indicator to + 1 o r +2 increases the exposure by one o r two stops and lightens the p icture. Moving it to - 1 o r -2 decreases t he exposu re and darkens the p icture. (Your camera may have a button you m ust h old down whi le making th is change.)

B ack ligh t button . If a camera does not have an exposure com pensatio n dial, it m ay have a backlight b utton . Depressing t he bu tton adds a fixed a m o u nt of exposu肥， 1 to 1 1在 stops,

Exposure I田k

Film speed/ ISO dial Manual m。de

66 LIG ” T A ND EX P O SURE

an d lig h tens the p icture. It cannot be used to decrease exposure.

ISO se忧ing. Ch anging the ISO semng o n a digi tal camera will change either apert ure o r sh ut- ter speed bu t will n ot make the pictu re lig h ter o r darker. Instead you will need to use th e but- ran, dial, or men u item that controls exposure com pensation. You can set the can1era to 四pose all your photographs at a fixed amou nt more o r less than th e m eter indicates, or you can make an exposure change for o n e picture at a t ime.

Setting the ISO o n a fil m camera doesn't change the light sensitivity of the fi lm, so you can change the 口posure (if the camera allows you to set an ISO manuall沙 by changi ng t he fil m speed setti ng. The camera responds as if the fi lm were slower or fas ter t han it really is. Doubling th e fi lm speed (for example, fro m ISO 100 to ISO 200) darkens t he picture by decreasing the exposure o ne stop. Halvi ng the 在lm speed (say from ISO 400 to ISO 20创 lightens the picture by increasing the exposure o ne stop.

M a nua l mode. Wit h an au tomatic camera that has a man ual mode, you adjust t he sh utter speed an d apert ure yourself. You can increase or decrease the exposure as you w ish.

One or more means of changing the exposure are found on most 臼meras. 7百ese features let you 。时rrideau归matic exposure when you want 阳d。如. Don't forget to reset伪e camera to its normal mode of operation after the picture is made.

AdamEkbe’-g. Vacuum on a Frozen lake, Maine, 2005. Low I也-ht exposures can be difficult to z时right. You 臼n use manual ’”ode to set the shut胆r写peed and aperture, but be sure 归bracket if you can. Ekbe.吃gu且da meter, and then made 由posures from b告臼 30

seconds 阳be certain he 臼p阳red阶e balance of warm incand，配制t I，吵t from the vacuum 时阶thecool l缺t of dusk. He tossed his family's Eureka on阳the surface of a frozen 归kefrom outside the frame so there would be no foo月pri，，臼 to disturb this absurdist image.

3 自 67

Mαking αn Eχposure of αn A℃erαge Scene

W h at e xactly d o you n eed t o do t o pro- duce a good e xpos ure? How do you choose one that lets just enough light into the camera s。 that the image is n ei ther underexposed, making the picture m。 dark, nor overexposed, making the p icture too light? All meters built in to camer缸， and most hand-held meters, measure reflected light: the lighme目。r darkness of o均ects (but not their color). In many cases, you can si mply point the camera at a scene, activate the meter, and set the 四posure (or let t h e camera set it) accordi n gly.

A re何ected-light m eter averages t h e ligh t enteri ng its angle of view. The meter is calibrated on t he assumptio n that in a n average scene all the tones or values-dark, medi um, and light-will average o ut to the value of a medium gray. s。 the meter and 1cs circuitry set, or recommend, an exposure that will record all of t h e lig h t refle.c- tances that it is reading by centering them around a middle gray.

This works well if y。u are p hotographing an “ average” scene, o n e that has an average d is tri-

68 LIG ” T A ND EX P O SURE

bution of light and dark areas, and if the scen e is evenly illuminated 臼 viewed from camera posi- tion, that is, when the ligh t is coming m ore or less fro m behind you or when the lig h t is even ly diffused over the entire scene (like巾ph。rograph above). See opposite for how to meter th is type 。f average 。r low-contrast scene

A m eter ca n b e foo le d , however, if your subject is illum inated from behir (backlit by a much lighter area, s uch as a bright sky，。E by a much darker area, such as a large dark s hadow. Even a flarly lit scene can present an 口pos ure challenge if it is n o t a good balance between lig h t a nd dark areas. See pages 70-73 for what to do in s uch cases.

Deborah Willis. Trail of Tears, 2001. Scenes in dif fused l'.ght can be exposed well with an overall read- in』L for田·ample, an o时r臼st day, outdoors in the shade like 伪is, or indoors when the light is coming from se时rat light sources. Di，庐sed light is indirect and soft. Shado附 are not as dark as they would be 巾direct l也ht.

比Ii/Ii.ι a long-time resident of New York City, m写ponded to 阶espon阳ne ous memorials around her city with her series 911 节咀 Day A仕er, 9/ 12/2001 ，阶at includes this photograph.

A d也·ital camera's preview or an editing histogram of the scene on this page would look like the one at left. A histogram is a visual dispi吃y of the w吧y tones are distrib - uted in an image. Aat, even illumination usually makes a histogram that fi臼all tones comfo刷blywi伪巾 the avail- able latitude. 7百is one sho昭 a decline to the baseline at both ends indicating伪at all the tones have been captured. The rise at the left indicat，由slightly more dark 阳nes than middle or I，也·ht ones. O昭ra/1 it is relatively fla电 characteristic of an a时产 age subject in soft I.也•ht, the result of an almost equal distribution of tones斤。m dark to l也ht.

Using a meter built into a camera for exp。sure of an average scene 1 臼leer an ISO and set it in the camera. Some 白In neras d。 th…。

marically when you load the 白Ir>1

2灿ct 巾 exp… mode: a…aric (ape…prior priority，。r programmed) or manual. Activate the meter as you look a t d飞e subject in the viewfinder.

3 In aperru陀－pri select a shutter speed; mal<e sure that it is fast en。ugh to prevent blu口ing ofd飞e image caused by camera or subject m。tion. In shutter- priority mode, you select a shutter speed. The cam盯a will select an a perm re; make sure it gives the desired depth of field. In programmed (fully automatic) mode, the camera selects both aperture and shutter speed. In manual m。缸，y。u set both aperture and shutter speed based on the readout in the viewfinder.

Calculating exposure 。f an average scene wit h a hand-held re刊ected light meter 1 s叫e ISO川m speed in叫εm 2川巾 meter's photoelectric cell at the subj…

seen by the camera. Activate the meter to me臼ure the amount of ligt飞E 时lected by the su均ect.

3 Li p the number reg阳叫巾in on the meter’s calculator dial. (Some meters do this automatically.)

4 Set the camera to one of 巾 combinations of f-stops and shutter speeds shown on the meter. Any combination shown lets the same quantity of light into the camera and produces the same exposure.

Calculating exposure 。f an average scene with a hand-held incident· light meter 1 s叫e ISO川m speed in叫em盯 2 叫。nth

roelectric cell as is fal ling o口 the part of the subject seen by the cam er & Todod旧is, point the meter’s photoelectric cell away from the subject, in the opposite direction from the camera lens. Activate the meter to measure the amount oflight fal ling on the subject. Make sure the same light that is falling on the su悖ct is fal ling on the meter. For example, take care not to shade the meter if the subject is brightly lit. Proceed as in steps 3 and 4 for reflected-light meter.

3 自 69

Eχposing Scenes thαtαre Lighter or Dαrkerthαn Averαge

CCI I t came out too dark.” Sometimes even

experienced ph otographers complain that they metered a scene carefully, but the picture s till wasn’t prop四ly exposed. All a m eter does is mea- sure light. It doesn' t know what part of a scene you are interested in or whether a particular object should be light or dark. You have to think 址飞ead of the meter and sometimes change the exposure 1t recommends

Scen es t h a t a re lig ht o verall, such as a sn ow scene, can l。。k too dark in the final photograph if you ma!也just an overall reading or let an auto- matic camera m汰e 。ne for you. T he reason is that the meter will make its usual assumption that it is pointed at a scene consisting 。f ligh t, m edium, and dark tones （。ne that averages 。ut to middle gra纱， and it will set the exposure accordi ngly. But th is will underexpose a scene t hat consists mostly 。flight tones, called h驴－key, result ing in a too-dark photograph. T ry giving o ne or two stops extra exposure to s uch scenes.

An underexposed (too dark) photograph 臼n result when 阶el.也•ht is coming斤。m behind the su句iect or when 阶e SU句ect is against a much br.也•hter background, such as the sky. The problem is that a meter a时rages all the tonal values that strike its l协－sensitive cell. Here the photographer pointed the meter so that it included the much lighter阳ne of the sky and clouds as well as the sculp阳re. 7币er，田ulting exposure of始so sec. shutter speed at f/11 aperture produced a correct exposure for an a时r age scene but not a correct 由：posure for this scene.

70 LIG ” T AND EX P O SUR E

S cene s t h at are d a r k o ve ra ll are less common, but d。 occur. When the meter sees an entire scene that is very dark, called low-key, it assumes it is a dimly lit average scene and lets in more light. If your main su均ect is no t as dark as the back- ground, it wi ll be rendered too lig h t. T1y reducing the exposure o ne or two stops.

You 国n m a ke som e a djus t m e nt s in tone later, wh en y。u edit your pic tures. But good results and the effect you wan t are easier to get if you first use the camera to capture t he cor- rect exposure. Bracket your exposures (page 64) if y。u are not su陀， especially if you notice t hat the scene is not average-equally light and dark. If your camera is capturing TIFF or JPEG fi les, you have little leeway. Sho。ting Cam凹a Ra即 fi les g ives you a better chance at retrieving an image t hat was slig htly over- or underexposed. But an image that was captured wi th the correct exposure will always be your best bet for making a print of the h ighest p。ssible quality.

A better exposure for contrasty scenes results from moving up close 阳 meteron如the main su协ct, as shown above. 7协 way you take your meter reading from the most important part of the scene-here, the dinosaur's head. 7百e resulting自：posure of!地o sec. at f/11 let in 仰o more stops of.自posure and made the {i, al picture （，时rght) I，也'hter. The sky is more realistic and the important part ofit, the figure, is not too dark.

A也凶‘

Jerome Liebling. Miami Beach,. Florida, 1977. Some scenes need more care in metering, like 伪is handball player in a shaβof sunlight. Ana时rage meter reading would see m出吵the dark court and suggest an exposure that would

make the sunstruck areas 归o l也•ht. Its histogram (le~) sho附most如dark tones clustered at the left end of the graph. An d时raging meter would try 阳mo昭 the 归也~ mass of tones toward the 臼n阳r, o皑的自：posing and clipping the h也•hlights

R 3 = 71

Bαcklighting

T he most common 叫osure problem is a backlit s ubject, one that is against a m uch lig h t- er backg round, such as a sunny sky. Because the m eter averages all the ton al values it sees- lig ht, m ediu m , an d dark- in the scene, it assu mes the entire scene is very brig ht. Consequently, it sets an exp。sure that lets in less ligh t, wh ich makes the entire pictu re darker an d your m ain s ubject roo dark.

Backlight can make a n effective silhouette, but you sh o uld n’t render your su均ect in black- ness un less th挝、 the effect yo u want. T o show

your mai n subject with detai l in the shadowed side, like the photog raph at righ t, make sure to m eter t h e part of your su悖ct faci ng the camera wi thout lett ing the backlight sh ine into th e m eter, as shown below. When yo u want a silhou ette against a bright backg round, t ry giving a s top o r two less exposure than the meter recommends for t he main su均ect.

72 LIG ” T AND EXPOS URE

Move in close to meter a h帧－contrast scene. Wi伪 a built-in meter, move in (without blocking the I也fit) until the impo刷ntarea just fills the viei价，der. Set the shutter speed and aperture and move back 归your °＂也'inal position to take the picture.

Wi伪a hand-held, ”’ fleeted-light meter, move in close enough to read the s咐ect but not so close as to block阳也ht. A spot meter, which reads light 斤。ma ve,y narrow anf!!e of时毗 ispa俨 ticula吵useful for metering h也'h -contrast s臼nes.

Lou Jones. Dancers Rehearsinι Boston, 1985. Careful exposure is required in backlit scenes like this one if you want to retain detail in the shadowed side 。｛the subject.

A substi阳tion reading, such as one taken from 伪epalm of your hand or a gray 阳，d, will tve ~ou an accurate reading if you can't get close enough to a su侬ct or-as in this scene- you can’'teasi如find an area of average re fie巾，3臼 Make sure you are meteringjust the palm (or the card) and not 阶e sky or other background of a different tone. A hand-held reflected-light meter is劝own, but you can also use a meter built into a 臼mera.

If you meter from the palm of your hand, t,y the 臼：posure recommended by伪e meter if you have ve,y dark sk巾， but give one stop more exposure if you have light skin, as here. If you make a substitution reading from a photographic gray card, use 阶e exposure recommended by the meter.

Eχposing Scenes with High Contrαst

Ra!. K. Metzker. Frankfurt, 1961. A h也h-contrast scene must be 剧：posed careful,阮 asyou can see from the histogram of this image shown below. It would 臼ke only a little o时俨 exposure to push the highlight tones (at the right) beyond 阶e end of the graph, making them all a uniform white. Simi- far仇a little 川der exposure would cl伊 the dark tone主，’”aking them all black.

H igh-contrast scenes are d i俑cu lt to expose correctly because the range of tones in a contrasty scene (als。 called a scene of wide or ht拚命namic range) can meet o r even exceed the lacirnde (the range 。f cones that can be caprnred simultane- ousl妙。fthe sensor or film. Even a small exposure error will leave you ＼＼•创1 detail missing (clipping) in your h ig hlights or shadows. As always, it is saf- est to brad<et.

Try not to underexpose with film; the shadow areas suffer m。st from exposure error. Films have more latitude in the highlights. Don’t 。verexpose with digital cameras, they typically capture a tonal range greater than negative fi lms, but w ith less latitude in the highlights. Precise metering is more important in contrasty lig ht.

To expose the m ain subject correctly in a contrasty scene, measure the light level for that part of the scene only. If you are photographing a person or other su均e.ct ag出nst a much darker 。r lig hter background, move in close enough to exclude the background from the reading but not so close that y。u meter y。uro叭响 shadow. If your main subject is a landscape or other scene that includes a very bright sky, tilt the meter or camera down slighdy so you exclude most of the sky from

the reading. But suppose a bright sky with inter- esting clouds is the area in which you want to see detai l and there are much darker land elements s ilhouetted against it (see page 9, bottom center) . If so, the sky is your main su悖ct, the one 归u should meter to determine your camera settings.

A substitution reading is possible if you can’t move in close enough co the important part of a contrasty scene. Find an object of ab。ut the same tone in a similar light and read it instead. For exact exposures, you can meter the light reflected from a gray card, a card that is a standard 18% reflectance middle gray (meters are desig ned co calculate exposures for SL均e.cts of this tone). You can also meter the light reflected by the palm 。fyour hand (see box, opposite). Hold the card or your hand in the same lψE that is falling on巾SU均ect.

H ow do you set your camera after you have m etered a high-contrast scene? If your cam- era has a manual exposure mode, set the shutter speed and aperture co expose the main su均ect corre.ccly, using the settings from a reading made up close or from a substitution reading. In auto- matic operation, you must over ride the automatic circuitty (see page 66). Don't be afraid to do thi问 on ly you know the picture you want. B:l

c ” APTER 3 1111111 73

HDR HIGH DYNAM I C RANGE

H o w do you C叩ture a s ce ne whe n t h e cont r ast is too g r eat for your cam e ra? What d。 you do wh en the h ighligh ts are too bright and the shadows too dark to be captured at t h e same ti me? T h e range of tones a sensor o r film can capture （。r a monitor can display or a printer can print} is called its dynamic range. 飞;t'hen expos- mg a scene with too much contrast-too great a dynamic range-you can o nly make sure the m ost im portant to n es are recorded, you can' t capture all of them in one picture.

Phot o g r a phe rs h ave a lways had t o work a r o und t h e lim itations of the m ed ium . In t h e 1 9εh century, so m e ph otograph ers used a sepa- rate n egative to add cl。uds to a print because t h e materials of the period couldn’t record detail in a landscape an d sky a t the same ti m e. S tudio pho- tograph ers must learn to arrange lights s。 the brightness range of t h eir su同ect doesn 't exceed the range t h eir equipment can captu re.

So仕ware g ives us a c hance to ove rcome t h e limited r a nge a sensor can capture. HDR (high d归amic range) images can be assem bled from a bracketed sequence of 四posures. Photosh op’S Merge to HDR Pro fea ture and Lightro。111、 Photo Merg，乌 as well as several separately available appli- cati。ns and plug-ins, automate the process by blending the ligh t areas in the less-exposed frames w ith the shadow areas in the greater exposu res.

6 、r ’ .,

Five to seven 企ames of a still su均ect bracketed o ne stop apart (see page 64) will give t h e best results. Although t h e programs will t ry to line up exposures that don' t overlap perfectly, it is always m ore effective to use a tripod. Bracket the expo- sures using sh utter speed rather than aperture to avoid depth-of-field variation between frames.

Senso r limit for low light.

A digital sensor can only cap阳re the fvced range ofbr.也-htnesses shown within the histogram dispf.吧yed on your camera亏 moni 阳r With a very contrasty scene like the one below and opposite page, top, some 阳neswi/1 fall outside that range. The血。Ut·。ιgamut (page 82) tones are not actually displayed by

Sensor limit fo r bright light.

a camera the way th电y are illustrated above, but are clipped-all tones 阳伪er.也•ht of the se，，如此 range are 臼ptured as pure white and every伪ing to the le卢as pure b归ck. Without 阶e ability 阳 merge bracketed HOR斤'/Jmes, your only option is to choose (by selecting a，，由－ posure) which partial range of tones you record.

Richter made five 时：posures to capture full de阳ii in all impor臼nt areas of伪is building interioι 斤。’”约旦c. to 4 sec. 7百e

ape巾re was kept 伪e same (f/ 11 ) for all so they could be merged (s田 the opposite page) with no depth-of-field variations.

74 LI G ” T AND EX POSURE

Chrishan Richter. Power Line, fr,,仇 2008. 时伪 no electricity for interior I也hts, vacated buildings provide臼tremes of contrast. Merging five bracketed 由：posures was the only way Richter could re时al detail in all areas of this ruined powerp归nι

Living巾 East Germany when the Berlin Wall fell, he b咿川isitinι阶enpho阳－ graph in阜 abandoned spaces. As people moved from East to W.出t, and from villages to cities, they left behind dete· riorating factories, ho.平italι inns, and public baths.

Di2ital Noise

In a digital photograph, the lower 出e l igh飞由e more the noise. A sensor’s photosites are less accu阻te when they measure a ve叩 small am。unt of light, and in every ph。tog甩ph some wi II rand。mlygen- erate pi蜡lswh。se col。r and brightness are unrelated to the subject. Because no,se increases as the light level decreases, there will a lways be mo陀 in dark areas 。fan image And, because no,se in shadows appears as bright sparkles of color in a dark foe ld, it is most n。t ice able there, too

Higher ISO settings increase noise. A photosite does not change its sensitivity-the way 1t responds to ph。tons fa lling on it by c。I - lecting and c。unting electr，。ns-when y。u adjust the ISO number to a higher setting. The came阻’S circu it叩 simply amplifies the data c。llec四d With a higher ISO, you shoot with a smaller apeπure or higher shutter speed, s。 the sensor receives less ,lluminati。n overall The kinds of noise that are alv咀ys p陀sent at a low level are t hen ampl，而ed m。re than they w。uld be at a lower ISO, and form a mo陀 noticeable paπ 。fthe image

Longer exp。sures increase noise. You use a lo ng exposure when very little illumination reaches the sensor-perhaps because 。fa ve叩small apeπure 。r a d imly lit subject. HDR photographs, for example, because of the great 目nge of brightnesses, are 。仕en very d im ly. lit in the darker areas and requ ire longer ex.p。sures. One kind 。f no,se, heat-generated electrons called dark no,se, accumulates 。ver time, and so forms a mo陀 n。t iceable paπ 。fan ,mage made with a long 臼p。sure.

s。me n。ise can be removed. S。me d ,g,tal SLR cameras have a set- ting for L。ng Exp。sure No』se Reductio n that works on the principle that some kinds of noise, notably dark n。ise, a re predictable. A long exp。su re is fo llowed automatically by a n equally long臼p。sure with the shutter cl。sed. N。ise generated during the sec。nd expo- sure is then subtracted from the first . In add ,ti。n, several s。ftware programs，自parate applications as well as Photoshop plug-ins, are available to help reduce n。ise, b。th in digitally captured and in scanned images

Digital images can be degraded by noise, usually appearing as random l也ht pixels that appear in dark are，田 Noise increases with longer exposures

…TER 3 = 75

MARTHA ROSLER

Invasion, from 加剧目House Beautiful. Bringing the War H。me,

New Series, 2008 Rosier collages 曲e ads in mainstream magtUin回归时向ue the culture that ruds them Made as traditional cut and-paste col-

lage皂白吵pieces int协且，千田from

the 1960s j，耐topose smug suburban consumerism with 曲e horr俏。f即

“etnam War. More recent images are digitally composi阳d from scanned maga·

zine pages. R，田lers咿军she wanted "to go back to something that I had曲ne many years before in ex，町吵t阳 some

way ... becouse we hove sunk back to 曲at same le叫。｛a kind of indifferent rela· 出nship to wh刷刷r count,y is doing.•

Equipment and Materials You’U Need .................. 78

Pictures are Files .............. 80

Digital Color .................. 82 Modes, gamuts, space冉

and pro仲＇S ••••••••••••••••••• 82 Cha”’1els • ••••••••••••••••••••• 83 Calibratingfor acrnra气y•••••••••• 84

Working with Camera Raw ......................... 85

Sta y Organized ................ 86 Setting 11p a wor，明ow•••••••••••• 86 Photographer’swor咿ow

programs ••••••••••••••••••••• 87

Importing ar革 Image ........... 88 Scanning ••••••••••••••••••••• 89

D础αl Wo血lace B町s 4一全 In this chapter you 'LL leαrn ...

• to 巾nti命 the c。mponents 。fa workspace for digi阻l photog目phy: a computer, i臼 programs, and its peripheral devices.

• how to determine the best file format and resolution for each use you may have for a photograph

• to plan an efficient series 。f steps to lead you from deciding to make a ph。tograph to making sure you don't ever lose it.

Meµan Could. 舟。，，， the series Screensh。白， 2007-09 Yourwo成space reflects your individuality. Mass尹roduced o怡cts like your computer and its monitor begin l檐时阶 little character. As a digital photographeιyou'll spend enough time with yours that your personality will gradual世 transfer to them and to the surrounding wo成space. Could asks，句阶at do our home screens reveal about us~'·’

A her c叩t川ima川before川川问 graph exists as a computer file, and lives its life in a computer. Com p u ters alter p hotographs by m an ip u lati n g the b in ary world 。f

o n es and zeroes; there is no d a rkroom , recta n gle o f fil m, o r liter of devel- oper. Software programs for ed iting photographs con tain co mma nds t h a t are inherited fro m - and cools that a re m。deled after- the tradi tional processes 。f p hotography. You apply咄ters”。r use “ b urnin g and dod g ing” tools. It’s use- fu l-bur n。t necessary-to kno即where those terms cam e fro m .

飞.Vhat you will need , h owever, to control all the stages between capture a n d o u tpu t , is a reasonable com fort level with usi n g a compu ter. D ig ital cam- eras can 陀cord h u n d reds of photographs o n one reusable m emory card; t h e compute r fac ilitates savi ng and t rack in g t h e m . Computer software lets you sepa rately and p recisely control tones and colors for in d iv id ual a reas of a n image (or a grou p of t he m), a nd save each s u ccessive stage 。f the process. You can then send your choices to a desk top printer-con nected to your compu t- er-tom汰e exa ctly repeatable prints. By the ti me you are a proficient digi ta l p hotograph er, you and your mon itor and keyboa rd wi ll be well acquain ted.

Equipment αnd Mαterials You ’ll Need

CAPTURE compurer ,mo one un,r on rhe pages of chis STORAGE Opa臼l st。rage medium Image-editing s。仕ware book we陀 made with AND such as a DVD or Blu-

Dog,tal camera does nor lets you selecr ediring Phoroshop CC on a TRANSMISSION ray disk lees you四pand use fi lm It electroni- commands chat change Mac compur叫 the your srorage or rake cal ly records an image rhe image. Adobe Standard and Windows Hard disk (HOD or hard fi les ro anorher loca- in a numerical form Photoshop is rhe domi- edirions look nearly drive) stores image fi les non. Newer compurers char can be senr to the nanr product. The less idenric.al. wirhin rhe compurer do not have builr-in compurerdi陀ctly as expensive Photoshop This book is abour Solid stare drives (SSD), optical drives. digiral information. Elements has a limired photography. Ir can'r essenrially the same as Wi－日， cable, modem, or

Scanner reads a conven- number of rhe features replace rhe owner’s C剖nera memory cards, erhernet connection rional negative, slide, to another compurer or prim and converrs ir or a nerwork of chem inro digiral form. See lees you send and page 89. Monocor Computer receive digiral image

files. Connecting to the

EDITING 、俨－二」η兰~ Ex四r叫 lnrerner lets you rrans- hard drive mit images worldwide. ,

c。mputer is the hearr of a digiral-imaging ,In OUTPUT system. Ir processes rhe

唱

image and drives rhe Printer rransfers rhe moniror, primer, and image to paper. Print ocher devices to which qualiry, cosr, and per- it is artached. You’II manence vary widely need a recenr Apple or Primers may be rhe Windows-comparible in忡飞 laser, or dye- computer. The more subl imarion type. powerful and faster Web sote lets others see models 盯e preferable; carr、era your phorographs dis- ediring p hotographs played on rheir moni- is among rhe more tors, p hones, or rablets. demanding uses for presenred in chis book. manual for your c缸’1- perform rhe s剖叽e func - a compurer. Adding You may also choose era or an in-deprh tions fasrer bur are You don’t need to own more memory （阳M) a phorographer’s reference for image- more expensive. You these i但ms yourself. will make any com- workflow application ediring software. You can add internal drives If you盯e in a class, a purer p盯fortηimage Like Adobe Pho阳shop will need a book (or rhe ro rower-style compur- lab will be pro飞rideci ediring fasrer. Light,ηomor Ph皿e One screen-display or on line ers External drives Otherwise, many

Computer monitor Capture One Pro. See equivalenr) for your may be added simply schools and libraries displays th e image you page 87. chosen software, e ither by connecring wirh a provide access ro com- are working on and Editing software rhe one char comes cable. Cloud storage lees purers, scanners, and shows various software uses on-screen menus wirh rhe program or you use remore srorage printers. Service bureaus cools and oprions. It ro Lise commands and one of the many good via the Inrerner. Only (o丘en in shops char do should be calibrated ro call for dialog boxes publicarions or web- a limited number of copying) rem rime on (see page 84). Many char open on rhe moni- based rutorials that picrures can be stored compurers, scan and all-in-one compurers ror. Most d ialog boxes cover in detail all irs inrernally on a single print images, and help inregrate moniror and and ocher illusrrarions cools and controls drive. See box page 80 you use rheir services

78 DIG ITAL WORKPLACE BASICS

Ca"ie Mae Weems. A Broad and Expansive Sky-Ancient Rome，斤。’” R。am ing, 2006.

When and Where I Enter-Ancient Rome, from R。aming, 2006. This series, like much of Wee，，凹’ work, is part photography and part performance. It began in Rome when she found herself before monuments and palazzos 匀hinking about questions of power. " Her fig· ure appears in each，阳king up little of the frame，阳lead the vie附rin归 the spac，由she inv，田t也a阳s.

Resisting the commonplace urge to acquire an array of equipment, she says ”I move around with an old beat·up camera ... and as much film as I cc,n carry. Then I just t阳st that I know时at l ’m doing with this little black box and that it's going to be okay. » Her negatives are scanned (page 89) to generate image files for printing.

C H A PT ER 4 ,( 79

Files Pictures αre

David Taylor. Pedestrian F切cinι Desier曲deAl阳月／悦，ma Desert, 2009. This view of伪eM臼-i&o-US 切，Tier fen&e is made from a 昭’7旬，-ge file (2GB), stitched from ten separate exposures that臼ch recorded a sedion of this wide 时ew. 均ylor's 4 × 5如t print yields information from 时可yd，阳的－ spedionas附II as from afar.

Increased fi le size causes your computer to ta k e more ti me execu tin g each command you give it . Larger files require m ore compu ter m emo1y, a nd tak e more room to store. You may have to bala nce the q u a lity and s ize of the picture you want ag ainst t h e practicality of the file s ize for your particular computer. You can find o u t m ore from your instrucror at sch ool o r an image-editing software manual.

Y ou r compute r stores each picture 槌 a 何le comprisin g a string of binary numbers (on es and zeroes) for each p ixe l. More pixels a nd greate r bit depth (the amount of in forma tio n per p ixel) mean more potential s harp n ess, color quality, and tonal range in the image-and the bigger the s ize ofrhe image file in the compu ter. Gen erally, better cameras capture a h igher pixel count a nd greate r bit depth, h ence larger fil es.

.. . . • • ...

• ,

"': .~ , · , _ _;i. ,J ~- ” ’‘ 一口一 · 一 • . , · ，.，；’”句， .！ " ,,,,

’b

, , ’ ’

一－

· · 4

(The numbers are rounded o仔 A kilobyte actually contains 1,024 bytes, a megabyte 1,048,576.)

A file for a photog甩ph 。n the lntemeε might be 90K, one for an 8 x 10-inch print 18MB，。ne for a poster 200MB 。r m。re

Smallest unit 。f d,g,tal informat，。”’ can 。nly be tw。values 1 。rO

Byte 8 bits, can be 256 di仇rent values Kilo钞te (1 Kor KB) 1,000 bytes Mega切·e (1 M or MB) 1,000,000 bytes C哩•abyte (1G or GB) 1,000 Megabytes Tera钞位 (1T or TB) 1,000 Gigab归自

Bit File sizes are measured in 钞阳（8 bits). A 2牛megapixel came日’s rec。rding chip might have a 4000 x 6000 grid of pixels-that’s 24 million pixels. If each pixel uses 8 bi臼（one byte 。r 256 p。自ible values） .币。r each color (red , green, and blue), each image will produce a 72-megabyte file

About File Sizes

DIG ITAL WORKPL A C E BA S ICS 80

File Formats

Bit depth controls how smood、 the tones

will be. Compu te rs o p erate o n b its , numbers that

can on ly be a o n e o r a zero. An image w ith a bi t

dep th o f o n e can o n ly have two d ifferent colored pixels, u s u ally black a nd w hite. A bit depth of two

Y。u have a choice of fi le fom咀臼 when y。u c陀ate 。r save a digital image s。me compu回陌 need a three-letter su仔ix (fi le extension) at the end of the fi le's name to identify the type. Here are the impor- tant ones

.psd is Adobe’s prop旧tary format for d。cumen臼 that can 。nly be opened and edited in Phot。shop. If you are using Photosh。pε。 edit a fi le, there are few reas。ns to use a ny other format until y。ur ed iting is complete and you save the fi le for a specific pu币。se.

) pg (wri眈en JPEG) c。mpresses photos into a smaller fi le. You can choose one 。f severa l quality levels for progressively smaller fi les; a low quality may all。w an image saved as a JPEG to be reduced to as little as one-twentieth its original size 节， is kind of compre臼i。n, which d is- cards information, is called lo.勾 Every t ime you open and resave a JPEG its quality deteri。阻四s; ch。。se another for- mat for edit ing. JPEGs, with smaller fi le sizes making faster transmission times, are c。mmon for displaying photographs on the Web or sending snapsh。ts over the lntemet. Digital came日s offer this format as a fi le 。ption to fit more pho- tog阻phs on a memory card A JPEG can 。n ly h。Id an 8-bit pixel depth .

.tif (written TIFF) is a nearly un iversal format that allo晒a photograph to be opened on any computer by nearly every pro／，＼日m thaεworks with ph。tographs Saving a fi le as a TIFF makes no changes to it (it is called lossless ), n。r d。es its optional compre臼ion mode ( LZW). A TIFF can be 8－。r 16-bit

Camera Raw (.CR2, .NEF, .PEF, etc.) fi les d。 not c。nform to a single set of standards like JPEGs or TIFFs. Raw is a generic term for the ind ividual and pro- prietary way that a d igital camera pro- duces unprocessed data, before settings like white balance are applied . Startin/,\ with a raw fi le a llows more p阳ise ed it- ing c。ntrol and lets you keep your pic- tures in the high-bit (12 or 16 bits per pixel) format that better d igital cameras capture. You can 。pen 阻w fi les with s。仕ware from the camera manufacturer, but trγyour edit ing so仕ware fi rst

.dng ( Digital Negative) is a n o~.en- s。urce ( no owner, publicly available) format developed by Ad。be in the h。pe that camera makers would standardize their now-pr。prieta叩 forma臼e Ad。be’s s。仕ware，。r their free uti lity, will let you conveπany Camera Raw fi le into a .dng, which may eventually bec。me the standard Camera Raw format

m eans you can have fou r colors-adding a dar k

and a lig h t g ray, for四ample. T h e pixels in a n 8 -bit

p icture o r fi le can have 256 di仔erent valu es: black,

wh ite, and 254 s h a d es of g ray in between. T h e human eye can d istinguis h only a bout two

h und red d ifferent s h ades between black and wh i阻，

s o a photograph with 8 -bit pixels (each h aving 256

possible t o n es o f gra川ncluding b la ck and w h ite) is

eno ugh for a b lack-and-white picture (see th e pho- togra ph bottom righ t}. Bur fo r a full-color image, th ree times that m u ch is n eed ed -25 6 different val-

ues for each of th ree c。mponent colo rs, red, g reen,

and b lue (see page 56). Ea ch p ixel in a full-colo r

photograph is us u a lly s tored as a 24-bit n umbe r.

High-bit 何les let you make more adjustmen臼－

Som e cam e ras and scanners can capture up to 16

b its per colo r. You can' t see o r print such fi n e d is-

tinc tio ns ( 16 b its can hold 65,536 values be tween

b lack and wh ite) b ut h aving m o re d a ta le es you make extre m e adjustm ents without losi ng quality.

Camera Raw fi les preserve all the capture

data w ith n o lo ss. If you are us ing TIFF o r J PEG files fr。m your cam era, you are a ccepting t h e cam-

era’s in terpretatio n o f w hat i臼 sensor cap tured, along wi th som e loss of。rigi nal d a ta. If your cam- era lets you d ownload raw files in t h e c血11e阳、。叭响

fo rmat (see box at le旬，归u can 巾n con trol th e

i nteψetation of sen sor d ata (colo r balance, tor叫

relation s hips , etc.}, tailoring it to make 剧、 image file that is exactly wh at you want. More o n p age 85.

For the same image size, h也her bit depth reproduces more 阳”自 but r句“•ir，臼more pixels. A bit dep伪。fone (le~) can reprodu臼

two (cen阳吵adds two gray shades. An 8-bit image (r,妙。由n reprodu臼 all the grays附can perceive between black and white. A 16-bit image

呻ite even more fine如than our eyes can disti，，哩•uish, allowing more adjust- ment. For a full-color image, each pixel has at least three 8- or 16-bit

onfyb归ck or white. A bit depth of divides the 阳nes between black and segmen臼， one for each prima,y color. CHAPTER 4 ,( 8 1

Digitαl Color MO DES , GAMUTS , SPACES , AND PROFILES

C olo r in d igital im唔ing s h o w s its work ing p arts to the user; t he controls an d procedures used to 硝ust color are visible and systematic. Understandi ng h。w digital imaging deals with color will give you bett er control of tools t hat can help you get the final image you want.

Eve ry d igital image h as a color m ode, a means of defin ing the colors in an image. Black-an d- whi te ph。tographs are usu ally stored in a m ode called gη•scale, wh ich saves only light or dark tones, n o t color. T he ltm ness or darkness) of a grayscale pixel is usu ally described by o ne n u m ber, between O an d 255.

When an image h as color info rmatio n that needs to be sto red for each pixel along 、.vith its value (or l> 1mess), several opti。ns are available. The most common in digi tal ph otography is the RGB mode in which all colors are made by com- bi ning the prima1y colors red, green, an d blue (more about pri mary colors on page 56). CM而 m。de (cyan, magenta, yellow, and K for black), used by graphic artists, combines the ink colors used in commercial print ing.

Three numbers a re e no ugh t o d escribe the color of any pixel in 四 RGB colo r image. In t hat mode, o ne nu m ber (between O and 255) is a measure of th e amount of red in a given pixel, o n e is the amount of green, and o ne is the am。unt of blue. A pixel t ha t is part 。f the im age of a slightly warm -toned concrete bu ild- ing in afternoon sunlight m ig h t be described as 202, 186, 144. T h at pixel contains some red, somewhat less green, and even less blue. (If all three n u m bers were t h e same, t he color would be

a neutral gray.)

You can ’ t p r int a ll t h e colo r s you can see. All digital capture o r display devices-cameras, scan ners, m on itors, and p rinters-are slig htly lim - ited when compared to h uman vis io n . T h e color gamut (a color space) of a device is the total of all the colo rs it can accept or produce. Kn owing the extent of th is gamu t is usefol because it is always

82 DIG ITAL WORKPLAC E BA S IC S

smaller than the gamut of h uman vision; it tells us what col。rs we can see bu t can’t reproduce. More importantly, the gam uts of various devices and m aterials are different from each other. F。r exam- pie, you can capture some colors with your can1era that a m o nitor can ' t d isplay. And your screen can show you some colors you can't reproduce with a pri nting press (or your inkjet printer).

Each im age carries with it a w orking s pace, a gam ut that sh ould be slig h tly larger than all t h e o ther gamu臼（mon ito飞 printer, etc.) to allow for t ranslatio ns fro m o ne to ano ther w ithout loss.

Software (in its Color Settings or Pr.价rences d ialog box) assigns or lets you assig n each docum ent a colo r space-use Adobe RGB (1998) or Pro Photo RGB if you expect to print the image, sRGB for the Web or han d-held devices.

Profiles trans late one g amut into ano由er. No two prin ters, fo r example, have t h e san1e gamut- they can’t reproduce exactly t h e san1e range of colors. In ord盯 to be able to print the same photograph on two diffe ren t pri nters and ma!也 the two prints look as m uch alike as possi- ble, you need a profile t h at describes each gamut. An outp ut profile accompanies each fi le you send to a p rinter and adjus臼 that photograph to t h e individual colo r ch aracteristics of th at printer. A mo nitor profi le standard izes what you see o n your screen so your picture I。。ks the same ( o r very cl。se to the same) o n any profil ed mo nitor.

A gamut is all the colors a device can render. 7百h 伪ree-dimensiona/ uaph represents the gan”’t ofa ’”。nitor, white at the 阳p and black at the bottom. Colors farthest out from the vertical axis are the most saturated. l缸outer edges, p句iected be- lowi电 are the limits of what 此时n accurately reproduce.

Three channels contain the visual information in a color photograph. 7百e record ofbr也'htness (or luminance) in each primary回归r channel (here red, green, and blue) lets you see the image in full color (belo吵， each color separately, or臼ch individual color image converted to black and white (below r，也·ht).

Three channels produce three different black-and-white photographs and iν·eyou more choices when you want to conve时 a color image to black and white. The red channel (r，妙。 is the smoothest and most flattering rendering of the man's face. Green and blue have more contrast and gi，时 the face more texture.

Layers Channels

。脯’

。阳“

。 e”’由

·•阳口

“ 噩

”2

篇S

”4

也由

CHANNELS

A digi时 color im age is m a d e up of seve ral black-and-white ones. A p hotograph o n cradi- tion al color fi lm or a colo r print in a darkroom is recorded on three superimposed layers; each is actually a black-and-white ph。tograph rendered in one pri m ary color by a dye. A d igital im age fi le in color is t he same; every pixel h as a separate lum i- nan ce (lightness) fo r each of three primary colors. The lu m inan ce values of a single primary color in a p hotograph can be viewed as a monochrom atic im age (le丘）. Image-editing software lets you see and edi t each pri mary separately.

Digi tal cameras and scan ners capture in t he red, blue, an d green addi tive primaries. Un less specified otherwise, th is bo。k o n ly discusses imag- es in the RGB mode. Software can convert t hose to CMYK (the cyan, magenta, an d yellow subtra pri’naries wi th black) in preparatio n f口E com mer- cial printing i口 ink.

Your RGB photog r a ph h as three chan n els ; each com prised of the values of a single prim缸y color. A s ingle ch annel can be displayed as a m o no- chrom atic photograph, usually in black an d wh ite (called grayscale). Photosh op uses a channels palette (see le丘， top), wh ich gives 归u the option of see- ing t he red chan nel, for 四ample, in shades of red instead of grayscale as sh own . In addit io n to seeing each chann el separately, you can perform most of Ph oroshop’s image adjustments on any one chan- nel independencly. Workflo即 programs divide an im age into channels o n ly in a histogram and allow on ly limi ted s ingle-chan nel adjustments.

M o re ch a nnels can a dd m asks . When you want to apply an adjustment to o ne part of an image an d not an other (for example, maki ng someone’s face lighter but n o t t h e backgroun d), Image-editing software needs a m ap that tells it which areas you wane adjusted. A n ew chann el called a m ask is created and saved as part of t h e image file. Masks are ordinarily no t visible but you can ch oose to d isplay t hem for edi ting. Ph。tosh。p shows a mask as white wh ere you want the image adjusted, black wh ere you don’t, and gray wh ere you wan t o nly a partial adjustment.

CHAPTER 4 ,( 83

Digitαl Color CALIBRATING FOR ACCURACY

Y ou r monit or s hould b e calibrated, or made co display colors in a s tandardized way. After cap- curing a photograph, you will make most 。fyour color and luminance decisions when looking at it on your mo nitor. Bue monitors vary considerably in the way they reproduce any specific set of color numbers. Mon itors from different man ufacturers will display colors differently; there are di仔er ences even between m odels and sizes from the

same m冰er. In addi ci。n, the color response of an individual mo nitor changes over time, the colors drift. You need co know that the colors you see are the right ones.

A p rofile alig n s a d evice t o a known standa rd. In the case of a monitor, calibration generates a profi le; the device is first characterized, mean ing its color display behavior is measured. Th is measured behavior is converted into a m。nitor profil e, a data file that-once it is installed in the operating syst凹n-corrects yom mo111tor's uniq u e charac- teristics so it matches a standard. For example, if your monitor displays 202R, 186G , 144B darker and more blue than it sho uld, the computer will use the profile co make pixels with those nu mbers appear the righ t amount lighter and more yellow.

Choose one stand ard fo r w hite point a n d g amm a and calibrate your monitor to that. T h ere are two common choices for each, used fo r dif- ferenc casks and in different industries. Un less y。u have specific workgroup requiremen臼， set a gamma of2.2 and a 065 white point; they are best for photograph ic printing.

Color m an agement is t he practice t hat assures you o f consisten t a nd pred ictab le colors throughout your work, from capture to o u tput. Calibrating your mo nitor is an important starting point; do so at least o nce a m onth , more often fo r critical work. If you can, set up your workspace so the environment and the lig hting are consistent. Changes in ambient light while you are working and even the reflections fro m colored walls and

clo thing can affect your perceptions of the colors on a screen

84 DIG ITAL WORKPL A C E BA S IC S

Moni旬，骂， like televisions, should display 阶er，也ht colors. The wide-sc.附nW扭曲 on displ，吧yabo时are all being fed the same s也ignal and should, in an ideal world, show the san the r也·ht colors). Your monitor can show ti与e

For more accura阳 resu/1缸，“se a伪ird-par飞r ca／，汕m“ng program with a ho民dware "puck" (a spectr。ph。t。＂ res臼on!our sc，陪en and r，臼ds directly斤·omiι Its supplied so卢、ψa，弩s声，，erates a measured set ofcolo白， compares these，，如r垃 reading of what isdispl，吧y，叫i and generates a monitor profile to

r也ht co/o町， d町urate colors, on如ifit has been 臼librated-adjusted with a profi也阳 displ吨ycolors and归n由in a standardized way. For casual picture-maldn阜 it is enough to use the calibration utility that is part of your computer's operating system.

be swred in the computer垃operating system. Make sure your moniwr is thorou1f,ly warmed up (at least 30 minutes) before 臼librating.

Some 写pectrophotome阳句， like the one shown belo吨 can also be used w genera阳an output profile for a specific combination of printe吃 ink, and paper (see page 11刁

Working with CαmerαRαw

LJ n derstan d ing a nd u s ing Cam era Raw何les can make your photogr aphs better . A digital-

ly captu red picture is only abst ract data (see box

below) until it is 川erpreted co look like the scene

you ph。tographed. If you set your camera to save p ictu res as TIFF or JPEG files , th is interpreting, o r processing, is done by the camera. Most digital

cameras can only save in one or b。th of those

formats. Bu t if you rs can save Camera Raw fi les,

you can interpret t h e data you rselfl a ter. It is easy

to 巾， gives you m ore control, and can produce a

higher-quality final image.

to guide it fro m this startin g point. 飞:Vhite balan ce

(pages 57 and 58), for example, is n o t part of t he sensor data, but of the in terpretation. The raw

fi le saves the settin g you （。r the camera in auto mode) chose for each s h ot. That c h oice a仔ects the

p review, b u t you may pr。cess it to be d ifferent.

So食ware does the job . Most cameras marketed

to professionals and serious amateurs can record and save raw files, a n d are sold wi t h software to

process and interpret t h em. After processin g, the software will let you save the interpreted fi les in

another forma t (usually TIFF) that can be read by

。ther programs.

A work何ow application (page 8ηsaves your

interpretation along with (or in) the 自le as a set of

adjustment decision s, a n d leaves the raw data unal-

tered. Photosh op u ses a separate application called Adobe Camera Raw (ACR) to in terpret and convert

th e fi le into Ph o toshop’s native PSD format. O n ce a raw file is convert ed and saved in another format

1t cann o t be returned co its raw state

Cons ider con verting your raw 何les to O NG, especially if you plan to use a work flow program.

Adobe’s Lightroom and Bridge will do th e con vert - ing，臼 will th凹r free ONG Converter program, if

you ch oose to manage and edit your files with other

s。frware. ONG preserves original sensor data in a form more likely to be readable in the fu ture than

your camera’s proprietary raw format.

For most scenes, there is no absolutely “ cor- rect” interpretation. The firs t im age you see of any p ictu re is a preview that is only a pre programmed guess at a n accurate in terpretation. It is u p to you

Processin2 a Raw Fi le

Se””’ photo sites are m时，ed with an a"ay of colored filters in what is called a 付Bayer array" or ’它吧yer filter mosaic."

A digital 国何回阳’s sen目，曰”’t 飞回” color. Instead, it captures an array 。f pixels that

is essentially a black-and -white photo- graph. Each pixel's value is based

。n the light that fell on 。ne tiny photodi。de (see page 54) . T，。 rec。rd col。r, each 。f these

sensor cells is c。vered with a red, green, or blue fi lter. Our

eyes are more sens’”ve to green, so the array has twice as many green 而lters

as it has red 。r blue

Tod白play color, a new array is made h。m the raw data. S。仕ware c陀ates a new pixel at each intersecti。n of fou r photosites by calcu- la ting ( called in缸，polatin!,) its brightness and c。lor fr,。m the surrounding area (right)

Pixels showing a gray cat’s fur，而or example, should have an RGB value in which the three primary col。陌 are 。f approxi- ma回ly equal brightness, even though each photosite measures only red, green, or blue With。ut processing, the cat’s fur would appear speckled in primary-c。lor pi四Is

Luminance (lightness and darkn四s) must be pro但ssed al。”gwi由 colo陌 for captured data to look like the photog日ph y。u visual- ized The sensor’s cells d。 not respond to changes in illumination in the same way 。ur eyes do, especially in highlights and shad- 。ws In四rpreting the raw data must reshape the brightness values considerably, as y。u might byυsing Ph。toshop’s Curves adjust- ment (pages 96-97), in a more extreme 四F si。n 。f the curve on page 96, top.

A ” image m出现e 伪rowgha Bayer a"ay must be processed 阳g时each pixel a fi,/1-Ctllor value. lnterpreti~g the Ct1lor is called dem。坦icing.

C H A PT E R 4 ,( 85

Sti1,y οrgαnized SETTING UP A WORKFLOW

A workflow is an oψnized s e rie s of steps leading to a desired result. The image-editing WO此flow o n page 110 is an example of the a司just ment seeps using Ph otoshop chat lead fro m a raw scan or camera file to an image with the desired colors and tones. Follow t h e more comprehen- s ive series of steps below to ensure that you get through th e entire process of digital photography with t he results you want.

Capo.』 re your p hotographs: expose t h e image sensor or film. Capture is wha t most people t hink ph otography is all about-shooting an d camera wor k-but there’s more to it than that.

Down lo a d (also called impo时 or ingest) y。ur im ages from the mem。1y card of your camera （。r from a scanner) in to a computer so you can c。mplete t he rest of t he steps. T h e computer is the comman d center for all th e operations of your wor kflow. D。叭吼loading the im ages to your com-

pu ter’s hard drive also frees the camera’s mem ory card E。 be reused. Scan ned im ages are sent directly fro m the scan ner to t he computer.

C onvert your Camera Raw files to ONG (option- al). As part of a Cam era Raw Workflow, you may wish to convert your d igital camera’s proprietary raw fi les into the m ore generic ONG fo rmat (pages 81 an d 85).

Organize your images, keeping in mind t hat you may soon have thousands. Pages 131 and 132 d is- cuss ways to ma!世 sure you can fi nd the needles in your haystack. In formation can slip from your m臼n。1y if there are l。ng delays between sho。ti ng and o rgan izing, tty to ma!<e rime to p ut your image files in order at the end of every sho。”ngday.

Edit. Editing has two different meanings in a ph otographer’s workflow. T he tradi tional m ean- ing of editing, letting t he “ good” pictures rise to the top, is actually part of organizi ng. 飞:Vorkflow applicatio ns (opposite) let you code the keepers by assign ing a flag, a colo r, a number of stars，。r by sorting sim ilar photos into a stack with t he “ select," or best o n e, o n top.

86 DIGITAL WORKPLAC E BASICS

D igital image editing, sometimes called post- processing, encompasses a wide range of adjust- m ents and alteratio ns to a photograph that can go well bey。nd the ch。ices t hat m igh t h ave been be made when printing an image fro m fil m in a darkroom. 飞:Vorkflow software (see opposite page) can perform all t he standard image adjustm ents- cropping and rotating, changing s ize, or modi今－ ing h ue, value, and saturation-an d can dnve a printer. Some workflow programs, and Adobe Phoroshop, can do m u ch m ore.

Image editing is used to prepare an image fo r the n ext step，。utpuc. Because you may have several different uses for the same image, you m ay edit o ne photograph into several different versions. Editing h as its own workflow, see An Edi ting Workflow on pages 110 and 111.

Output is n ot li m ited to printi吨， although that m ay n ow be your pri mary focus. Later you m ay want to show a prospective client your work on a tablet or laptop，。r email images to a gallery. Your o utpu t may be destined for a billboard or a 飞:Veb site, as well 臼 a wall. To create t he best fi le for each use wi ll require d仔erent edi ting st rategies.

Arc hive you r work in an organ ized way. In other wmds, make sure all you r original an d deην命

tive fi les (the altered or edited versions) n ot o n ly are safe-prese rved against ch ange, damage, and loss-but that individual items may be foun d and retrieved q uickly and easily when n ecessaty.

D igital fi les present uniq u e challenges for lo ng-term storage (see page 133) but have a big advantage over most materials you’d like to pre- serve; t hey can be identically d u plicated. A copy of a fi le (or of an enti re d rive) is called a backup. All t he media o n which fi les can be kept are vulner- able to common threats like th峙， fire, and flood, an d each has its own set of weaknesses to things like d us t, magnetism, h eat, and shock. Your best defense is to ma!也 multiple copies of everyth ing you 巾， as early in t h e process as possible, and to create two or more identical arch ives that are

stored in di仔erent locations. A d igital file can van - ish in an instant; o n ce it is gone-if you don' t have a copy-it is gon e foreve r.

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PHOTOGRAPHE R ’ S WORKFLOW PROGRAMS

P hotographer’ s workflow so代ware inte- grat es most of the tools a dig it al photog- rapher needs. Several similar applications are available-Adobe Phocoshop Lig htroom, Phase One Capture One Pro, and Corel AfrerShot Pro are the best knO\＼•叽 They allow you to perform nondestructive editing by saving your files in their original camera raw format along with a rec。rd 。f your decisions about cone, color balance, crop-

Lightroom and Capture One Pro by showin阜 movin阜 or hiding let you customize your workspace 归。ls, commands, and pre时e附e

Capture One Pro and 句htroom will, if you have 仰。 ’”。nitors, display a full-screen preview of the file you are edit- ing on one, along wi.阶 editing tools and o阶erprevie响。n the other.

pmg, and other characteristics for each picture. The saved adjustments are not applied (no pixels are changed) until you print or othe1wise 出port the file- uploading it co your Web page, for exam- ple, or opening it in Phocoshop. You can change and alter your editing decisions at any time or save multiple versions of the same image, and never make any permanent changes co the underlyi吨， original file. Because the programs 。nly save your editing commands, rather than an altered version of the entire file, your archive doesn' t E对记 up much more disk space than the raw fi les alone.

These p rog rams include a complete workflow. Each will download files from your m凹nory card after a shoot, automatically organizing them into folders. You can set the prog ram to rename your files in a group 皿 they download and later use it to tag each file with its own star rating, color label, keywords, and other mecadata (see page 131). You cans阳chbykeywo巾nd/or rating巾。ugh all the pictures you have downloaded into the program. You can edit each image for color and tone, retouch apply sharpeni吨， and then print, upload your pho- tos to a \Veb site, or m冰e a slide show.

Wi伽 a workflow applicat ion you may not need P ho t oshop, unless you want to add text or graphic elements, make a composi四 photograph (pages 106- 107), or need to work in the CMYK mode.

C HAPT ER 4 .( 87

Importing αn Imα.ge

Y ou r pho tog raphs a r e s a ved on a memo叩 ca r d wh en you use a digi tal camera. M。st cam- eras will accept o nly one kind of card (see som e of the styles below) but you will still have cho ices co make when you wan t to buy o n e.

B igger isn’ t n ecessarily b etter . Car也 are flash memory devices made in a variety of capacities. To choose 。ne, kn ow your needs as well as the size fi le your camera makes. A 16-megapixel camera produces a camera raw file of about 16 megabytes. If you have the camera set co save JPEGs, they will be less than half t hat size. An 8GB card wi ll let you ta!也over 300 photographs as 16MB ra田 files.

If you are shooting u nderwater or photo- graphi ng a wedding 。r sporting even t, for exam- pie, you might wane to avoid interrnp tions by usi ng the largest capacity card you can fi nd. If you wor k at a slower pace, h avi ng several sm aller cards m ight be a better idea.

Car d s a r e rated by t he ir s p eed coo; the ratmgs refer to h ow fast the card can read 。r write data. T h e write speed usually matters most, because it affects your ability to shoot several photograph s in rapid succession . A card’s speed m ig h t be rated at 133x, wh ich is a transfer rate of abou t 20MB per second. The speed 。fsome cards is stated d irectly in MB/ s (megabytes/ second).

Don’t leave your pictures o n a card any lo nger than you have to. Cards an d cameras are vulner- able to shock, heat, and magnetic fi elds; t hey 缸e susceptible to damage an d t heft. Once your ph otographs are transferred to a computer you can ma!也 backups to prate.ct against loss. After your fi les are d uplicated and stored in at least two places, you can reformat t he card for fa rth er use.

CF card ( Compact Flash)

SD ca机d (Secure Digitaυ

88 DIG ITAL WORKPLAC E BA S IC S

Connect your c副节era and comput e r wi由 a cable, a wireless link，。r remove the memory card an d insert it into an appropriate card reader (see below). Som e universal readers can accept as many as 12 d ifferent card styles, o thers are barely bigger t han t h e card itself. Like the card speed, a reader’s speed a仔ects download ti me. Because you r com- puter can write any ki nd of fi le directly 。n a card, you can use a spare card like a por table hard drive to transfer files to a service bureau or between h。me an d sch。。l

Transferring from a card t o a computer is called downloa ding, or importing, and it is the best time to rename your files rath er than leav- ing them t he way the camera named them (like IMG_0237.CR2). At the same ti me you can add standard metadata (page 131) like your copyrig ht an d contact inform atio n, and convert proprietary Camera Raw files into the m ore un iversal ONG

format (page 8 1). Lψm。m and Bridge (a uti lity program that comes wi th Photoshop) will rename, wri te metadata, and convel't each file to ONG as it is downloaded If you aren 't using one 。f t hose, get Adobe’s free ONG converter fro m their 飞.Veb site fo r t he last step.

A card r回der lets you tra，，抬-r pictures in阳yourcomputer. Most 臼meras 臼n be wired directly to the computer but阶ereaden时，，＇t drain the臼mera's battery. Make sure you get a reader that is compatible with your酬，era's memory臼rd. Some different kinds of cards are shown below and lefi.

国 microSD

S canners are the link b etween 侃”’ or print and your c omputer. When you use a d igital camera, i t ca ptu r es what yo u see d i rec tly as p ixels

t h at can be ed i ted on the computer. But photo-

g ra phs that wer e m ade on film n eed to be d igi tized

first. S cannin g is t h e p rocess that read s colo r and

l u mina nce val ues fro m a n ega ti ve, pri n t , or object

and co nverts it i n to a pixel grid just as though the

p ic ture had been ta k en wi th a d igital ca m e ra.

Scanning so仕ware controls 由e process, and

offers you choices abo u t how your imag e w ill be

s canne d , i n t h e s ame w ay t h a t software i n te rprets

Scanner Featu res That A仔ect Quality

Optical res。luti。” 。r hardware resolu- ti。n refe陌 to the number 。f pixels per inch (or centimeter) the scanner is capa- ble of capturing and is o仕en described bytw。 numbers, such as 3200 × 9600 ppi (pixels per inch），币。r flatbed scan- ne陌 The first number is the resolution acr.。ss the width of the scanning a rea, the second is along its length. The smaller number represen臼 the scanner's maximum optical res。luti。n Scanning 币Im at a higher resolution than 4000 ppi may have little benefit.

D”’amic range is the brightness range of an image, the di仔erence between the da出.est shad。晒 and lightest highli_gh回 A scanner should capture a dynamic 目nge of at least 3.5 Slides usually have a wider dynamic 日nge than negati四S A scanner with a dynamic range 。f4.2 will gather virtually anything on fi lm and will get the most out of di而cult 。riginals

Bit depth measu陀s how many di何er- ent t。n臼 can be d istingu ished between black and white (see page 81 ). At least 24 bits per pixel ( 8 bits each ofred , green, and blue) are needed for a c。n- tinu。us-tone print. To maintain quality during later adjustments, 3 6 (12 bits per pixel ）。r 48 ( 16 per pixel) bits are better

lnte叩olated r目。lution uses s。仕ware to guess what the pixels might look like in between the ones the scanner can actually measure. N。 real information beyond the scanner’s hardware res。lu ti。n is captured, s。 it is best to scan n。 higher than the optical resolution

Focusing may be automatic or manual and can be used，币。r example, to adjust for warped or buckled fi lm frames.

Sha~ing is usually an 。p~ion in scanning so仕ware. Sharpening tools in image-editing sofiware a陀 aim。st always better, s。阳rn o仔sharpening during scanning and leave it for later editing.

Multiscanning allows scanning one frame multiple times ( typically 4 。r 16 times) as a noise－陀ducti。n tech- niq ue. Useful with slides, multiscan is not an advantage for scanning nega- tives because their dark tones bec。me high lights in which noise is hard ε。 see.

Dust removal is provided in some scanners by an extra infrared chan- nel that can be used to detect and rem。ve dust, fi ngerprints, scratches, and other surface damage from the scanned image.节、is d。es not work with conventi。nal black-and-white fi lm 。r Kodachrome, but it does with m。st dye-based slides, col。r neg芦i四s, and chrom。genic black-and-white fil ms.

Scanning so仕ware is an independent prog日m th目。pe日回s the scanner and produces a TIFF fi le to be opened in an image-editing program. s。me 四ist a lso as a Photosh。p plug-in that permits scanning directly into Photoshop for fu r- ther manipulati。n. Most scanne陌 come with dedicated s。仕ware. Third -party vendors like SilverFast and Vu.Scan sell scanning s。仕ware that may be m。陀 sophisticated and provide mo陀 control

SCANNING

a C amera Raw fil e (page 85). Y。ur image-editi n g sof twa re g ives you m a n y m o r e tools fo r editi n g

than does s canning softwar e a n d allows more pre-

cise a中tstmen战 but you should make as many

color and tone co rrections as possi b le i n the s can

as well as choosing a resolu tion based on your

fi n a l u se for th e image. } Ltst as m aki n g the rig h t

choices w h en exposi ng an image is be tter than

uying to fix everyth in g i n ed i ting, making go。d

ex posu re, con t rast, and color ba lance decision s

w h en you s can can improve you r results consid盯－

ably. 如f。st photogra p h ers m a k e basic correc tions

wh en s can ning a nd r e fi ne t h em late r.

同时bed scanners are primari如intended for opaque, reflective °＂也'inals, like photographic prints. 7百e scanner's bed ιa rec- /angular sheet of glass-inexpensive scanners are letter (8！岳 × 11 inches) or legal (8！告 × 14 的ches) size; pro essional models m吨y be tabloid (11 × 17 inches) size or归rger. A flatbed scanner will digitize anything pla臼d on the glass: a photograph, drawin阜 magazine page, ore昭n your hand or face. Some flatbed s臼nners can accept film using an illuminated cover or a separate drawer.

Film scanners are made specifically for transparenc由or negatives and cannot S臼n anything opaque The one shown abo吨 leff, wills臼n mounted slides or str，仰。｛35mm or 12 0 卢Im. Others have a batch feeder that holds a stack of slides 月Im scanners that accept medium- and large-format卢Im are generally more expensi时 than those made on如for 35mm

Professional仙el film scc,nners (aboνe，也'ht)o庐rh也'her resolution, greater bit depth, and more命namic range, and pro- duce less image noise. Th电yare 时吃Y由：pensive, but you may find access 阳one at a 时,ywe/1、equipped school or坦·rvice bureau

C H APTER 4 .( 89

FILI P 0UJAR0 1N

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Getting Started Editing an Image .......... ...... ..... 92

Adjusting an Image .. ..... ..... 94 Levels •• ••••••••••• •••••• ••••• 94 C11rves • ••••••••••• •••••• ••••• 96

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An Editing Workflow .... ..... 110

Ethics and Digital Imaging .... 112

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Int/ii$ chαpter you'll leαrn ...

• to have a workfl。w-an orderly senes 。f steps-to take you from a raw image or scan to a 自nished

wi由 d川……an im唔 c hange it. Savi n g a d ig itally edited ph。to p rese1ves all your deci- sionsεxactly a n d pr。duces results 。f iden tical quali勾F fro m o n e

generatio n of an image to another. Regardless of h ow m uch you h ave m a n ipu- la ted a d ig ital im age, o n ce it is fi n ished you can print it now o r in six m o nths, a ye矶时more a n d still get t h e same resu lcs fro m the orig inal fi le. In addit io n to perfo rming s ta n d a rd p ictu re-adjustme n t proced u res s uch as chang ing contrast or lig h ten ing and d a rk en ing a n image, you can com bi n e im ages, add co lor, posce口配， i ncorporate drawing or text, a nd o therwise man ip u late a p h o - tograph. In e仔ect, you can create a new ima ge wi th exaccly t h e q ualit ies you wan t but, if you ever chan ge you r m ind abou t wh a t you wan t , you can always go back a n d change the m.

phot。graph. • to adJuSt the colors, tonal valu白， and other

characteristics of a photographic image using the t。。Is and procedu陀s of Phocosh。P

• the ch剖lenges of keeping yourself and your ,mages 。n the legal and ethical side of copyright protecti。n

.…C-－·甲…一－…

Editing is deciding. Even before you begin 归decide about the 臼ne皂白ntrast, and colors of an individual image!Y'.阳 will probably need to decide among sev- eral similar 臼ptures to narrow down your pick (your select), for further editing. Workf/ow applications such as L也•htroom (above) iJ时you extensive tools for the job. Two similar photographs taken a few seconds apart are shown here side 句yside. 协u can en归rge

both at the same magnification to compare criti，臼I sharpness and other small details, and replace either side with another from 阶e group. Once you have cho· sen the pick of the litter you 臼n mark the best with a flag or star and hide the rest ”underneath” in a S阳ck so you see only the selects in your fi lmstri p 阳 bottom, above) or l ightb。x (page 87 bottom) view. Revieiν all your photographs before deleting any.

Getting Stαrted Editing αn Imα，ge

Open 归ur imag臼 is runni口g, or active, on your computer. \Vic t l Adobe Photosh op use File>Open to call up YOL l I' ph otograph; y。u 、、，,ill see a screen that looks like the one on the page opposite. You can also start by open ing an image file directly (an im age is a data fde; your so丘ware is an application fi均 The computer will usually recogn ize t he fi le type (see page 81) and open the appropriate application automatically. 飞.＇Vith work flow software, open t he application, t hen navigate to the photograph you want in its catalog or libra1y. The following pages refer more specifically to Photoshop, but m ost of the a句ustmen臼 and controls they describe are avai lable in any image editor o r photograph er’s wor kflow program.

Tools and commands a r e used to m a n ipu- late your phot ograph in image-edi ting soft- ware. Tools appear as small symbols called icons, displayed in a toolbox {t he series of small boxes shown at t he left side of the screen, opposi te) or in an onscreen panel. Word commands, such as Transform, Sharpen, and Prine, can be reach ed from p ull-down menus across the top of t he screen or as m。dules wi thin a panel. Palettes, like the Layers palette or Info palett e t hat appear o n the screen in Photosh。p, provide inform ation in additi。n to more tools and word commands.

Ph otoshop’s menu commands often require navigating through several n ested levels. Click on a menu heading, then o n each level in tum· or hold t h e mouse d。叭响 as you d rag t he screen cursor to the command you want. The com mo n notation for such a sequence is, for example, Im age> Adjustments> Cmves.

B ack up your fi le before you m a ke a ny changes to it, see page 133. In Ph otoshop, use File>Save As and give the wor king fi le a slightly di舵rent n ame. Then you can experi m ent and s till have the original to go back to.

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92 IMAGE EDITING

displayed can fill the monito内screen or be any size smaller, and you can d isplay or hide palett es, pan- els, and tools. It helps to have a large monitor (or two, as shown below) so you can make your image large enough to make accurate adjust ments and not have part of it covered with palettes and tools.

Workflow programs make excellent use of a d u al-mon ito r secup. You can display all t h e images from a recent sh oot or project o n o n e screen (small previews called thumbnails in a fil阳的ip or grid 机ew) and a fu ll-screen versio n of a selected im age o n the other. You can also display larger versio ns of two or m ore images on the sec- o nd screen in o rder to compare si milar shots, for example，。f th e same port rai t su bject to select t h e best express ion.

Start by making t h e im age t h e right sha pe. Rotate the ph otograph and crop it if needed. You can us ually undo a command，。r several, if you change your m ind Raw-forma t workflow pro- grams lee you go back one step at a ti m e, all t he way to t he unadjusted o riginal file; Ph otos hop lim its how many edi ting steps you can un巾， but you can always start over fro m your backup fi le. Don’t h esitate to do so; you can learn by si mply open ing an image fi le an d experimenting with vanous tools an d com man ds

More is be时eη when it comes to monitors. You don’t have 归 be working with panoramic image毛 as shown here，阳 make good use of more "screen real－臼阳饵” as it is called. U喀•er screen鸟 or multiple disp阳， letyou isolate an image and keep it separa阳from menuιμ脱出， and other soβware di.早均每e

Palettes provide information as well as various w.伊阳 modify images. Click on the menu icon at the 阳p right to re时al other commands and options.

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Plug-ins offer more options. Plug-ins are add-o，，如卢、，；are modules that expand editing 臼pabilities-they crea阳borders, add special e庐巾， opera阳scanners and cameras, and more. Plug-ins are available from several software companieι＞＇？＂臼n download free, time-limited trial versions of most.

93 R 5 圄

Tools with arrows 阳 the right pro时de access to related tools Click on the tool shown and hold the mouse button down to see and坦lect other versions

Adjusting αn Imα，ge LEVELS

L evels is a s imp le a nd r apid way to a djust

t h e t o nes in a n im age using a histogram.

The s am e c o ntrol is als。 incorporated into

the more complex and powerful Cuives adjust-

ment (pages 96-97). S liders let you adj u st the brightness separately for dark, middle-value, or

ligh t p ixels (shadows, midcones, or h啄hlights).

After setting t h e exact cones t hat wi ll become

black and wh ite (wh ile preserving s hadow and

highlight detail) , you can lighten o r darken t h e middle E。nes with。ut changing t he extre m e

highlights or deepest s hadows. T his page s h ows

images in black and w hite , b u t yo u can set

Levels separately for each channel to make rapid

color balance adj u stments in color photographs.

Moving the r ed channel’s midcone s lider to t h e left, for exam p le, w ill m ake the image more red.

Choose Layer >New Adj u stm ent Layer>

Levels co gen erate a histogram that g u ides your

Levels adjustments; they can later be a ltered or

discarded (see Adj u stment Layers, page 100).

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-‘ The photographer wanted more contrast 巾伪is s臼nned image of a road through a forest. He used Levels to叫“川e咖amic 阳nge 侧目如by setting white and black points (s田opposite page) that附re just right for阶eprin阳r he used.

Ph。t。sh。p lets you d efine spec而c white and black poin臼 soy。u can keep detail easily in higMir,hts and shad。ws 节回 settings remain on place as the default setting for any file y。u 。pen until y。u change them; these values should apply to most in均et printers, butte目前rst and set your own values.

Open the Levels dialog box ( sh。wn 。pp。site, top) for a~y image. Double- ~一＿ click on the black-

I J' I 川 p川eyedro~per at 吨g-'-ζ---Lζ－－－＇ the bo眈。m right of the d ialog box. This will open the c。lor Picker box (right). Set the Red, Green, and Blue 旧l ues aε10 to define the dark- est black with some detail. (Zero in each color would produce a black with no detai l.) Click OK.

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萨伊1刻 d r。pper t。陀 I $ I I I .Jll1I the C。l。r Picker b。x ‘ι一~吨＝矛』 Seεthe Red, Green, and Blue values at 244 to define the brightest white with detail. Click OK.

Once these values are set, you can quickly adjust highlight and shadow values ( and simultane。usly neutralize their color) in any image. Open Levels, select the shadow eyedropper, and click it 。n the spot in your image you want to be the da巾st black with detail ( see b。x, ri?,ht). Repeat for the highlights using the highlight eyedropper. T而is three-eyedrop- per icon is repeated for s目ting values in several other Photoshop dialog boxes.

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94 IMAG E E DI TING

Ph。t。sh。p lets y。u see your white and black p。ints s。 you can ch。。se where to use the eyedroppe目

Open the image and then the Levels dialog box. Hold the Option key and move the high- light slider （。pposite, 阳的 The lightest pixels a陀 the firs t to appear. At any position, the pixels to the right of the slider will be displayed as white, the others black (left , center). H。ld ing the Option key and moving the shadow slider reveals the black point (le仕， b。ttom)

At each slider pos’”。n, you can see e阻ctly which pixels will be set to white or black if you leave the slider in that p。sition. See 。ppo site, top center

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The histogram from this photograph's s阁，ined negative sho晒 that the tones of the image are not distributed throughout the available tonal rang,再 repr，出nted by 伪e numbers from 0 阳 255.Empty space at the ends of the his吨ram suggests that, if left uncorrected, the shadow areas will be 阳。l也•ht and 伪eh也•hlights too dark, making the flat image on the opposite page.

Tom Tarnowski. Cumberland Island, C四q归， 2001.

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n』e Levels dialog box shows the histogram but also gives you tools to adjust the image. The left-hand slider (black triangle) sets the black point，阶e right-hand slider the white point. Moving them to the ends of the 臼ptured information sets 阶e shadow and h助也ht areas of the image closer to white and black 7百e middle slider changes the gamma making the middle 阳nes darker or也h阳r

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A histogram of the final image (belo吵， after pressing OK to app如the change, shows a broader distribution of pixels between the pure呻iteand pure black endpoints. Wi阶a color image you 臼n separately set the black, white, and middle points for each component channel Separate adjustment of the middle sliders alter军 overall color balance.

R 5 圄 95

Adjusting αn Imα.ge C U 良VES

Cu阿es is a graph ic way t o view an d m ake t on e a n d color ch四ges, a kind of multi-cool fo r m aking a ph。tograph look exactly the way you wane. In image editing, a curve is a stan dard g raphic rep resentatio n for adjusting th e values, or lig htness and darkness, in an im age. P hotosh op’S E。ncrol of th e same name allows you to a句ust ind epen den tly and wit h g reat precisio n- the im age tones and con t rast of each prima1y color as well as its black an d wh ite points.

Layer> New Adjustment Layer >Curves opens a dialog b。x like the 。ne shown 。pposite, rig h t; its main featu res are a square g raph with a corner-to- corner diagonal line and a h is togram overlay of the im age. T h e graph p lots input (existing bright- ness values) on t he horizontal axis, against output (those same values in your pictu re after t h e 呻ust m ent) o n the vertical axis. Shadows are at t he bot-

tom and left, h ig h lig hts at th e top and rig ht . T he exact center of the graph is 128/ 128: middle gray inp ut , m iddle gray o u tput. A 45° diagonal line means that the 。utput values w ill be the same as the input values, n o tones change.

You 国n p u t a n adjustm ent p oint anywhere on t h e line an d m。ve it . The line becomes a smooth cu rve t h at passes throug h that point. If you click o n t he m iddle (128/ 128) and m ove t hat p。int straight u p to 128/ 140, the “ after” (output) value of anyth ing t hat was a m iddle value increas- es (gets ligh ter) and so do all th e o ther cones al。ng the cu rve. See the top p hotograph on this page. T he middle values have moved the fart hest from the origi nal diagonal; darker and lig hter cones will change prop。rtionately less.

T he s ha p e of t h e curve (or o f any section) in dicates cont r ast. A steeper slope is h igher contrast; m o re h o rizontal means lower contr皿E Increasing contrast in one part of the cu rve means losing it somewhere else. Up to sixteen poin臼 can determi ne h ow the tones are altered If you want to remove a poinc, j ust pu ll i t 。ffthe side of th e graph .

Like Levels, Curves can be applied directly rather t han as an A句ustment Layer (see page 100) but the changes are perman ent. A si m ilar a句ust ment can be fou nd in any workflow program.

96 I M AG E E DI TIN G

Move the curve up to lighten all the tones in the image. Middle 阳nes are displaced阶e most.

Move the curve down to darken all the tones 巾 the image. U也qdark areas don’t change much

This S -curve makes light tones lighter and dark tones darke巧 raising阶e contrast

This S-curve makes light tones darker and dark tones lighteη lo附ring the contrast

Several points can be added to the curve to ad- just the tor四ν＇e,y precise如

The ω阿·es for each channel can be adjusted independently. Here the blue c，阳nnel is lightened m阶eh也Mights-visible in the road-and dark- ened in the shado叫the red and green channels remain unchanged

Reducing blue ( dark - enini) is the same as add- ing its complement, yellow. In the shadow areas this is most noticeable in the green of the trees.

In practice，时可ysma/1 adjustments of this如d are the most useful.

Lawrence McFarland. Farm entrance near Assisi, /ta如， 2002.

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8/ack-poin电 white-poinι and neutral eyedroppers are available to make important settings rapid如that 臼n be adjusted with more precision a卢：erward.

Exact Input and Outp时numbers are shown as you add or move points on the curve.

R 5 圄 97

Adjusting Pαrt ofαn Imα，ge SELECTIONS

S electing an a re a le也 you ed it o r a djust p art of a n im age instead 。fall of it. All the pixels in a subject may be sel ected or j ust one. You may choose to select pixels in a geom etric shape like a square or to follow an outline to select all the pixels that fo rm a particular image, fo r example, of a bird. Your selection may enci rcle one shape or be formed of several separate pieces. And impor- tantly, pixels can be partially selected, in additio n to entirely or not at all selected. \Vorkflow pro- grams allow basic adjustments of a selected area (calling the selectio n a masked area that is chosen by brushing or painting) and can au tomat ically identify edges to h elp you create a precise mask.

A selected a re a is like a sep a r ate p icture. It can be made darker or lighter-called burning or dodging, as in a conventional darkroom. In additi。n, its color, contrast, o r saturation can be changed. 飞.Vith Photoshop, a selected area can be made larger or small凹， i t can be rotated or dis- torted, or it can be moved to another part of the picture or to another picture entirely. Selecting is the firs t step toward compositi ng－邵阳mbling an image 丘。m separate p町es (see pages 106- 107).

The selectio n itself can b e e d ited . You can add to and subtract fro m a selection，四pand 。g shrink it, or feath er its edges. Inver讶’您 a selection changes the selected pixels to unselected and vice versa. Selections can be saved wi th the document,

to be broug h t back, o r loaded, later. P hotoshop provides many different tools for making and altering selections (opposi te) because it is such an im portant part of the digital editing process.

Adjustmen臼 will be m a d e o n ly to t h e select- ed area. For example, if you select an ar白， then apply a I且vels 硝u沉tment, it will only affect 巾 selected P阳ls. P缸tially selected P阳ls (such as those made by fea thering an edge) will be part以ly adjusted. Making an adjustment layer (see page 100) when pixels are selected makes changes o nly to those selected pixels and lets you later adjust those changes. The selection, saved as a mask （。pposite, bottom), may also be later a句usted.

98 IMAG E E DITI N G

The se/ecti，。”。fan 。bject can be inverted to select the back- ground. Once the 切ckground 且selected, any of its characteristics, including its colo几臼n be changed, below. It ι also possible-and very frequently useful一阳 eliminate the 切ckground ent阿萨，也ht.

Selecti.喀 the object makes it possible to adjust its tones separately from the background. Once the oν＇era/I colors and 时lues look good in 阶e photograph at left.，伪e glass butter dish in the middle of the scene is too dark and has a color臼•st.

Following its outline with the La目。tool 白白 opposite pag，θ turns 阶eo向；ect in归d selection and lets a separate Curves adjus，阳ent make it an eyecatching臼nterpie，臼

Lasso Tool

Magic Wand

Quick Mask

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and precise 0111/ines called B创er curves that are the 刷instay of drawing and illustration software. Its use ,s less intuit’”e than other selection tools and takes a bit longer 阳learn.

回 Selecting with the Lasso tool is like drawing with a pencil. A computer mouse makes a some- II p ,. what clumsy pencil; .. drawing tablets are available if you do a lot of direct selecting.

Subtract from an existing selection.

Selut an area that is the in· tersection of two selections.

Use the Lass。”。I to oudine the area you want to select You must g。 entirely a round the a陀a w hile y。u hold the mouse butt。n d。wn lfy。u 时ease ,t b efore reaching t he point 。f。rigm, a straight line will auto· mat,callyc。mple四 εhe circuit . y。u can 自X It, a d d 。ther

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Magic Wand selects pixels by color. It is most useful where a background is relative如 uniform or where foreground and background colors or values are stronyy contrasting.

unc。nnected areas，。r sm。。th a ny u nwanted jlggles using t he add to 。r s11btract from butt。ns (ab。ve）。r by sw,tchmg to Quick Mask m。de (b。眈。m) toc。rrect 1t With d阻wing tools

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The Magic Wand tool is much faster ,n some s阳－ a tions than drawing. A chck of the Wand 目。ne spot selects all t he p ixels of t he same c。l。r由at are c。n- tiguous E。（touching) that sp。E The Tolerance semng,

Quick Mask mode lets you use draw- ing tools to make and modify a selection.

Quick Mask changes a selection to a mask, like a sheet 。fglass c。venng y。ur ph。E。•graph 。n wh1chyou can brush 。paque paint (the mask IS usuall y d ,splayed ,n red). You can u四d用wing t。。ls-pencil , brush , air· brush-to reshape t he mask and then change ,t back

in the T。。IOpti。ns bar sh。wn here, ,s an essential vanable. It sets the range (h。wfar fro m the samp怡’s c。l。r。r咀lue）。f the p1Xels that will be selected. The size 。f由e sam ple can a lso be adjusted

to a selemon. It ,s m。st useful m 『mprove a select，。n made with an。ther tool Dra wing w，由 wh,te 回归nds ( add s to) the selectio n ; black s ubtracts Partially select ed P"'els w ill result 府om painting with gray 。r using a feather-edge t。。l

R 5 圄 99

Mοre Techniques LAYERS

L ayers may be Photoshop’ s greatest仿制m and one that most clearly sets its abilities apart from photographer's w。rkflow programs. Adding a layer to your image is like putting a sheet of clear glass over a print. You can draw on the layer or make alterations that change the image below the layer, but you can still ta!但 it away to reveal the unchanged picture. And you can add anoth凹 layer and ano ther (Photoshop lets you add thou- sands) that are individually editable, rem ovable, and-except for what you put o n t hem-com- pletely transparent.

Layers make it easier to composite a picture, assembling elements from more than one image. Each part of your picture can si t o n an individual lay凹，咄咄 you can then move and change and move and change again, until your fi nal image looks the way you want (see pages 106- 107).

Adjustment layers let you make tonaJ chang- es, using Curves, Levels, o r other tools, with- out permanently altering the original, underlying image. Use Layers> New A刽ustment Layer; t hen you can revisit 归ur changes and modi今 them at any time, the way you can in a workflow applica- tion. \Vhen you need to finalize your decisions, to prin飞 for example, you can flatten t he file to make the adjustments permanent, but you can-and should-keep a copy of t he unflattened file.

The direct use 。f Levels, Cmves, or almost anything else that alters a picture, causes the soft- ware to discard som e informa tion wh en it applies the change. If you darken a picture, for example, and later you de口ide it should be even darker, more information is d iscarded. Each tim飞 the image is further degraded.

Using an adjustment layer for such changes avoids this problem; the settings you choose affect the image that is displayed or printed bur they don’t change the pixel values in the 。riginal fi le until you choose to flatten it. All settings can be changed-or discarded-without loss. Photoshop’5 “ smart” fi lters are also o n the list of non-destruc- tive adjustments. The most important of these filters is sharpening; you can change the amount you apply to an image for each different o utput.

100 IMAGE EDITING

The second /ayeηa Curv，由 adjustment layer shown at right, adds contrast. Each additional layer affects o吵 those that appear below it in the Layers Palette, far r，也·ht.

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Peter Vanderwarker. Peter 8. lewis Building, Case \II々 ather head School of Management, Cleveland, Ohio, 2003

Two layers make all the adjustments 伪ispho阳·

graph needs. 7百e first layer (shown below left) makes 如me areas l也•hter and others darker, the same way you m也•htapp如burning and dodging if you were printing 巾a darkroom

To make it, Layer>New> Layer was opened. In the dialog box Mode： α，erlay was selected, then Fill with Overlay-neutral color was checked. 7百e Overlay layer fills with middle gray but no伪ing but its e庐ct is vis- ible unless you turn off the background I.钞er's display by clicking its eye icon. Making the Overlay l吨yer's neutral gray I，也·hter or darker wi阶 anytool-e时，， ifyou don' t see it-l也htens orda巾ns the underlying image. The foreground roof is lightened. A gradient darkens the sky gradually toward the upper hβcorner.

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Mark Klett. View斤。m the tent at Pyramid Lake, 7:45 AM, Nevada, 9/ 16/ 00. Adjustment layers control individual areas when they are applied through a mask. A selection ( made wi,阶 the tools on pages 98-99) er，臼阳Sa layer mask如an adjustment 臼n affect O吵the area you choose. Layer masks are shown as a small image M阶e layers palette, left.，时th an icon for the type of l吨yer. Naming 伪e I.吨yers helps keep track of what they are for. By creating several different mask鸟， each filtering a坦parate 叫“stment /ayeι Klett l也＇htenedparts of the tent floor (the坦lected layer at right), made the sides of the tent appear阳 be the same br吵Ines皂剧d deepened blu目的伪e sky and water阳accentuate the ea吵mornings川l也·ht.

Each layer-and its mask一臼，， be changed or deleted at any time without a侨cting settings of an other layers. A卢：er building a final image like this, one l吨yer at a time, Klett makes a small proof print to see if any of the layers need to be further modified before making a final print at full size.

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The original scan from Mark Klett's large-format color negative looks passable but it needs some work 归 bring out its full potential, shown above. Klett began with a curves layer to set black and white poin臼and the overall color balance. A luminosity layer mak出small adjustme础阳the tones an contrast without afl♀cting the 臼lor. Other layers are added for 再，rthe, : more subtle, adjustments

c…ER 5 圄101

Techniques More RETOUCHING

To retouch “sing Photo- shop's patch tool, select it from the Toolbox (it may be behind the Healing Brush or Spot Healing Brush Too。 Select Source in the Tool Options Bar. Wi.阶 the cur- sor, draw around the area needing repair队J Drag the selection onto an undamaged area similar in value, color, and texture (B ). The pixels from the undamaged area will combine with those in the selection to make a natural- looking repa扩（C)

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D igital ca p t ure a vo id s a lmost a ll unwant- ed s p ecks generated by the process. Only if you get dust or a scratch o n the sensor sh ould you need to cover u p such fla ws thr。ugh retouching, essentially painting over part of an image. Scans require this kind of attention; it is n early impos- s ible co keep a negative o r print (and the scann er itself) perfec tly clean during scanning.

“ Improving" someone’s complexion in a por- trait is also called retouch ing. Regardless of the reason for retouchi吨，y。u make changes o nce and S町e them. For minor (but careful) retouching of small areas in Ph。tosh。p, you can alcer your back- ground layer directly-assuming you have saved a copy. For m句。r alcerations, such as those o n the ph otograph below, make a new d uplicate layer to retouch. Go to Layers> D uplicate Layer, and then perform your corrections o n the new layer. 1···、、飞

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,SE iz -- To repa ir d a m aged pho tog r a p h s or to remove

u nwanted specks and scratches, vat ious tools are available in Photoshop, such as the clone stamp, healing brush, smudge, focus, coning, and sponge tools, along with the patch tool shown at right. Before 归u begir飞 adjust the image for contrast, brightness, and, if working in color, color bala11ce.

Work何ow p r o g rams includ e ret ouc h ing t ools that are especially useful when dust o n your camera’s sensor marks each image in the same location. With in an y catalog of images you can instantly apply one pic ture’s retouching to a selected grou p of。thers.

伪e巾，age. Adjustment with Curves brought the 阳n由back 阳an approximation ofi臼unfaded state. Some drawing skill臼n help in replacing a la嗯B damaged area; the key is to borrow bi缸斤。，”。theι similar areas 巾 the picture.

For best results, build up a repair slowly. Work in layers to protect the original image. Found at a fl，臼market，伪is torn and faded old photograph was s臼nned, then re阳uched户st enough tor，由阳，写伪eo斤iginal appearance of

IMAGE ED ITING 102

Michael Schafer. Au{iug (HGB ), 2002. Retouchi.咯can work miracles. He.，在5 伪e photographer remoν·ed e时可y tra臼 of himself and his 臼’”era from the mirror inside an elevator, 时th its door clo叫阳叫出时aha川tfoiy surreal ima~e that suggests a journey-up or down-into the 缸istential.

c…ER 5 圄 1 03

More Techniques SHARPEN I NG

S harpe ning impro ves m ost digital images bur won't save a p hotograph that was made our of foc us. It is an import ant adjustment that sh ould be applied to all scans a nd d ig itally captured p h otographs, us ually j ust before printing or o ther export. Gen erally, more sharpen in g is needed for d ig ital captu re than for scans from film. JPEG fi les are s h a rpened by the camera b ur you s h ould sharpen all captured TIFF and Camera Raw files.

The amount of sharpeni ng fo r best results depends 。n a n umber of factors，。ne of wh ich is the resolu tion used for a particular o u tput. Because you may want to p u t your file o n a \Veb site as well as ma king a print (or m:u世 different s ized prints from t h e same image), sh缸penin should pr。bably n ot be applied as a perma nent alteration. If you a re using a workflow application or Phoroshop CS3 (or la ter), sharpening can be ch a n ged each t ime you sen d an image to a differ- 创刊。utput. Wi th earlier versio ns of Phoroshop, save an u nsharpened versio n of your file.

U nsh a rp m ask in g ( USM) means s h a rpe n ing. T h e seeming ly con t rad icto1y nam e is a legacy from darkroom photography, a way of improv- ing sharpness by placing a sligh tly out-of-focus negative in contact with a film positive, or slide, during e nlargi n g. T h e resu lt of t h is film sand- w ich is increased contrast at the edges of o均ects, the same effect you introduce to an image using digital s h arpen ing.

The s harpen ing cool or filter identifies areas of transiti。n, for example, fro m dark to light or fro m red to yellow, wh ich our eyes te ll LIS are edges. Then it exaggerates the transi tion. 如faking dark p ixels darker o nly wh en t h ey are near light p ixels, a nd vice versa, creates a s ubtle halo around edges t h a t we perceive as enhanced sharpness.

S harpe n fo r t h e out put. Higher outpu t res。－ lu t io n, usually fo r a larger pri n t , requires more s harpen ing. A fi le p rinted o n an inkjet printer needs different sharpening than you would apply to t h e same fi le sen t to an offset press. Even th e paper matters; uncoated papers a nd matte surfac- es n eed a little less sharpen ing than g lossy paper. Always judge the sharpe ning by displaying your

104 IM A G E E D ITING

All scans and digital cap阳res need sharp- ening. The Unsharp Mask filter increa且S 阳ne differences between adjacent pixels 阳make the image appear sha’per.

The right amount of sharpeni.略makes details and e旬出cri.写p without sacrificing smooth 阳nes. Different pictures and different us，臼need different amounts.

Too much sha’pening is as bad as not enough. When you see obvious halos around fine details 巾your imag~, you have gone too far. Use 伪e preview option on screen 阳com pare before and aµ风 ν-iewing at 100%.

o nscreen in吨e at 100% (als。 called 1: 1 ); even bet- E町， m:u《e a proof o n the printer and paper you wi ll be usi ng for your fi n al print.

Some photographers prefer to use a two-s tep s h a rpen ing process for digitally captured files: inp ut sharpe ning based o n the specific camera a nd o u tput sharpening based o n t h e s ubject and the fi le’s destination.

Sha rpen for im age content. A landscape may require d ifferent t reatmen t tha n a cityscape. Sharpeni n g for a portrait will need a d ifferent approach than for a fo rest scen e. Facial skin is a special concern becaLISe sharpe ning en hances textu re a nd blemishes, us ually u ndesirably. For portraits, y。u may have s uccess using an increased radiLIS and lower amou nt, o r by sharpen ing 。nly the red channel in RGB or the black channel in CMYK Phoroshop’s H驴－Pass filter is useful for confinin g sharpening to prominent edges. You m ay want to apply sharpen ing throug h a mask, as was done in th e photograph opposite. And there a re several ways to apply sharpen ing by hand, brush ing it in around eyes and hair, for example, while leavi n g the rest of a face unsharpen ed.

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Select Filter>Sharpen> Unsharp Mask •.. in Photo- shop. Its dialog box lets you set the filter's three variables, Amount, Radius, and 7百用hold, and to vi，阳a pre- ν-iew to see how your choice of values a.ffec臼the image.

Radius controls how close 阳an edge 伪e sharpening oc，阳’可 use values 斤。’” 0.5 阳王 h也•her numbers for h钞町的回olution files Amount a｛／♀c臼the contrast of sharp- ened pixels, valu由between 50 and 200 are common for photographs. 7百reshold de- termines how different a pixel must be from its ne也hbors 阳 comprise an edge pixel. Low values sharpen more of an image. S，阳，twith 3-5.

Similar controls are i时n in workflow programs; Aperture has Intensity and Radi时， with a且parate control for edge sha’pen- ing. Lightroom uses sliders for Amount, Radius, and Detail, with a fourth slider for Masking-the equivalent ofedgesha’pening.

Jim Scherer. Fork with Peppers, 2006. Sharpening must be applied carefully when out-of-focus areas are particularly important. Scherer wanted just the in-focus areas to s阳，，dout crisp段， so he used a soft- edged selection as a mask to sharpen only the two pepper slices in the center. Sharpen- ing out-of-focus areas in digi- 臼l如captured photographs like thιone risks enhancing granularity and noise.

c…ER 5 圄 1 05

More Techniques COMPOSITING

D igital editing w臼 invented for composit- ing, or so it m igh t seem . T he ki nds of images that have become most closely associated wi th digital pho tography are the invented spaces and impos- sible situations that we see eveηrwhere in adver- tising. It is n o t t hat such composited (combi ned fro m several sources) images werer p。ssible w比 conven口onal ph otographic techn iques (see photos below and o n page 112), but it was always ve1y diι ficult and often prohibi tively ti me consum ing to do so. Assembling an image fro m parts requires complex and extensive editing tools; workflow programs do no t provide featu res fo r composi ting.

Mastering the composite takes some e仔。同 even w ith a computer to help. Leam ing the tools ta!也s some ti me, but is n。E the real challenge. Learning to think ahead an d to create an d assem- ble parts t h at fi t togeth盯 visually-that requ ires practice, clear thinking, and att ention to detail.

Francis Frith. Hascombe, Sur句y， ι 1880. Tire composite photograph is not new. To “＇improve＂伪is 19血century EnDish land：阳，pe, F刷刷ta horse and 臼rt-along with their convincing shadow-from ano伪erphot，络raph and pasted it onto the original photograph.

1 06 IMAGE ED ITING

Consistent illumination is most importan t to ma!忧 eve1ything in your image believable. If you take people from a photograph made on a s unny day and drop them into an overcast lan dscape, it won't look right no ma tter what you do. Few viewers wi ll be able to tell 四actly what the prob- lem is, bu t eve1yone will find viewi ng the image a little uncom fo rtable.

Display several images a t once when yo u com- bine elements from multiple p ictures. A large (or second) monitor helps when you wan t to have sev- eral files open and still see your tools and palettes. The Info palette provides useful measurements to maintain c。nsistency among d iffe rent elemen“, as do the rulers that appear o n rwo borders of each win dow. Keep each element on a separate layer. You can make an adjustment layer (see page 100) that is linked (attached) to each and won' t affect any other layers.

julieanne Kost. /sos阳cy, 2007. To create this surreal mon- tag鸟 Kost combined a scanned painting with d饭ta／.ψcaptured photographs of unrelated landscapes and t臼tures.

I sos阳cy (or Isostatic eq uilib ri u m) describ由剧。与ect in 切lance between two media, the way scientists would describe an iceberg wi阶its portion in the air betr，吨ying a hidden mass in the water below.

Kost began by s甜，iningan encaustic (wax) painting she had made (abo时L and darkening its edges with a mask (bel，。” She keeps 臼ch element and its adjust- men ts 巾separate I吨yers as the piece is being出血时间 it allows each to be further altered as the work becomes more complex

The douds come from this pho阳•graph, with the 切rnand its foreground and background maskedouι7百et，甩出。但•ht) were also masked to fit.

The landscape is a separate /aye巧 as is the mask that blends its edges into the background. 7百e mask臼n be di.早均，ed in red or in black and white.

The final 阳，chesare t四阳F自 added from pictures of rust (abo时 r也ht) andbubb阳。｛sea foam (r也ht). Both were incorporated as layers with reduced opacity so they don't o昭俨 whelm the image of clouds on a layer beneath. The finished composite image has twelve layers.

c…ER 5 圄 1 07

More Techniques COLOR INTO BLACK AND WHITE

C olo r c h ann e ls ca n b e b le nde d t o geth e r in image-edi ting software. W ith Capture One

Pr的 Black & White tool and Ligh troo m ’s Gγψcale Mix you get s liders si milar to those you can call up in Photos hop by choosing Black & White, an

adjustment u nder the Image m en u . In each of the

programs you can control the prop。rtion of each p rima1y color channel that will be incmporated

into the resulting b lack-and-white image w h ile

you watch th e on-screen preview change.

Yo u c a n s et man y digital c ameras to c a p t ure in b la c k a n d w h ite. T h e camera will produce a

grayscale J P EG o r TIFF image, and the camera’s monitor w ill show a b lacl• and-white p review. If your camera is set to capture a C amera Raw file, however, a b lack-and-white image w ill s how o n

the can1era’s monitor but all the color info rma - tion will still be present in th e saved file. You

can th en control the conversion to grayscale, as

described above, w ith image-editing so日i:ware.

Infrared B lack a nd White

Digital camera s回sors are covered with a 制－ ter that bl。cks in命are<I radiation but it is still p。目ible to make black-and-white ph。tog目phs using tha t invisible energy just beyond the spectrum of visible light

The e能ctiveness of infrared blocking fi lters varies from one camera model to an。ther, but fortuna回ly n。ne blocks in什ared c。mpletely. Cover your lens with a fi lter that bl。cks visible light and passes infrared, like a Wratten N。 87, H。归 R72, or Heli。pan RG71 S. With vis- ible light rem。ved, whatever the sens。r receives will be infrared. But it will be very little radia- ti。n,and y。u will need a long 四posure-usual ly m。re than a second in daylight even at y。ur widest apertu陀 Trial and eπorsh。u ld lead to satisfactory resu lts

If you are very seri。us about sh。。ting infrared black and white with a digital camera, you can dedicate a camera to that purp。se by

Very different black-and-white renderings can be made from the same color photo- graph leading 阳 different interpretations of their content. Image-editing software gives you the opportunity to make a controlled blend

from the three channels. The cen阳rimage abo时，所ω’”，pie, incorporates a h也•h pro- portion of red and green but little blue from the left-hand image, and leads to a brigh阳r image than the one on 伪efarr也ht.

rem。ving the IR-blocking fi lter from its sensor. A little 。nli ne searchi咆will turn up (s。me whaεcomplex) instructions for those who are technically inclined. Some camera-repair shops will be able to modify your camera.

Jingbo Wu. Indian Ruin, 2007. Foliage looks white in infrared and skies go nea吵black, maki喀 possible 时ry dramatic lands臼P由 Wu bought an 巾expensi·时DSLR on eBay and followed instruaions he found on the II\々 b 阳remo时its IR -blockingfilter. A Hoya R72 filtercovers his lens.

108 I MA G E E D ITI NG

Chrome fi lter

Craquelure fi lter

Filters are playful and can lead to the strange and un臼·pected. The photograph at right was subjected 臼a sampling of filters, as shown below.

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FILTERS

F ilters a re autom atic- a n d o fte n exo tic-

image manipulatio n s. In Pho rosh op they go by self-descriptive names like Colored Pencil, T \\~rl, and Glowi ng Edges. If th e ones t hat come \\~th your image-edi ting progr臼n aren’t enough for you, independent developers o的r h undreds mo re for sale 部 plug-ins 。ee page 93). You can add plug-in filters to workflow software, to。. But Filter is also th e name such programs usually give to search cri- teria when you want to find, fo r example, all your one- and two-star pictures of trees.

l ook unde r Phot o s ho p’s Filter m e n u for many different 。ptions，。r choose Filter> Filter Gallery to browse th roug h them at random . Each gives control over several variables. For example, the S tained Glass fi lter lets you set diffe rent values for cell s ize, border thickness, and light inren- s ity. T h e variations a re endless and , if you select "Conven for S m art Fi lters," re-edi table.

Be car eful, fi lte rs a re like cand y; restrai nt is advised. T hey are appealing con fec tions but it is easy to overindulge. Remember also that 缸瓦tly the same zoomy special effects are available to t he millions 。f other users of Photoshop, an d th eir arbitra 1y use can easily appear to be a cliche. Many fi lters belong in y。ur E。。lbox, especially if your task is illustration, but don’t assume t hat because you ’ve n ever seen t he results of t h e Craquelure fi lter, n。。ne else has either.

Watere。t。r fi lter c…E R 5 圄109

An Editing W orkflow

Here is an 。udine of the basic steps t o a fi nished, print ed digi阻l ph。tograph using Photosh。p.

1 Open 伽而le and save a dupli叩 Use File>Save As and give a new name to the

version with which you’H be working. Make sure y。ur original, raw file is archived prop- erly (see page 133.)

2 Rotate and aop the im咿叫eed萨of巾 frame are exactly where you want them. By croppingy。u can choose an aspect ratio more suited to your vision than the one dictated by your car口e阻’s sensor or the film、 frame.

3 Retoucl’ (page 102 or spots. Scans generally require retouching ; photographs captured with a digital camera may not.

4 Add a Levels o r C…叫ustment layer. Use it to set the black and white points and the overall color balance (pages 94- 97). Rem凹巾er that with a句ustment layers you can make m。re changes later. Make general adjustments first , then fine-tune them after your other adjustments have been made.

5 Make o由町 ove时l 吨ustments AC… adjustment layer in the Luminosity m。de lets you a句ust tones and contrast without affecting col。r A Hue/ Saturation adjust- menr layer is often useful to reduce the color bias of some scanners and digital cameras or to increase the vibrancy 。fselected colors.

6 M挑e l归l 叫ustme附 Whe he ov image has been improved, if certain areas need individual attention, make a selection and add an adjustment layer with the selec-

110 IM A G E E D ITING

tton m pl缸e (page 98). Both the selection (automatically saved as a layer mask) and the a句山tment can be later edited. Add as many individual adjustments as you need, but keep in mind each one adds to the file size, ma1也s each successive step ta1也 a little longer, and fills your storage space faster. Save the full-si时， layered file before conrinu- ing on to resize, the next step.

7 R臼ize h配essary. 川ps to know how you’H be using a picture-on a magazine page, in a 飞Xfeb display，。r making it into a poster-to know how big a file and how much res。lution you need. Some printers make the best print if the file matches their native resolution, often 300 or 360ppi.

8 Sh叩n the b础gro川a阳印u叫 to use the ph。tograph for a different appli- cation or print it at a different si时， go back to the unsharpened full-size fi le with all its layers, resize and sharpen a copy for each use. See pages 104-105.

9 Soft proof and print your ph叫raph (see page 118). Flatten the layers before printing, emailing，。r exporting to the 飞Xfeb. Think of your first print as a test. Are there changes to ma1何？ If so, use the History palette to go back to the sharpened, layered version

1 Q Make 副y ne倒S町而时叫ustme附飞J 如fa1忧a final print. Once you are satisfied with the print, go back to the full-sized ver- sion of the file if you resized it for printing, make the same final changes, and save it.

Dionisio Conzalez. Pau· listona乓iun阳da, 2006. Digital tools let Conzal，曰 ”怨自t伪efu阳reofa city. He photographed the irregular ne.也hborhoods and chaotic shan伊·ownso(Sao Paulo, Brazil that are giving way 阳 demolition and re- building by the goν·ernn

- 7古rough d饭tal man伊ula tion, he prop。•ses a recycling "intervention” that inserts 旦哩men缸 that appear阳be modernist structures into the thr，臼阳ned spaces

A workflow for thιkind ofimagemaking mays阳，t with workflow soβvare for importing and organizing the elements, but the final assembly depends on the l吧yers and compositing tools available 巾 Photoshop.

Y o u r editing w o r k w m ay be mo陌 e俯cient if you u se a wo忡f臼ow applica tion. Adobe Photosh。P is used by professi。nals in many are缸 besides ph。tography; it se凹·es ct飞e graph ic 缸ts, the p riming ind ustty, and video, as well as fields s uch as medicine and science. As a resu lt, it h剖 numer o us featu res that you probably won 't need. It was constructed to let images become whatever anyone can unagme, o ne at a ti me

Work何ow so仕ware h as b e e n tailor ed to t h e

b asic tasks o f pho tog raphe rs, so one of these programs may do ever严hing your work requires. Usi ng eit h er program, all editi ng decisi。ns listed o n the opposi te page can be applied in any order and re-adjusted a t an y ti me before you p rint o r export a fi le. C hanges in such qualities as color, ligh tness, and satu ration may be brush ed on 。r applied t h roug h a mask. Sharpen ing m ay be

applied in s tages, some during import, som e to the im age you see and man ipulate o n the m on i- tor, and m。re later fo r o utput. Size, shape, an d resolut ion decisi。ns a re applied on ly to the fi n- ish ed product, n ot to t h e o riginal file.

Adjustmen臼 and se忧ings may b e saved as a preset and applied s im ultaneously to a grou p of images. These presets may be applied when you dm，，吼load your images o r later, co a selected group . With 。nly a couple commands, a wedding pho tographer may turn hund reds of pictures from one m凹nory card into sepia-toned black and white as they are imported, an d prin t them臼asequence of two-by-three-in ch pro拙， twelve to a sheet of letter-size paper, wi th a n umber un der each small image and the photographer’s copyright and con- tact information at the bottom of each sheet. Your own workflow can be customized an d saved.

c…ER 5 圄11 1

Ethics αnd Digital Imαging

J ust because 归u ca n alt町 an im耶shou ld you? Digital methods haven’t substantially changed the laws or eth ics of ph。tography, it has simply become much easier to violate them . Now that alm ost anyone can make extensive changes in a photograph that are som eti mes im possible to detect, t he limits of acceptability are constantly tested and debated.

Has photography lost any claim on accurate representati。n of reality? For a 1982 National Geographic cover, digital image editi ng was used to m ove one of the Pyramids of Giza a little for the cover photograph so it would better fit the magazine’s vertical forma t. \Vhen some readers o均ected, the change was defended剖 being m erely " retroactive reposi tioning," the same as if the ph。－ rograph er had s imply changed position before taking t he shot. \Vas it different? T he magazi ne eliminated th is practice.

Pho叫oumalists usu ally follow fairly strict rules concerning p h o tog r a phic a lterations. Generally, they agree that it’s acceptable to lighten or darken parts of an image. However, many news- papers don't allow t h e use of d igital editing to, say, rem。ve a distracting teleph。ne pole or, worse, to i nserts。methi ng new.

Advertisers often take considerable leeway with illustrations. We have come to expect exag- geration in advertising, as long as t he products are no t m isrepresented. Few people would o均ect to the altered photograph, above right, even when the advertiser doesn ' t mention a change. But would the same image be acceptable with out explanation if it ran with a news story?

Photographs in fash ion advenising are often digitally retouched to make th e models appear th inner. Is it possible that exposure to these ideal- ized images contributes to eati ng disorders?

W o rkin g photo g r a ph e r s a r e conce rn e d a bout fi n a n cial m atte rs, and reasonably so. Wh en your efforts result in som ething you can sell, you probably t hink it is stealing if som eon e

11 2 IM A G E E D ITI NG

uses what you have made wit h out asking. H。w can you protect your rights wh en images are eas- ily accessible electron ically? How can you collect fees for use of your work wh en images, after t hey leave your hands, can be downloaded or scanned altered, and t hen incorporated in a publicat ion? 飞When, if ever, is it acceptable fo r someone to ta!忧 your image and use it wi thout permission 。r pay- m en t? T h e law is continually redefined by court cases. Each new copyright in台ingement lawsuit m akes the line a little clearer but t h ere are s till m o re questions t han answers

One of these photojour- nalists is not really there. 7百is photograph of all the members of the pho阳agency VII was originally commis- sioned for a magazine. By the time it was selected for the camera company's ad, one of the members had been rep归ced. The new member, “ the far right, was shot in the same New York cafe in the same position as the man he replaced, then added to the picture d饭tally.

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Matthew Brady. Sherman and his staff, 1865. Altering the guest list is not new. This widely distributed photograph of William Tecumseh Sherman and all his generals (above 缸”， taken just after 伪e Civil War ended, includes General丹·antis P. B阳市at the far right. Blaiι however, missed the sittin阜 so Bra司y photographed him separately lateι pasted a 阳tout 巾归a print of the group (abo时F也ht), and rephotographed 伪ecomp出ite to make a new negati，时

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Joan Fontcuberta. 舟。’” Sputn巾， 1997. Many of Fontcuberta' s works tamper with reali纱. In Sputn战， he fabricated a gallery installation and invented a booιlength s阳,yin which the existence of a Soviet cosmonaut lost 巾平,ace duri，，飞g a shuttle mission 且coν-ered up byem切rrassed officials.

Above, using a real So町etgo时rnment

photograph (bottom), the artist added the as- tronaut (actually Fontcuberta himself) 巾归 the image (top) . In his sto饥he redefines the top photo as the or，也'inal one and the bot.阳mpho阳 as the one altered by the goν·ernment. 7百e 、町－ dence" appeared so real that the 时，ibitdrew protests from a Russian ambassador. Reality is whatever you can Pho阳shop it归be.

D igital editing r aises e由ical questions in the fine ar岱 as well. It is easy to scan a p hotograph fro m a magazine or d ownload o ne fro m the Internet and to incorpo rate all o r part of it in your own work. Perhaps you intend to cri ticize or com- m en t o n consumerism by “ q u oting” recogn izable pieces of advertisi ng in a mo nt age. Artists’ appro- priation of copyrig h ted material-incorp。rating an image as a form of critiq ue-has been a widely debated to pic an d conti nues to be the su均ect of legal battles.

Copyrig ht laws h ave certain built-in excep- tions called j』ir use; amo ng them is ed ucational work. Wh at you ma!也 for a class p roject by “ bor- rowing” som eone else’s work m ay be protected , bu t if you t ry to sell it in a galle1y o r dis tribu te it on your Web s ite you m ay be i n日i·inging o n som e- one’s copyrig ht.

Remember 由at a ny phot og raphs you post on socia l m e d ia a re avai lable to b e copied by anyone. Copyright protectio n is broad and not tenibly co mplex, bu t what is and what is n ot pro- tected m ay not be obvious. In the United States, your ph。rographs are protected by copyrig h t as soon as you ’ve made t hem, bur th e protectio n is s t ronger if you register you r copyrig ht wi th the government. To use your ph otograph legally, som eone must h ave your permissio n , and gen er- ally you can 四pect to n egotiate and be paid a ri:ryal，σfor an y commercial use. Be careful what you agree to when you up load you r pictures o n a ph oto-sharing site like Facebook o r Instagram .

如fany images posted o nline are defined as 气。yalty-free," wh ich does n ot necessarily mean that they can be used without perm issio口， but that o ne agreement or fee wi ll cover all cur- rent and futu re uses. T h e alternate is “ righ ts m anaged ,” which m eans the copyrig h t holder on ly releases a very specifi c use of an image, for example, on the cover of one paperback edition of a novel in English sold on ly in North Am erica.

Photogra p hs made fo r the U.S. government are said to be in t h e p“bl』c domain, alo ng wi th, in general, anything made before 1923, and may be used fo r an y p urpose wi t hout permission.

c…ER 5 圄113

曰际J

TeuN Hoc Ks I Printers and Drivers .......... 116 υ回归d, 2000. Dute，也 a而且 Hodes makes I

I Paoers and Inks . . . ......... 117 如协es first, 曲”。栩栩曲回首阳t I t' sets in whi<h he ploys the ee，由·al role. I Soft Proofin£ ................ 118

硝自由e moment h呻R川·d, he makes very I 阳伊加k·and叫ite prints a川叫oints I Panor，叫cPho吨raphs ...... 119

曲em wi曲阳nsparentoils. I Presenting Your Work ........ 120 Framing ••••••••••••••••••••• 120 Ma创ngaprint••••••••••••••• • 121

Mounting a Print ............. 122 Eq呻”•1ent and materials

yott '[[ need •••••••••••••••••• 122

Dry Mounting a Print Step by S四p................. 124

Bleed Mounting/ Overma忧ing ................ 126

Printin互 αndDi跑χ辑豆

In th is chαpler yo1L'll learn ...

• the choices you need to make about hardware and ma四rials-pri n四川 paper, and ink-before you make prints from your digital fi les.

• how to use 。utput pr。files and s。仕 pr。。而ngco make sure your pnn臼 have the colors and tones you expect a仕er seeing the image on a m。nicor.

• some of the methods and styles for matting and fram川S your photographs for presentati。n.

You r work’s impact is in何uenced by its displa·

M川h pie挝ure them onscreen bu t t h e b ig reward lies in printi口g and v iewi1 1 g the resu lts. Yet s。me ph。tographers n ever seem co fi nis h d飞eiI'

images; t h ey s hoot a lot b u t have few p ictures cha t they carry to comple tion. Printing translates your vision into a n o均ect chat can be d叩layed o n a wall, in a gallery, or in oth er l。cations, in addit io n to being an im age you can emai l or share on Instagram. Fi nis h ing and mounti n g a p hotograph is im portant because it te lls viewers your vision is worth th eir a tten tio n . You will see new

aspects in your photographs if you ta!世 the t ime to complete t h em.

The impre白白n a 町ewerge臼from a photograph comes from a combination of the image content and the context in which it is 由：perienced. Do you see the photograph on the front page of a daily ne附：papeι ，，，ounted in a fami如album, or (like

those belo”。，，public display as fine art in a gal- le,y or museum？刊e understanding we come away with after viewing a photograph is affected by what else we see with it; an ornate frame carries a di(- ferentme.阳，ge than a pushp巾， a sequence 臼n be

morecompl，臼and nuanced than a sins)e image. A photograph 臼n be accompanied by words: a ne附 article below it, an artist's statement n阳t to it on the gallery wall, or the s阳,yyou tell friends when you pa且aroundyour recent prints

Rolf Peterson. Installation view of the Family of Man exhibition, Museum of Modern A时， New V也成，1955. Curator Edward Steichen distilled this show from over two million submitted pho阳•graphs "co时ring the gamut of human relations. " Pho阳，graphers that were represented in the enormously popular exhibition, once selected, relinquished control. They looned their negativeι prints were made to Steichen's spec币·cations, in sizes from snapshot to mural, then dis pl.吨yed according to architect Paul Rudolph's des，ν

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Ron Jude. Ins阳llation view of the如lo exhibition Backsto叩 Museum of Con- 但mpora,y Photograph＿ι Chicago, 2013. The artist planned and laid out this exhibition with the curator. In the same w吵，he sequences his photographs for pub/i，臼tion, jude made a computer model of each wall and placed each framed piece in exoct s臼le. Months before the show was hung. he could ν·iewthe 写pace as M附uldapp臼r on its opening day. 7百e臼Im and ordered p，在sentation gi·附the ν·ie附rin 伪ιspa出a completely different feeling than the one shown above, lefi.

115

Printers αnd Drivers

H olding a n e w ly prin时 photograph is a r e war ding moment. Even though you view your im ages t h rough every s tep of p reparing th em, seeing the image o n paper remains a h ig h point. The quality of your resu lcs depends n ot o n ly o n you r abilities bu t also o n your ch。ice of pri n ters, papers, and inks.

Prin ters a仔ect 由e w a y your prints look a n d how large you ca n mak e them. A printer lim its th e s ize of a p rint by the maxim u m width of th e paper it will accept. Photo-quality desk top p rinte rs typi- cally print a maxim u m width of8 1/2 or 13 in ches.

Desktop I”’气jet Prin钮，

In向jet printers are u niversal a n d inexpens ive; they can pri n t o n a wide variety 。f s urfaces. Models intended fo r ph。tographs ma k e sharp, colorful, long-lasting p r ints at a reasonable p rice.

W ide-fo rmat inkjet p rinters tha t p rint on two-, four-, o r six-foo t-wide paper are available but a re fai rly expensive. You m ay be able to use one in your school or h ave large p rints made fo r you a t a service b ureau.

乓ye-st<blimati.on printers produ ce smooth tones and s u btle colo rs b ur th e prin臼 do n o t resis t fad- in g, a n d your ch o ices of printers, paper, and in k are li mited.

Photographic laser printe盯 make d ig ita l pnnts o n t radit ional photograph ic paper. Laser or LED ligh t exposes photo paper (often SO-inch咽’ide colo r paper) that is then fed d irectly into a roller- transport ch em ical color processor . T h e result is

11 6 PRIN TI NG AN D DISPLAY

an extremely hig h-q u a lity d ig ita l p rint wit h the smo。th ton es and predictable arch ival q ua lities of a tradit io n al color photograph. Large and very expensive, these machines (Ligh tJet and Lambda are t h e best k nown) gen eral ly can be fou n d o nly in professional color labs and service bureaus.

P rinters n eed a d river (th e software t hat reads p ixels in your image a n d tells the printer h ow to spray in k, vaporize dye, o r e m it lig ht to m ake a p icture fro m t hose pixels). A driver is s u pplied w ith t h e printer a n d must be installed o n th e compu ter th at is connected to it. D rivers are occa- si。nally u pdated; check the pri n ter ma n ufactu r- er’s Web site to be sure th at your driver is cu口ent.

Some labs use a RIP (raster image proce目。r) instead of a driver. A阳P is software o r a computer/ software com bination th at must be purchased separately. RIPs add control over individual ink colors and have the abil ity to grou p s ma ller images together onto a larger s h eet o r roll of paper.

Peggy A nn Jones. The l剧 Project, 2005. )ones used a wide-format inkjet printer 阳print directly on doth for this gallery ins，阳1/ation. Each image was sewn to a fabric panel that was hung from the ceiling and tied at the bottom to a rock Panels-and the sh ado附they cost-move with 阶e air motion created as viewers walk past, seeming almost alive.

Pixels per inch (ppi ), measu陀 the 陀四－ lut i。n of an image that has a physical

s,ze, like a print or a monitor dis play. See page 55.

。。恒 per inch (dpi), measu陀 a print - er’s res币l ut,on . It is used for 『γ，ad引nes that conveπ pixe ls into tiny d。目。fink, a desktop in均et pri n四r 。r 剧。除et press, fo r e础mple.

TI,eoretically, the greater the dp,, the b咀回r the qualiry of your image. But more is n't a lways better. the great- er the dpi, the mo陀 t i me a pnnter will 阻ke to make a pnnt and the m。陀，nk your ρnnter will use

You may not need to print at the highest possib le dpi. The quality we can see in a print is limited by 。ur eyesight, the viewing distance, and paper texture, as wel I as by t he output method-the size 。f the dots produced by the printer. As a p阻ctical matter, t叩 pnnti ng an image at d ，能rent resoluti。ns (dpi) to fond out wha t gives the best visible qua l- iry with your pnnter. Then you can staπ with that dpi setting for future prints

Paper is available in an incredibly wide variety of sizes, surfaces, colors, texture.鸟 and weights. Papers made for inkjet print· ing will take and hold the ink wi，阶out smearing or blotting. Many o伪er papers can be used, but test your choi，臼s for suitability. You can also print on a variety of other SUφces-cloth, self-stick labels, iron·on trans舟，骂， metallic pape巧 and even re斤，igerator magnets.

Paper 『v可al倒吉 0何'er cl、oice in均er printers, the ki叫you are most likely to use at ho me o r sch。。I, supply thei r o＂吼OEM (Origi nal Equipment Manu fac turer) brand of papers that are convenient an d work well with th ei r printers. You E由1 aJs。 experiment with a wide variety of papers th at may better suit your visio n o r budget. Most non-OEM papern1汰ers provide profiles you can download from their 飞.Veb sites for using each of th ei r papers with most popular printers.

P a p ers vary in brightness or whiten ess, us u- ally measured 。n a scale of reflectance from 。ne to o n e hundred. 飞.Vh iteness can be en hanced

w it h op tical brigh ten ing agents (OBAs), ch em i- cals that are very effective in making your prints sparkle. Bur optical brighteners can a仔ect image colo rs, an d will fade wi th ti m e; if you wan t archi- val prints, look for a paper witho u t t h em.

Photo pap e r s for inkjet p rinting resemble t rad it iona l darkroom pape rs. They can be fib萨based or resin-coated. T h e best fiber papers are made fro m cotton rag and are more likely to be chem ically neutral (and therefore longer lasting) th an those made fro m wood pu lp. A coating that is receptive to ink is applied directly to t h e paper fibers. Resin-coated papers have a layer of p lastic bonded to paper. Some inkjet " papers” m ay be all plastic. Most specialty paper retailers o仔h sample packs containi ng an assortment of letter-size sh eets. It is worth making some tests before com- mi tting to a q uan tity of one kind

Pαpers αnd Inks

Ink cartridges for inkjet printers can cont出口 pig ments or dye; usually a p rinter is made to use one o r the oth凹， rarely both. Dye-b皿ed inks have a wide colo r gamut and can produce vivid colors but are ve1y prone to fading. For tliat re出口口， most serio us photographers choose printers 由at use pig ment (sometimes called pigmented) inks.

Pigment inks can make a print that resists noticeable fading for many ti mes longer t han the best dye-ink pri nts. T h e permanence of any print depends o n the specific in k-paper combinatio n as well as th e storage or display cond itions. (See wilhelm -research.com fo r the results of lab tests.) Pigment inks display m ore metamerism-when col- ors appear to shift u nder different ligh ting condi- tions-alth o ugh recent advances in printer desig n have nearly elimi nated t he problem.

OEM inks are t h e most trouble -free option but can beam勾or expense. For some printers, off-brand cartridges are available，。r you can p ur- chase ink in larger q uantities and refi ll depleted cartridges, alt ho ug h the practice can be tedio us and messy. Using alternate ink se臼 will definit ely require you to make your o叭响 output profiles (pages 82, 84, and 118).

If you are interested in printi ng only black and white, you can replace t h e color inks in some printers with a special set t ha t includes a black and several g rays. T h ese may resu lt in smooth er, m。re neut ral, and more permanent images t han you would get by printing black-an d-white pho- tograph s with color inks.

Printers that use inks packaged in individual colors are usual伽 more economical than those that combine, for 自ampl，电 cyan, magen阳， andyellow in one 臼rtridge. When one color in a multi color臼rtridge runs out, you have 阳 replace the whole臼rtridge.

…TER 6 蕾 1 1 7

Soft Proofin

I d eally your prin t will look like what you see on the computer’s monitor, b u t often it won ' t u n less you s吧卢proof whi le you are editi n g. M。n itors have a wider gamut （阳1ge of col。rs) than a p rinter, so wh a t you see on the mon itor isn’t n ecessarily what you' ll get in a print. W ith so丘 proofing, you display o n screen what the p rint will look like. T his is useful because every combination 。fp rinter, paper, and ink will mak e a somewhat d iffere n t version of the same fi le.

Soft proofin g and prin ting use profiles (page 82) that take into accoun t the characteris tics of p rinter, ink, a n d paper. S tandard profi les are s u p- p lied with desktop p rinters or can be downloaded fro m t he paper manufac turers’ Web si te. Special hardware a n d software (page 84 bottom) makes cusrom profiles o r you can h ave t h em made throu g h a n o n line se1vice. A calibrated m。n itor and consistent ambient lig h t at your works ta- tion are also helpful for predictable a n d accurate results.

Following are some basic steps to proof and prin t in Photosh op. Ligh t room has a simple checkbox fo r soft proofing in its Develop module. In Captu re O n e Pro, e n ter you r o u tput profi le (View> Proof Profile>Selected Recipe), then you can do all your editing wh ile in t he soft proof mode. Both let you ma k e most of these san1e out- p ut c h oices fo r printing.

1 ＇＂阳 work 。n.

2 Ch。叭刷＞Pr s叫＞Cust。m a n select a profi le for your pri n ter and pape I from the d isplayed lis t. Set Intent: Perceptual and ch eck “ Use Black Poi n t Com pensatio n.”

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118 PRINTING AND DISPLAY

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3 凶 y。ur image as needed. Turn o n t h e printer a n d load th e paper selected in s tep 2.

4 Choose File>Pri叽 then select yo…叩E settings. The Doc1m s uch as Adobe RGB (1998), is your wor king space (page 82). In Printer Pr吧卢'le and Inten.t ma!也 the same selectio ns you used for y。ur Proof Setup (step 2).

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s Choose Print Settings ro 臼l…he pri s paper si挝， and orientation. Ph otoshop use

icons t。 help you choose an orientati。n; 5。metimes W。rds describe the onentati。n Lands，臼，pe for h orizon tal, Portrait for vertical.

6 由。。” Print S川臼for Adju伽ent un伽 ColorM，刷agemen; and Photoshop Manag臼Colo町 under Color Handling. T h ese tell the pri n ter ro accept your profile and output sett ings wi tho u t alteratio n. O t he1wise, your pri n ter will mak e color and contrast c h anges based o n an average. C h oose a pri n ter resolu tio n; h igher 阳。lutions yield fi n er-lookin g prints b u t lon ger p rinting times. Wh en eve1yth ing is set, select Pηnt ag臼n, a n d enjoy.

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x Rez Studios, Inc. N也ht View of Chi，臼，go from the Penthouse of Hotel 71, 2007. Panoramic pho阳－ graphs can be assembled from smaller elements. This one－阳greatly increase resolution-was made from seve的'Of hundred separate exposures made around a 360' field. Be臼use it is pie出dt句；ether卢仰， images made 巾a circle, theendpoin臼are arbitrary and parts of the scene may appear more than once.

The original file 臼n make a high如detailed print more than five meters wide. It is dis pi吧yed with other extreme resolution photographs on a M句b site that a/lo附却oming in to see a close-up of a’!Y part of the frame: xR，自由m

Pαnorαmic Photogrαphs

D ig ital p h o t o g r a phy h as m a d e pan o ramic p hotograph y more p o p u la r . In the recent past, 还you wan ted to ma k e p hotograp h s in pan o ramic sha pes you h a d only a few optio ns. You could c rop away part of a picture and then enlarge the rest, re d ucing its quality. You cou ld invest in a specialized, and usua lly expensive, camera. O r you cou ld take several p ictures a n d d isplay th e m S由－by-side-either E巾ng to h陆 the ed ges o r m a king t h e joi n in g a ppear intentional. Now the re is a n o ther optio n .

So食ware makes it easy to pie c e tog e t h e r in d ividua l exposure s to ma k e a si n g le larger image. Called stitching, the proced u re can be left to Ph otosh o p (File>Aurom ate> Phorom erge) or to 。ne 。f several aftennarl<et programs o r p lug-ins (see the p hoto o n pa ge 80). Th is way of combin in g p ictures is so effec tive, y。u n eed on ly provid e a set 。f adjoi n in g frames and then de口ide how to crop t h e usually irregu lar ed ges of the result.

s。me digi tal cameras have a p anoram a m。de to h elp you m a k e the n eeded overlapping images. Afr盯the firs t exposure, t h e camera 's m on itor d is- p lays a thin slice from the right edge of tha t pic-

ture on its left ed ge (or vice versa), m aking it easy to a lign o悖cts and to c reate overlap for s titching softwa re to work effectively. Some cameras a n d cell p h o n es use a “ sweep” m ode to capture a pan- oramic photo from t h e arc of a m oving camera.

The w ay in kjet p r in t ers w o r k h as a lso cont ributed to t he p o pularity of wide p ic- tures. Paper is transported alon g a s t raig h t path through th e p rinter a nd receives a line at a t ime of ink dots deposited by a p rint head moving ba ck and forth a c ross the pa th. T h e wid th of that line of dots limits o n e di m ension of t h e im age, a n d it is fixed by the d esign of the pri n ter. T。 make a wider p r int m eans us ing a diffe rent (and usually more expen s ive) pri n ter.

Bur the len g th of your image can be as lo n g as the paper and the p rinte r d river wi ll allow. Som e d esktop printers 、飞，,ill p rint conrinu。usly o n rol I pa per (som eti n s h own o n page 116 will p rint 13 inches wide a n d as much 缸 44 inch es l。ng. Man y p h otographer s , with 。nly o n e ava ilable pri n ter and l。。king for the visual impact t hat com es fro m larger prints, choose tom汰e pano ran1as.

…T E R 6 蕾 1 1 9

Presenting Your Work FRAMING

F raming a print for the w a ll s由 it 叩art as a s p ecia l object. 飞;t'hecher you’ve made it fo r a f汪mily m ember's birthday or a gallery 阻h ibi c, matting (s。mecimes called mou口ring) an d fram i ng 臼seres char chis phoc。graph is to be viewed as a piece of arc. Alch ough your uses may not require i t，。nee you have made a print you are proud of, you may want co consider processes an d materials for presentation that are attractive and also archi- ν·al, a term for anyth ing used or done for t he sake of long-term preservation .

Ma忧ing and fra ming h ave seve ra l g oals- to call attention to your photographs, to create an elegan t environment, to isolate them fro m dis- tracting elem en ts, and co protect th em. T h ere are almost as many display options as t h ere are ph otographs, but a few generalities do apply. Keep in mind t hat fram ing is a specialty and many ph otographers leave it co a professional, bu t-on a modest scale-you can do it all yourself.

Mat your photogr a ph b efore it is fra m e d . A m at is a sheet or sheets of specially made stiff paper board. A th in sheet m igh t be the th ick- ness of t h ree or fou r playing cards, heavy mat board (called 8-ply) is 1每inch ti旧K Most mat- ted prints are a sandwich with the print held in place between a backing sh eet and an overmat (see page 126). Matting separates the print from the glazing.

Also available are reflection-control glass and acrylic, both with and wi chouc UV-absorb ing coatings. S ta ndard n on-glare glass should not be used fo r fi ne-art glazi ng because it can produce optical distortion.

Fram es a r e commonly wood or m etal. If you use w。。d frames, m冰e sure there is a vapor barri- er (us ually alumin um or plastic tape) between the mat package and the wood. 飞;t'ood is acidic; d irect contact will short en the life of anything made of paper. Avoid pressure-sensitive tapes u nless you know them to be acid-free.

Fram e m o ldings com e in a w ide variety o f c ross-sectio ns, fini s h es, a n d colors. Aluminum section frames come in standard length pairs; for a 16 × 20-inch frame you need a pair of 16-inch pieces, a pair of20-inch pieces, and a 16 × 20-inch sheet 。fglass 。r ac1ylic. Hardware to connect the pieces com es with the frame pairs; you can easi ly assemble it all w ith a screwdriver.

New presentation m etho d s appear as tech nol- ogy ch a nges. Lightweight rigid plastic and honey- combed aluminum sheets have been developed to hold large prints extremely flat. Special optically clear lami nations can adhere a print to the back of an ac1ylic sheet \\~th no bubbles or flaws, bonding the two so the face of the ac1ylic sheet bec。mes the smface of the photograph. There are no mies; just ma!也 sure, whatever presentation you cho。se, that you t hink it's the best choice.

Frames are available in precut kits if you want to do your own framing. Professional preparation may make a more polished presen阳tion but will cer- tainly cost more.

Modular, or section, frames are available in a wide varie钞。fcross-sec- tions, finishes, and colors Each comes with 仰。 he也·ht and two width segments and four corner connecters They can be disassembled, stored, and reused, and those in solid colors may be refinished easily with a can of spray paint.

The back of a connected corner is shown above. You ’'II need a screwdriveι the glass or acrylic, and a backing board. 7百e阳阿·edpiec，出 shown below are spring cf，伊s that press the backing and mat against the glazing from the back. Fram ed photographs a r e us u a lly g laze d , cov-

ered with a sheet of clear glass or plastic. Small works can be glazed wit h plain glass, but clear plastic is lighter and less likely to break and dam- age the work if mishandled. A framed photograph can be displayed u nglazed, but glazing protects it b。m physical damage and also fro m harm fu l u ltraviolet (UV) rays t hat accelerate fading.

Daylight and fl uorescent light contain a h igh percentage of damaging UV. Plain glass absorbs about half of it, wh ile plain ac1ylic absorbs about w。－th irds. Coati ngs can extend chat ; conserva- cion glass absorbs 97% of UV, whereas UV-filteri ng ac1ylic absorbs 99%.

〈拴 120 PRINTING A ND DISPLAY

The re are sever革l ways to mat a print. Overmatting (pages 126-127) provides a rai sed border that helps protect the surface of the print. If you frame a print, the ovennat wi ll keep the print surface from touching and possibly s ticki ng to t he glazing. Direct contact wi th glass can even- tually damage a print’s surface.

Joh” Gossage. S阳1/schreiberstrasse, \M旨·st Berlin, 1989. The Berlin Wall was a glar- ing symbol of post-World War II political tension. It divided Gem锢’,y's major city wi，阶 a concrete-and-razor-wire barrier between the 听·ee 附rid＂附st and the communist east Cossage's photograph鸟 made between 1982

and the Wall's demolition 巾 1989, are pur- posefully dark and foreboding. His large prints are so dark that m昭ring them wi阶ordinary glass all but turns them 巾归’”irrors. For a New York gallery exhibition, Gossage framed them using nonreflecti时museum 2Jass－归。吵way the images could readily be s四n

MATTING A PRINT

An overmatted print held in place wi th car- ners is most often your best presen tation choice because the print can be safely removed at any ti me. If a mat becomes soi led or damaged, it can be replaced. Museums o日i:en overmat and frame a print o ne way for one exh ibi tion then, later, mat and frame it a different way for another sh。w An overmat allows for th e normal expansion and contraction of paper wi th changing temperature and humidiry.

Dry mount ing is a common way t o mount trad itiona l phot o g r a phic m ateria ls because it holds a print very flat and prevents curling from changes in humidiry. A sheet of d1y-mount tissue bonds the print 自rmly to a piece of mo unt board wh en the sandwich of board, tissue, and print is heated in a mounting press.

D1y m。unted prints look ve1y presentable wh en framed but, if there is n o overmat to pro- vide an airspace, th e print surface can be pressed against the glazi ng and eventually stick to it. If you don’t overmat, consider using a shadow-box sryle fram巳

Prints fro m digital output are often over mat- ted. Heat mo unting will damage dye-sublimation or thermal-wax prints. High temperatures w ill n。t physically dam咿 an i口同et print, but t h e heat may shorten the display life of its colors.

Yo u h ave qua lity c ho ices in the materials you use. Arch ival mo unting stock (also called museum board) is the most expensive. It is made of rag (cotton) fiber, instead of wood pulp. Free of the acids that in t ime can cause paper to deteriorate; it is preferred by museums, collectors, and oth- ers concerned with long-term preservation. Most prin ts, however, can be mo unted o n less expensive but good-qualiry conservation board available in most art supply stores. If you wan t a print to last for even a few years, avoid lo ng-term contact wi th materials s uch as bro叭响 paper, ordi na1y card- board, most cheap papers, and glass ine. Don' t use brown paper tape, rubber cement, an imal glues, sprayadhes附s, or (unless marked as archival) any ki nd of pressure-sensi tive tape, such as masking tape or cellophane tape.

…T ER 6 蕾 1 21

Mounting α Print EQ 叫 l PMENT AND MATERIALS YO U ’ LL NEED

MOUNTI NG less expensive versions che front of che mount- macce, nor overly cex- A cover sheet proreccs EQUIPMENT for che home scudio. ing board co keep che cured surface is neutral the prim or mount

prim in a fixed position and unobtrusive. from surface dam- Metal ruler measures the uncil ic is put in the age. Use a lighrweighc

prim and board and press. Again, you can Size. Full sheers of mac piece of paper as a acts as a guide for che use a household iron, board are usually 32 × cover sheer becween knife or mar curter. A bur che racking iron 40 inches. Bo盯ds 盯e each prim in a stack of

Utility knife with sharp wooden or p lastic ruler works becrer. also available precut mounted princs co pre- blade crims che mount- is nor as good because in standard sizes in arr venc surface abrasion if ing scock and ocher the knife can cur into ic. supply scores or online. one prim sl ides across macerials co size A MOUNTING A score can cur chem anocher during sror- paper cutcer can be Miscellane。us: pencil, sofr MATERIALS for you, bur ic is o丘en age. Use a heavy piece used for lighcweigh c eraser. Optional：日ne less expensive to buy a of paper or p iece of macerials, bur ma!世 sandpaper or 剖1 emery full sheer of board and mount board as a cover sure che b lade is board for smooching cur ic down yourself. s h eer over the surface aligned squ盯ely and inside edges of over- of che print when in curs smoothly. mar window, T-square Quality. See information the mouncing press.

to make ic easier to on page 121 about gee squ盯e corners qualicy choices in Release paper can be For archival or oth盯 mounting macerials. usefu l, for example, purposes where excra Arch ival qualicy is best becween che cover

，生毡， care is required, coccon M。unt b。ard (also called bur nor a necessicy for s h eer and a print in a gloves protect mac or mat board) is available most prmcs dry-mounting press. It print during handling. in numerous colors, will nor bond to hoc

Mat cutter holds a knife chicknesses, and surface Dry-m。unt tJssue is a chin dtγ－mount cissue in b lade char can be fin ishes sheer of paper coaced case a bic of cissue pro- rotated to cur eicher a on boch sides wi ch a trudes beyond the edge perpendicul盯edge or Color. The most frequenc waxy adh esive char of che print. a beveled (angled) one. choice is a neutral becomes scicky when It can be easier to use wh ice because heated. Placed between chan an ordinary knife , ic does not discracc che print and che especially for curring M。unang pre臼 hears and acrencion away from mount board, rhe tissue windows in overmars applies pressure to th e rhe print However, bonds rhe prim firmly

print, dry-mounc tissue, some phocographers co rhe board. and mouncing board prefer an oflιwhite, Some 盯e removable, to bond the prim co gray, or black mounc. which lets you readjust Tape hinges a print or an the board You can use rhe position of a prim; ov，盯mat co a backing an ordin盯y household n旨ickness. The rhickness orhers make a perma- board. Gummed linen iron co mount prmrs or weighr of rhe board nenc bond. tape and other arch i- if no pre臼 is available, is stated as irs p ly: 2-ply Cold－盯iounc rissues val rapes are available

If you 四pect co do a bur the press does a (single weight) board is do nor requ ire a heared from specialcy s hops lor of marring, consider much becrer job. lighrweighr and good mounting press. Some and online retai lers a larger mar curring for smaller prims; more adhere on conracr; oth- Archival rape should system rhar incorpo-

哈萨画画’ 「 expensive，牛ply (double ers do not adhere unti l always be used for

rates a srraightedge weighr) board is berter pressure is applied, so hinge mouncing a and currer, like rhe one for larger prims rhar, if necess缸γ， rhey prim. Ideally, use linen above. The mar cutrers Tacking iron bonds a can be reposirioned tape co h inge an over- used in frame shops small area of rhe dry- 旬，仿ce finish. Finishes Mouncing rhis way is mat co a backing board, can be quite expensive, mount rissue co rhe- range from glossy to usually used for prims bur less expensive rape bur rhere are smaller, back of rhe prim and highly rexrured. A rhar don' t lie flat. is also usable.

122 PRINTING AND DISPLAY

Jo Whaley. Ceram句ycidae, Selected Writi，，结s, 2003. What should you pho阳，graph? 7百eanswer ι－anythingyou like. Photographs 臼n be made rather than found, so don't limit your pictures 阳归ndscapeι portrai.缸， or other existing subject matter. Here, a dried bug is com- bined with a book 句y Helen Keller found at the local shooting range. …TER 6 蕾 1 23

Dry Mounting α Print Step by Step

Mounting board Dry-m。unc

124 PRINTING AND DISPLAY

Dry m。unting provides a g。od斗。。king, s table supp。目 for a print . S hown here is a m ounc wi ch a w ide border arou nd t h e print. Bleed m ounting, a borderless mou nting, is shown o n page 126. The mount ing m aterials, the print, and the inner su rfaces of the press sho uld be clean ; even a small particle of dirt can create a bump or dent when the print is put under p ressure in the press.

飞X'earing cotton gloves when handling th e print will keep smudges an d fingerpri nts 。ff the surface. When cutti吨， use a piece of cardboard underneath co protect th e wor k surface. Several ligh t cuts often work better than j ust one cut , especially with t h ick mou nting board T he blade m ust be sharp, so be careful of your fi ngers.

1 C ut the mo叫ng b。ard t o si…叩he kn ife … at curter and the m etal ruler as a g u ide. Press fi rmly 。n the ruler co keep it fro m slipping. AT-square can h elp you get corners squ are.

Standardizing the size of your mo unt boards makes a stack of mo unt- ed prin臼 somewhat neater to handle, and makes it easi盯 to switch prints in a frame. Often 81/2 x 11 -in ch prints are mounted o n 11 x 14-inch or 14 × 17-inch boards. Generally, the board is p。sitioned vertically fo r a verti- cal print, horizon时ly for a ho rizontal print. Some ph o tographers like the same size border all around; ochers prefer th e same size border o n sides and top, with a slighcly larger border o n the bottom.

2 H酣伽e p陀吕 a 向伽e ma叫s印u…。unti1 made 白ber-b臼e p rint, heat the drγ－mount pre臼 co 180。－2 10。F (82。－ 99。C) or to the temperature recommended by the d1y-mounc tissue manu - fac curer. Pu t th e board, with a protective cover sheet o n top, in the heated press for a minute to drive o ut any moistu re. Repeat with the p rint. T he heating will also t冰e any curl o u t of th e pri时， m汰ing it easier to handle.

For a resin-coated (RC) darkroom paper o r in均et prin臼 on any mate- rial, use low-temperatu re drγ－mount t issue. The press m ust be n o ho tter than 210。F (99。C) or an RC print m ay melt. Temperature control is inac- curate o n many presses, so a setti ng of200。F (93。C) is safer. There is n o

need to preh eat an RC print, j ust the board and cover sh eet.

3丑ck巾仲m。unting t i co use a l。W setting for l。w-temperatu re tissue). Put the print face down o n a clean sm ooth surface, such as another p iece of mounti ng board. Cover the back of the print with a piece 。f dry-m。unt tissu e. Tack t he tissue co the print by pressing down the hot iron and slid ing it smooth ly e。m the center of the tissu e about an inch toward 。ne side. Do not tack at the corners. Do not wrinkle the tissue or it will show as a crease o n the

fro n t of the m。unted print.

4刊m the print叫仲mount tissue. T urn t he print and句－mount tissue face up. Use the knife 。r m at cutter to trim off th e wh ite print borders, along with the tissue u nderneath them. C ut straigh t down 。n cop of a piece 。f scrap cardb。ard so that the edges of the print an d tissue are even . Press fir mly o n the ruler when making the cut, and watch your fingers.

s Position th the side margins of t h e board are equal. T h en adjust the p rint top co b。ttom. Fi nally, remeasure t he side margins to make sure they are even . Measure each side two ti mes, from each corner of th e pr inc to the edge of the board. If the print is sligh tly tilted, it will be n oticeable at the corners even th。ugh the print measures even ly at the m iddle.

To keep the print fro m slipping o ut of place, hold the print down gen tly wi th one hand or p ut a piece 。f paper o n the print and a weight o n top 。f that.

6丑ck 伽ed m。unt ti山叫P时。巾b。MSl ig htly ner of t he print and tack that C口mer of t he tissue t口 the board by maki n g ash。re stroke toward d飞e corner wi th the hot tacki ng iron. Keep the t issue flat agai ns t the board co prevent wri nkles, an d be careful n。E to move the p rint o ut of place o n the board. Repeat at the diagonally opposite comer.

7 M。川 the p付nt Put the san dwich of b叫tis heated press with th e protective E。ver sheet 。口 t口p. If you have release paper, put it between d飞e print and t he cover sheet . Clamp the press shut for abou t 30 sec. o r u ntil the pri nt is bon ded firm ly to th e board. You can test th e bon d by flexing t h e board slig htly after it has cooled.

Both ti m e and temperature in the press affect th e bonding. If the p rint does no t bond , first t ry more ti me in the press. If t h e pri nt still does not bond, increase t h e press temperature slightly.

…TER 6 蕾 1 25

Bleed Mounting／οvermαtting

126 PRINTING AND DISPLAY

A bleed-m。unted print is even with the edges 。f the mount.

1 p陀pa叫e川t and mo川。时C川em。u川叫d印the ma臼 rials, and tack the mounting tissue to the prir 124). In step 1, the b。ard can be the same s ize or slightly larger than the

Pri，、t print. . T rim off any excess dry-mount tissue so that the edges of the tissue

are even with the edges of the print. T hen tack the dry-mount tissue and print to the board, and heat in the press (steps 6 and 7, page 125).

2 Trim them。un时P付nt Place巾m。un叫川E缸e up and tri white pri口E b口rders, al。ng with the mount board underneath, using the ruler as a guide. AT-square can help you get the corners square. Hold the knife blade vertically so that it m冰es an edge perpendicular to the surface of the print. Press firmly on the ruler, and watch your fi ngers.

Because the edges of a bleed-mounted print come right up to the edges of the mount board, be careful when handling the mounted print so you don' t accidentally chip or 。therwise damage the edges.

An over『响atted print has a raised border around the print. It consists ofan ov，盯mat (a p iece of mount board with a hole cut in it} placed over a print that is attached to an。ther piece of mount board (the backing board). T he overmat helps protect the print and can be easily replaced if it becomes soiled or damaged. After overmatting, the print can be framed or displayed as is.

Ove川1atting is the preferred means of mounting a print if you are interested in archival preservation or if a print will be framed behind glass. A photograph pressed directly against glass can in time stick per- manently to the glass.

1 Mark th e wind…n them。unt b。ard C…op…ofmo川board. For easier shopping, framing, and storage, stick to standard graphic arts sizes: 11 x 14, 14 × 17, 16 × 20. Subtract the width of your print from the width of the board. For a 7 × 9-inch vertical window in an 11 x 14-inch

board, the board is 4 inches wider than the print. D ivide that by two to find the width of the border on each side: tw。 inches. Do the same for the heigh t to find the top and bottom border. Most artists prefer a print mounted slightly hig her than center, so subtract 1/4 inch from the top border and add it to the bottom one.

Mark the back of the board lig htly in pencil for the window cut. Be sure the window alig ns squarely to the edges of the board. AT-square, if you have one, will help.

2 Cut the window. D时e…E叫t to cut a window freehand with a mat knife. A mat cutter such as the one shown here and on page 122 is an inexpensive way to ma!也 your matting job look professi。nal. Make sure to 咱use the blade angle and depth so it penetrates巾mat only enough to go through the board. Use a sharp blade. Push the blade tip through the mat at one corner and slide a metal ruler against the cutter’s edge. Hold the ruler firmly, parallel to your edge mark, and push the cutter against it and away from you until it reaches the next corner.

Cut each side j ust to the corner, not past it. If the cut edges are a bit rough, you can smooth them with very fine sandpaper or an eme1y board. A beveled edge usually l。。ks more elegan t than a vertical cut.

3 H i咿 the two boa时s togeth内川nga叫of tape al叩b础 edge 。f the overmat and a front edge of the backing board (see illustra- tion on opposite page, second from bottom). You may not need to hinge the boards together if y。u intend to frame the print.

p。sition and attach the print. Slip the print between the backing board and the ovennat. Align the print with the window. The print can be d1y- mounted to the backing board or attached with photo corners or hinges (see be!。w).

4阳。 com叫川e 。nes used to m。川picture an easy way E。 attach a print E。 a backing board. The pri口E can be taken out of the corners and 。ff the mount at any time. The corners are hidden by the overmat. You can buy corners or ma!也your own from archival or acid-free paper (righ t} and attach them to the board with a piece of tape.

。r...

Hinges hold the print in place with suips 。f tape attached to the upper back edge of the print and to the backing board.

A folded hinge (at right, left side) is hidden when the print is in place. Use a piece of tape to reinforce the pan of the hinge that attaches to the mounting board.

A pendant hinge (at right, right side) is hidden by the over mat.

E A山

．··吨

Folded hinge

‘-' Pendant hinge

Backing b。ard

…TER 6 蕾 127

STAN STREMBIC阳 I Image Storage ................ 130 Untitled, from 曲e series Memo叩 L。ss, I

I Usine Metadata .............. 131 a9由Ward Photo Al bum, 2005. I lS

So企ware for Organizing ...... 132

Archiving Images and P r ints ... 133

Or αnizin αnd Storin 7

In this chapter you 'LL leαrn ...

• to have a strategy for naming and labeling your G盹川ph…anized…由an yo

can accumulate q uickly and y。u can have thousands of ct飞em befor e images that will help you 自nd the 。nes you need- now, am。ng y。ur m。St 陀cent captures, and years fr。m n。wwhen you have thousands.

y。u kn。、飞， it. But the computer is a great o rgan izing tool and it is easy-when you shoot digital pictures-to let it h elp. One of the best things about a digital picture is that each one has a hidden compartment to h。ld all the extra informatio n you might want to save about the image. And this saved info rmation travels wi th the file; it can help you find that panicu lar picture quickly-even if it is stored with tens of thousands of o thers.

• to make a plan for duplicating and backing up y。ur fi les s。 you never risk losing any, and z。 fami liarize yourself with hardware and s。仕ware to help you 臼ecute that plan.

• to ch。。se the materials and cond巾。ns that are best for keeping your prints to av，。id fading and damage. T raditional photographic materials needed to be stored carefully in order

to las t . P hotographic prints, no matter what the mate rials or process, can be damaged by time and careless storage. Far in the future, wheth盯 you are g iving a picture album to your great-gra ndchildren or selling a portfolio to a m useum, it is good to know that your p rints wi ll be as perfect as the day you made them.

Stan Strembicki. Untitled, 2006. Our own saved memories are fi,giti时， aswe are reminded by these flood-damaged pho曲S (at r,拚t and opposite) /efi in the wake of a natural disaster. A nonr，臼iden; Strembicki had been photographing New Orleans z昭·ral times a year for over twenty y，臼nbefore Hur· ricane Katrina landed, decimating the city. In the afiermath, he made mon阶段trips 臼 record the damage and effor苗阳 rebuild. 付As an art.成 I felt compelled to do somethin阜 anything," he sφs T ,ying to avoid an excess of path饵， he 叮ooked for symbols of los夜， and gravi，阳ted toward found photo albums. ”

Fami伽photo albums were oβen among the debris bulldozed into piles in front of houses after 伪qhad been under water for weeks. Strembicki was careful not 阳 enter houses, and took nothing away but the images captured by hι DSLR. There is a caution for all of us in this work; our own photographι digital or ana/o阜 are vulnerable，阳0. A斤·er each day of location shootin阜 Strembicki takes care not to put his at avoidable risk; he downloads all the files onto a laptop, duplicates them on阳 d portable hard drive, and then writes them to an optical disk

129

e g α

r o ＃ ι

QU e g α

m EE

A s soon 部 you cr eate a d i~ital im唔e, you h ave t o t hink about storing it . T h e amo unt of storage space that image fi les 。ccupy is a cons id- eration whenever you are us ing a d igital camera, scann ing prints or n egatives, edit ing files, or arch iving them .

Save your f刮目 in 由ei r origi nal form. T h e fi le as it is capm red by you r camera o r scanner is often referred to as a raw file, as opposed to a derψ•ative fi le-one that has been processed, altered, edited, or changed in some way. A Camera Raw fi le (see page 85) is a specific kind 。f raw file that h olds all t he informatio n captured by a d igi tal camera’s sensor, in a completely unproce臼ed for m . If you have instead set your camera to capture images and save them as TIFF files or JPEGs, t hose origi- nal fi les can be considered raw fi les as well.

Post-p rocessing, o r im age editing, p roduces more fi les. Saving t h em becom es another step in your workflow and, u nless you use a photogra- ph凹’s workfl ow program with Camera Raw fi les, they take up m ore storage space. Derivative files are changed s。mehow from thei r original raw s tate. They m ay consis t simply 。f you r raw files with a few color and tone adjustments, resized to print, or may be complex, layered composite im ages. You may als。 save in termediate editing steps as addi tional derivative fi les, in case you want to return an image easily to a previous state.

Ph oto files can be stored on different devices. The easiest, fastes t, and most accessible fo rm of storage is to keep image files o n your compu ter’s internal hard drive. If you scan an image, the scan- ner sends t he image directly to the d rive. After you use a digi tal camera, you m ust transfer your ph。－ tos from the memory card to t he h ard d rive before editi ng them . Memory cards are not intended fo r long-term storage. You will probably wan t to erase （。r reform at) a card fo r reuse any、飞 to down！。ad y。ur 白Jes o nto a hard drive (an d back them up) pr。mprly.

Your com puter’s internal hard d rive may run out of room , especially if you keep maki ng an d s to ring ph otographs. A 1TB d rive can h old ab。ut

130 O R GAN I Z ING AN D S T ORING

50,000 raw files from an 18MP camera, but t h at number is considerably reduced if t he d rive is also used to hold th e computer’s operating system, applications, and all y。ur other data External hard drives are available that can be p lugged in to any computer to add to its storage capaci ty. You can add o ne j川 for picture fi les. Som e d rives, called po时able, are smaller an d bett er protected against bei ng bumped and jostled than a full- sized external drive. Pocket d rives are even small凹， ve1y light, and-like most portable drives-draw t hei r power di rectly fro m the compu ter rather t han needing a separate voltage adapter (called a pow旷 brick). Even t hough they are well protected against the st resses of being carried, no hard drive sho uld be dropped.

D ig ital files c甜 be lost instantly. Hard d nves are susceptible to st ray d ust, spikes of electricit)” an d magnetic fiel ds, in addition to theft o r physi- cal damage. External medi风 including optical disks and m agnetic tapes, are sensitive to storage cond it io ns and can become corrupted (unread- able) over t ime, as can individual files. Losing fi les can also be your o叭响 d。ing; you can accidentally delete a file or write over o ne uni ntenri。nally by saving somet hi ng else w ith t he sam e name.

Fmtunately, with digital p hotographs you can h ave several originals. Keeping a set of idenri- cal copies of each picture fi le is essential to protect you against loss. You will want to have a backup strategy that 归u can both follow an d afford (see m ore o n page 133).

In addition to having copies of everything, you will also want to make sure that you can find someth ing am。ng all t he copies. T h e following page describes ways to name and label y。ur work so you can q uickly search fo r and find anyth ing.

External hard drives are easy 阳add whenever y阳 need more s阳rage.

Portable hard drives (above) and pocket drives (abo昭 top) let you move your files 臼sily to another computer or download from your臼mera on location.

句阳I disk s阳•rage is less lik你阳be damaged by magnetis’”, electrical storms, or wateη but阶eir popularity is diminish- ing. Gold DVDs庐ho附加时are said to have a longer s.阳rage life than other kinds. Lorger臼pacity 8/11-r.弓’但D)diskscan hold up to 3000 15MB files.

C omp uters are g o o d a t keeping t rack o f things, but you have to h elp. Before digital photography, there was o n ly o ne o riginal-a nega- tive or slide. Mose photographers had to devise a system, not only to store and find a piece of film , bur also to keep track of any in fo rmation relating to it. A digital image consists of data; information about it-data about data-is called metada凯

M etad ata com es in severaJ forms. You are

probably already us ing simple m etadata t hat includes the name of a file, its s ize, and its for- mat: a 22MB JPEG fi le called Rai!Station.jpg, fo r example. Th is info rmatio n is part of t h e file itself, so it is not lost if the file is moved or copi叫 and it is displayed by th e c。mputer in any list o r direc- tory of files. A date is also part of that kind of file metadata, although it is us ually the date the file was added to the computer.

Digital ca,回eras save ca p tu re information . Each file forma t that your can1era can use h皿 an internal data block, separate from the image p以els, for t he can1era to store the capture details for each frame. Cameras can save the ap盯ture and sh utter speed, time and date, ISO setting, lens focal length, metering mode, camera brand,

Alex Webb. Port-au-Prince, Ha iti, 19 79. Photographs have many uses. Webb is a member of the photo agency Magnum; pro- spective clients can search magnumphotos.com by entering keywords 阳卢nd his photographs

that meet their needs. Keywords for this photograph include Afr。－Caribbean, Bu nch 。ffl。wers, C。l umn, D。。r, Haitian, Hat, Man, P。rt-au-Prince, Red, Shadow, Streak 。f l ight, and Sunshme

Using Metαdαtα

model, and serial number, and even a GPS locatton for each 口posure. Th is camera-related metadata is kept in a standard form called Exif (Exchangeable image file format), and each different category (like shutter speed) is called a tag or field.

M etad ata can b e a dded la ter . A file’s IPTC (International Press Telecommunicati。ns Council) fields are intended to hold metadata ab。ut the photographer and the picture's subject, ownership, and use. Image edito rs, browsers, and cataloging applicati。ns (page 132) let you view the informa- ti。n in these fields , add to it, o r change it. If you keep your files in their original Camera Raw fo r- mat, these applications will save IPTC data in a sep- arate sidecar file that has the same name and a .xmp file ext ension . TIFF, JPEG, and ONG files can ho ld IPTC data within the file itself. IPTC data is saved in several panels. T h e Contact panel, for example, has fields for the name and contact information of the file’s creator: you, the photographer.

Metadata in any field can be added to a group of images at once. You may want, as you download your shoot from a m凹n01y c缸d, to tag each pho- tograph with your email address and copyright，。E the name of a locatio口， clien t, or assignment.

M etad ata stays with t h e im age. Except for Camera Raw files t hat n eed a s idecar file, if you make a copy or a derivative version of your file, all metadata is automatically transferred to t h e new fi le. Th is can be useful. For 四ample, if you post one of your photographs on a Web si te or send it to a stock agency, your copyright and contact information stays with it ; any。ne wh o downloads it also receives fair warn ing t hat the image can't be reused wi thout permission and has a way to reach you to negotiate fo r permission to use it .

Keywords a nd r atings a r e m etad ata. Files can be tagged wit h descriptive words that make find- ing them easier. In a s imilar way, a rating (stars) or a label (colors) can be applied to a photograph to distinguish it from others that are similar. O nce you have a few thousand photographs, you will be glad you spent the t ime to add t his kind of metadata. Page 132 discusses programs that let you search by ke沪νord and rating.

C HAPTER 7 H 131

Softwαγefor Orgα.nizing

P hotographer's applications-computer so食－ ware prog rams-can help with m any o f your tasks. Image editing is the centerp iece of pose- processing, ge忧ing the photograph you took co look 四actly the way you wane. Alo ng with editing, Ph。toshop also lets you read existing m etadaca and embed your own into a file (File>File Info ... opens Exif and IPTC mecadata panels). Bue Photoshop can' t help you get 。rganized or fi nd anyth ing.

File b rowsers like Bridge, a freestanding appli- cation su pplied with Pho coshop (Fi le>Browse in Bridge ... ), help you organ ize an d locate in吨es. Bridge can download p hotos from a memory card, rename chem , display thumbnails (sm all versions of the files）。fan entire fo lder or a full-screen preview of a selected image，由1d apply m etadata, ke沪words, and ratings co all or a selected group of files.

Photograph町’s w orkflow a pplications like Lighcroom and Capture O ne Pro (page 87) d。 eveη11:hing most p ho tographers need. Like Bridge, th ey will download raw fi les from a memo1y card to a locatio n you speci今， and let you rename, ra风 and tag th em with ke叭’ords. You can m汰e image adjustment皂白size, and pri nt the images, or upload th em to a \Veb site. In additio n, t hey include most of the functi。ns of a catalogi ng applica tio n, o ne th at can help you find specific fi les across all your storage fo lders with a search for specifi c metadata.

Cataloging appli日tions缸especially designed to help y。u find needles in your haystack. Som etimes called an image database or d igital asset manage- menc program, a cataloging program o r image database like the 。ne shown at right can keep track of hund reds of t ho usands of images. Like a browser o r workflow application , it can em bed a selected group of images with ke沪words and oth er metadata It can search for and display images based o n multiple criteria (photographs of m o u n- tains t冰en in 2012 anywhere 四cept in Mon tana). It can q uickly assem ble groups of selected pictures to p resent to a client o n screen, to p rin t, or to post on a Web si te. But an image database program does not usually provide any editing m。Is.

132 O R GA N I ZIN G AN D S TORI NG

A cataloging applicati。n keeps infonnati。n abou t a fi le and its location in its own separate database fi le, so you can use it to find files that have been stored 明i肘， which means t hat t h e storage m edium or volu me is not connected to the computer. T his helps you fi n d backup copies saved on, for 四an1ple, th e backup Blu-ray disks you keep in your safe-deposit box. Because its database is separate from t h e image files , you can add some metadata to an entry t hat is n ot em bed- ded in the fil e; if you distribute the fil e, s。me key- words can remain private.

These appl i国tions let you disp lay your w o rk as a “ s lide show.” You can select a group of photograph s to be seen 。n th e mo nitor or a digital projector one at a ti me, filli ng the screen. y。u can automate a presentation and choose the

tim ing an d the transitions (like a fade or dissolve) between images. 飞;t'ith some workflow programs you can also superimpose selected text and play your choice of m usic along with the show.

An image database, or asset manager (the one shown is Photo Supreme), can di.写play a selected group of stored photographs and help you 卢，，d由actly the photograph or photo- graphs you are looking for among thousands

AN ARCHIVING WORKFLOW FOR RAW FILES 1 . DOWN LOAD FILES direccly from che came阳 or chrough a card reader.

2 . RENAME FI LES. Use a logical syscem chac will still be useful after y。u have 50,000 phocographs.

3. ADD BULK META• DATA. Bulk mecadaca (for example, your name, concacc 川formaci。n,and

copyrighc) is whac goes on all your ph。cog阳phs

4 . CONVERT CAM ERA RAW FI LES TO DNG ify。u ch。ose (page 85). s。me applicacions lee y。u d。 icall-c。nve町， rename,

and append mecada国－as you download

5 . ADD IND IVIDUAL KEYWORDS . With mosc applicaci。ns you can display a large number 。f image chumbnails and apply a k町－ w。rd co a selecced group

6. APPLY RATINGS. Decide which image，。f se明白I similar 。nes，’S che one w。πh recurning co. Give a higher ra口ng z。 che besc 。f che sh。。E

7 . SAVE TO A SECOND HARD DRIVE lfy。u have a mirror RAID (cexc, righc}, chis happens aucomacically. After saving a s.,cond copy 。feve叩ching, you can re岛p mac your came阻’s mem。叩 card co use again

8 . BACK UP ON TWO OPTICAL D匹KS 。r a chird hard drive. Score disks in a c。。I , d叩， dark place for maximum life. Don气 SC。re your backups in che same place as your compucer Give each disk a unique name s。 you can file and fi nd ic eas，忡， for example, Photos 2014-045

9. ADD TO YOUR IMAGE CATALOGING DATABASE as s。on as you wrice the 制自由。pCt· cal disks, so ic can keep crack 。f che c。pies in your 。而tne scorage syscem

Archiving Imαges αnd Prints

W ith digital photographs you can have more than one original. An d, because they ta!也 u p little a ctual s p a ce, it m akes sen se to have sev- e ral copies of everythin g. Prints, slides, a nd nega- t ives have always been vulnerable to catastroph ic loss or dam age, as well as to d egradation over t ime. Im age fi les that a re d igi tal can be stored u nch anged fo r the fo reseeable fu ture and-impor- tan tly-th ey c an be d u p licated exactly. You can dramatically redu ce your chances ofl oss by k eep- ing copies of all your image fi les.

Have a backup strategy t hat you can stay with . D。n't wait until you h ave lost som e impo r- tan t images before you m ake and stick to a plan for arch iving your work.

It is m ost conven ient to h ave all your fil es 。nline, which m ean s t hey are s aved o n one o r m ore hard d rives tha t are powered up a nd con- n ected to the co mputer wh enever you work. But h ard drives can fail; to be s a fe you shou ld also h ave a t least w。 additional copies of everyth i吨， and p referably th ree or m。re.

The best syste m, a t a m in im u m, is to make a second cop y of all your raw fi les on another hard d rive as soon as they a re renam ed and tagged (and

Prints should be kept in archival如，xes. Elegant archival portfolio boxes like the clamshell design on the left make a beautiful pr，出en阳tion but may be 阳oexpensi，昭for regu归r storage. Simpl，电 acid-free, card· boards阳rage boxes, shown on the right, are as safe. L吨·er sizes are made from acid-free corrugated臼rdboard 阳 be morer也'id.

before you have erased them fro m the m e mory ca叫） a时， shortly thereaf町， make w。 more cop- ies on external h ard d rives o r o n re movable m ed ia

s u ch as op tical-CD , DVD, o r BO (Blu-ray)-d isks. A secon d copy of everyth ing o n a local h ard d rive （。ne that ’s in t h e same locatio n as you r main com p u ter) lets you resto re fi les q u ickly in case of a primary d rive failure 。r o ther data loss; t h e cop· ies on rem ovable or p ortable dis k s ca n be k ep t in two di仔erent location s to p rotect you in case of a disaster s u ch as fi re o r the丘 Cloud-based stor-

age, re m ote storage that is accessed throug h the Internet, is a lso useful fo r keepi n g off-si te back- ups. You will also wan t to have a naming, organiz - in g, a n d b ackup strategy for fin ished d凹ivative fi les a nd fo r th。se in p rogress.

A RAID array can help ma k e local storage safer . RAID is a n a c ron ym for redundant array of inex- pen s ive (or independen t) d isks. You can use your com put町、。perating system to format, o r initial- 2时， two d is k drives for RAID level 1, ca lled mirror- ing. Once fo rmatted this W吼 the two d rives a c t like one-you see o nly one icon fo r the d rive, a n d you write to and read fro m it n o rmally. Bu t, invis- ibly, all data is written simultane。usly E。 both.. T h is ki n d of syst n is called fou it creates red u n d ant data; if 。ne d rive fails, all its data 口iscs, iden tically, on the 。ther drive.

Prints (and film) are more c hallenging t o store than dig ital image fi les because they a re p h ysical o悖cts and , most often , u n ique. A stable environme n t, especially o n e with cool tem pera- tures a nd low humid ity, will p rolo n g the life of dig ital prin ts as well as t radition al p h otograph ic materials. Paper must b e p rotec ted fro m acid ity. Unfortunately, most paper made fro m wood p ulp is left a cidic aft盯 manufacture; look ins tead for acid-free in kjet printing paper and mat bo缸d (u s ually m ade fro m cotton rag) that are ava il- able fro m specialty re ta ilers. Those same reta il- ers (search fo r archival s upplies) can also provide s table, chemically neutral p lastic b ags, sleeves, a n d boxes s ized fo r p rints, d isks, slides, o r negatives.

CHAPTER 7 H 133

PAU L D’ AMATO I Qualities of Ligh t. ……… … 136 Isela， αic:ago, 1993· I From direct阳d咖sed ...... .... 136

Simple Portrait Lighting .... ............ .... 144

Existing Light . ........... .... 138 Use what's available . ....... .... 138

Using Artificial Light ..... .... 146 Photolamp or flash ......... .... 146

The Main Light ........... .... 140 The strongest source of light .. .... 140

Fill Ligh t ..... ........... .... 142

Mor e about Flash ......... .... 148 How to position it .......... .... 148

切惚·hten shado削 ......... .... 142 Using Flash .. ............ .... 150

In this chapter yo,i'Ll leαrn ...

• the qualities of natural light-the soze 。fthe source, its direction, c。l。r, and ,ntens,ry-and the effect that changing these qualities will have on y。ur phot。graphs.

• to duplicate the qualities 。f natu甩l light with aπifoc,al light that you can c。ntrol.

• to understand the differences between electronic Aash and continuous light, and to use a camera-mounted Aash unit to make correctly exp。sed images.

Carry Winogrand. Los Angeleι 1969. Light it叫＇｛can sometimes be the subject of伪e picture. Winogrand often photographed comp！＜臼interactions that we all see e时,yday but seldom notice. Here, in addition 阳the mix of people on the street, a reflection from a s阳mwindow makes it appear there are two suns. Winogrand said, "I photograph to see what the photograph will look like. »

Usin ht 8

darken the sky, o r you change p。sition s。 y。ur su均ect is lit from ~；甜！~sc: behind, or you move from a brigh t a rea to the s h ade, your p ictures will

ch a n ge as a result. Light chan ges indoors, coo: your subject may move closer to a s unny window，。E you m ay t u rn o n overhead lig h ts or decide to use a flas h to light your photograph .

Lig h t can affect 巾 feeling of the ph。tograph s。 that a subject appears, fo r example, b rilliant and crisp, h azy a n d so丘， stark or romanci巳 Ifyou mak e a point of observing the ligh t on your s u bject, you wi ll soon learn to p redict how it wi ll look in you r ph。tographs, a n d you will find it easier to use existing light o r to arrange the lig h ting yourself to get just the effect you wane.

135

Qi飞alities of Light FROM DIRECT TO DIFFUSED

L ight can range from direct and contras句 to diffused 四d sof址， whether indoors or 。Ut.

A n d w h e ther you control the ligh t o n your s ubject

or accept w h at is th e re, you should recogn ize th e

d iffe ren ces. H ere's how to identi今 these d ifferent

qualities oflig h t a nd p redict h ow they w ill look in you r p h otograp h.

Direct ligh t is high in c ontrast . It crea tes

bright highlig h ts a n d d ark shad ows w it h har d ,

o r s h arp, e d ges. Ph otogra p hic m a terials, both digital and fi lm , h a ve limited dynamic range

(latit叫e) a nd cannot reco rd d e t ails in very

ligh t a n d ver y dark a reas a t t h e sam e ti m e.

D irec tly lit a reas may a ppear brilliant a nd b o ld ,

w ith s hadowed o n es a lmost entirely black . If you are photographi n g in d irect lig h t , you m ay want

to a dd fi ll ligh t ( p ages 142- 143) to ligh ten shad- ows. Beca use direct lig ht is o丘en q ui t e brig ht,

you can use a s m all a p erture to g ive p lenty

o f depth 。f fi eld , a fast s hutter speed to stop

m o t ion, o r b oth , if the lig h t is b righ t e n o u gh. T h e s u n o n a clear d ay is a commo n source of

direc t lig h t . Indoors, a flash or p h oto lamp p。int

ed d irectly at your su均ect ( that is, n ot bo unced

off anoth er s urface) also provid es d irect lig ht.

Direcεlight

Dorothea Lange. Woman of the High Plains, Childr，出sCoung,, 7注明， 1938.

Compare the qualities of light in th臼epic- Directional/d，狲sed light-definite shad，棚， but softer edged than in direct I，也ht. Diffused l也ht-indirect and soft.

tures and阶e effect it has on the su怡出 Direct fight-contrasg,, with hard-edged shado附

Pro.iect: THE sAME su町ECT I N D I FFER ENT 川HT PROCEDURE Photograph the same pe归。n in several d ifferen t lighting situat i。ns. F。r example，。n a sunny day begin by photo- graphi ng 。utdoors in the sun T叩n。t tow。rk a t noon when the sun is directly overhead Light usually appears m。re interesting in the m。rni ng 。r a仕ernoon when the sun is aεan angle to the su均ect Make severa l exposu陀s in each situation.

Worl< 陀latively close: head-a nd-shoulders rather than full伦n寥hviews. Fi陌t, have the sun behind your back, s。 it shines directly int。 the

person’s face Then move y。ur su同ect so the sun is shining on him 。r her from the side. Then have the sun behind the pers。n, so he or she is backlit. (Page 72 tells how to meter backlit scenes.)

Make several ph。tographs in di侃』sed natural light, for 四ample, under a tree 。r in the shade of a bu ilding. Make some ind。。目， with the pe归。n illuminated by light c。ming from a wind。w.

1 36 USING LI GH T

As a compa rison to sunlight in the morning or aftern。。n, y。u could als。 make some photographs 目n。on w ith the su同ect lit by the sun overhead to see why it is not recommend ed .

Select the best poπrait in each type of light .

HOW DID YOU DO? What d。 y。u see thaε is di仇rent a mong the vari。u s ph。tographs? Is there m。re t四ture visible in s。me sh。臼P Do the shad。ws seem too dark in some? (Pages 142- 143 tell h。w to use fi ll light to make shad ows lighter.)

How d oes the light affect t he mod eling ( the appearance of v。lume）＿。f the fa ce? Light not only changes the way subjects a ppear in a p h。tograph, it can cha nge the way we perceive or 也el a bo ut them . Do some 。f the portra its appear so仕er? Harsher? M。re dramatic >

Tina Barney. Mom, 1996.

Di侃,sec! Ugh拿

Sage Sohier. Girl Being Prepared for a Horse Sho叫 Sandwich, NH, 2004.

D irection al/ d iffi』sed lig ht is interm ediate in contrast. Ir is partly d irect an d partly di仔used. Sh adows are present, bur t hey a re softer an d n or as dark as those casr by direct light.

You will encou nter di recrional/ diffused lighr 。n a ha勾F day when the sun ’s rays are somewhar scattered so light comes from the su1-r。unding sky as well as fro m the su n. A shaded area, such as u nder t rees o r along the shady side 。fa building, can have direction al/ diffused light if the lighr is bouncing o nto the scene primari ly from one di rec- tion. Indoors, a skylighr or other large wi ndow can give th is type of light if the sun is not shin- ing direct妙。n the SU均ecr. Lighr fro m a flas h or photo lamp can also be direcrional/ diffused if ir is softened by a rranslucenr diffusi ng material placed in front of rh e light or if it is bounced 。ff another surface such as a wall or an u mbrella reflector.

Di佩』sed ligh t is low in contr ast. Ir bath es subjects in ligh t from all sides so that shadows a re weak or even absent. Colors are less br illianr t h an they are in d irect ligh t an d are likely to be pastel or m u red in tone. Because diffused light is likely to be di m mer rhan direct ligh t, you m igh t n ot be able to use a s m all apertu re with a fas r sh utter speed.

A heavily overcast day creares diffused ligh r because t h e ligh r is casr even ly by rhe who le dome of t h e sky rath er rhan , as it is o n a sun ny day, mostly by t he s m all d isk of t h e su n. In doors, diffu sed ligh r can be creared with a ve1y broad s。urce of light used close to t he s ubjecr (such as ligh r bounced into a large umbr ella reflector) p lus addirio nal fi ll light. (Page 143 top shows a吵box-anorher broad sourc←u时 in a lighting setup.)

CHA PT ER 8 I!'需 137

Existing Light USE WH A丁’S AVAILABLE

D o n ’t w a it for a s u n ny d ay to g o phot o g raphing . You can E丛《e p ictures even if t h e ligh t 1s d im: indoors, in t h e ram or snow, at dawn or dusk. If you see a scene that appeals to you, you can find a way co ph otograph it.

A h igh ISO is u seful when light is d im. It w ill help you sh。。t a t a fast enough s hutter speed to s top m。tion or at a small enough aperture to give adequate depth of fie ld. A t ripod can steady a camera for long exposures.

John Collier. Grandfather Romero, 99 years old, Trampaι NewM时co, 1943. Use the light you fi, d if you can; it usually looks the most believable.

T,y 阳make some伪ing out of what is already there

138 US ING LIGHT

before thinking of changing anything. The l信仰in this room from one small window is simple and effective.

….

Ken”eth Josephson. Chicago, 1961. Available light 臼n also mean available shadow. 0卢en, the play of light and shadow alone 臼n be enough 阳make a great picture. Assu句“毛 the {igu -es here are not as impo刷nt as the arra咿ment 。rshapes made钞bi缸。（sunlight piercing the overhead structure of Chi，臼，go'sele时ted train.

David Alan Harvey. Easter Celebration in the Mixtec Reion, 0剧:aca,M白白， 1992. In 田tremely dim I也h电 start wrth 伪ehigh自t ISO your 阔，，，era o伊rs (or an ultrafast fi阳 like F可i Neopan 1600) Only阶e臼ndles illuminate this scene, which was le~

reddish by the photographer e昭n though the white balan臼 could be adjusted 巾p出I-production. Brack- eting is always a good idea in marginal I,拚tingsitua· tions. Make several extra sho缸ifyou臼n, increasing the 由：posu鸣 then decreasing it.

C H A PT ER 8 I!'需 139

The Mαin Light THE STRONGEST SOURCE OF LIGHT

T he most realistic a nd usually t h e most p leasing lighting resembles d aylight, the ligh t we see most often: o n e main source oflight from above creating a s ing le set of shadows. Lighting seems unrealistic (although t here may be ti mes wh en you will wan t that) if it comes from below or if it comes from two or more

equally strong sources t hat produce shadows going in d ifferent d irections.

S hadows define 由e lig hting. Although pho- tograph ers talk about the quality of lig h t com ing fro m a particular source, it is actually the s hadows created by the ligh t that can m汰e an image harsh orso丘， menacing or appealing. To a great extent, the shadows determine th e solidity or v。lume that shapes appear to have, the degree to wh ich E四ture is shown , and s。meti mes t he mo。d or emo tion of the picture.

The m ain Ii拚t, the brightest Ii阱t必川1g 。n a SU均ect, creates t he st rongest shadows. If you are t巾ng to set u p a ligh ting arrangemen飞 look at the su均ect from camera position. Notice the way the shadows shape o r model the su均已ct as you move t he main lig h t around or as you change the positi口n of the su同ect in 阳lat main light. .

Direct ligh t from a 500-watt incandescent lamp in a bowl-shaped metal reflector was used fo r these photographs, with no oth凹 light sources, producing shadows that are hard edged and dark. Di rect sunligh t or direct flash will produce similar effects. The light would be softer if it were bounced onto the su均ect from another surface, such as an umbrella reflector (shown o n p咿 145), o r if it were diffused Fill l胁t (see pages 142- 143) would lighten the shadows.

140 USING LI GH T

科叫

l>晶 Frontlighti，咯 Here the main light 且p归自d close 阳 the lens，因呻en a flash unit attached to the 臼mera ispo巾ted directly at 伪e subject. Fewer shadows are ν'isible from camera position wi，阶 this仰eoflighting than with others, and, as a result, forms seem flattened and t臼阳res less pronounced. Many ne附photos and snapshots are front/it because it is simple and quick 阳 shoot with the flash on the camera

d国 High 45。 I也hti.咯／（the main light is moν＇edh妙and to the side of the camera, not precisely at 45。 but somewhere in 伪at 时cinity, shado附 model the face to a rounded shape and emphasize t臼tures more than 时阶front l也hting. This is often the main l也•ht pos'ition used in comme产 cial portrait studio耳 fill l也ht would then be added to lighten the shado回

~卸

d国 Side lighti略Amain ／也ht at about a 90。 angje to the camera will I,拚t the SU句“ br也ht如on 。ne side and cast shado附across the other side. When the sun is low on the horizon at sunset or sunrise, it can create side lighting 伪at adds interest 阳归ndscapes and other outdoors臼nes. Side l也•hting岳阳metimes used 阳dramatize a portrait.

4国 Backlighti,号 Here the light is moν·ed around farther to the back of the SU怡ct than it is for side lighting. If the l也•ht was direc.吵behind the subje，代价e entire fa臼would be 巾shadowwi.阶just the hair outlined bya rim of也·ht. Back/.也htin阜 also called edge or rim lightin阜 is used in mu/t，伊le-light setups 阳bring out texture or阳separate 阶e SU句ect from the 切ckground.

－－捆 Top lighting. With the l也ht direct吻。时rhead, long dark shado回 are cast M阳eye sockets and under nose and chin, producing an effect that is seldom appealing for portraits. Unfortunate少， top lighting is not uncom- ’”。，，－outdoors at noon when the sun is overhead or indoors when the main l敏t市 coming from ceiling fixtures. Fill ／，也•ht added 阳l也·ht，削阶e sh ado阴阳n help β四 n田tpage)

m 川v：

一捆 Bottom lighting. 咿，ting that comes from below ／，。由distinctly odd in a portrait. 7百位ιbe臼use light on people outdoors or indoors almost never comes from below. This type of light 臼•sts unnatural shado附 that often create a menacing effect. Some produ巾， howe时r-gjassware, fore.κample-are effectiv，吵lit from belo叫 such lighting is often seen in ad时rtisingphotographs.

C HAPTER 8 I!'需 1 41

Fill Light TO LIGHTEN SHADOWS

Fm lig h t m akes s h a dows less d a rk by adding light to them. Photographic materials can record detail and texture in either brightly lit areas or deeply shadowed ones but generally not in both at the same time. So if important shadow areas 缸e much darker than lit areas-for 四ample, the shaded s ide of a person’s face in a sunlit portrait- consider whether addin g fill light wi ll improve your picture. T he fill lig ht should not overpower the main light but simply raise the lig ht level of shadow areas so you can see clear detail in the final image.

W h e n do you need fi ll ligh t? Negative films are very sensitive to contrast; digital capture is some- what less so. With either, as little as two stops d能rence between lit and shaded areas can make

shadows ve1y dark. HOR (pages 74-75) can help control excessive contrast but the su均ect must be absolutely stationa1y; it can't help when you are photograph in g people.

In most portraits, a partly shaded subject that has shadows two stops darker than the lit side of the face will be contrasty but will still sho即 full texture and detail everywhere. But when shadows get to be three or more stops darker than lit areas, 在II light becomes useful. You can control contr出E between highlights and shadows later, in editing, but results are often better if you can lig hten shadows by adding fill ligh飞 rather than t巾ng to lighten a too-dark shadow later.

F ill ligh t o u t doors. It is easier to get a p leasant expression on a person’s face in a sunlit outd。。I portrait if the su均已ct is lit from the s ide 。r from beh ind and not squinting into the sun. These positions, however, can make the shad。wed side of the face too dark. In such c臼es, you can add fill light to decrease the contrast between the lit and shadowed sides of the face (see rψt). You can

142 USING LI G HT

a lso use fill light outdoors for close-ups of flow- ers or other relati ly small o均ects in which the shadows would otherwise be too dark.

Fill ligh t in d oors. A sin g le photoflood or flash used ind。ors 。ften produces a ve1y contrasty light in which the shaded side of the face (or any other subject) will be very dark if巾 lit side is exposed n。rmally. Such light is likely to appear more con- trascy than in a similar photograph lit by sunlight because light from the sky acts as 自II light out- doors. Notice how dark the shaded areas are in

the single-lig ht portraits on pages 140-141. You might want such contrasty lighting for certain photographs, but ordinarily fill light should be added to make the shadows lighter.

Sou r ces o f fi ll light. A reflector, such as a white card or cloth, is a good way to add fill light indoors 。r out. An aluminized “s pace b lanket" from a camping-supply store is easy to carry and hig hly reflective. Convenient collapsing “ bounce cards” are available from camera retailers that cater to professionals. Hold ing a reflector at the correct angle, usually on the opposite side of the subject from the main light, will reflect s。me 。f d飞emai口 light into d飞e shad。叽，S

A flash can be used for fill light ind。口rs or outdoors. A un it in 、、，hich d飞e brightness 。f

d飞e flash can be adjusted is much easier to use than one with a fixed output. Some flash units designed for use with automatic cameras (or built into the camera bod份 can be set to prov陆白ll flash automatically.

In indoor setups, light from another ph。to flood can be used for fill light. To keep the fill lig ht from overpowering the m副n light, the fill can be far出er from the su均ect than the main lig ht, oflesser intensity, bounced，。r diffused. See photographs opposite.

Front／，也-ht. The ma的face is lit by sunlight sh巾ingdi rectfy on it. Facing someone M归 the sun usually臼uses an awkward squint against the br也ht I，也·ht.

Backlight. Here he faces away from the sun and has a more re归xed expression. Increasing the exp出ure would l也·hten the shadowed side of his face but make the lit side very l也ht.

Back／.也ht plus fill light. Here he still faces away from the sun, but fill I.也•ht has been added归 Ii%），阳n the shaded side of the face. A reflection of the bounce card appears in hisgla自由 Such reflections 臼n be controlled by angling the h臼d slight，护

Using a reflector for fill I也-ht. A M也e white cloth or card 臼n lighten shado阔的切cklit or side/it portraits by reflecting onto 阶e shaded side of the suψct some of the il/un

- from the ma巾light. Sometimes n时earbyo句iects will act as natu rat reflectors, such as sa叫 sno叫 wateι or a light-colored wall. 7百e reflector臼n be clamped to a stand, held by an ass.岳阳nt, or simp如propped up. 7百edo.且r the reflector is 阳 the sut庐吃 the more light it will reflect into the shado晒 Be careful to keep it out of the picture.

In 阶e臼：amp/eon阳也h; themai，，，也ht is on your lefi- the sitter's riif,ι The light is inside a如卢box, used to sofien shadow edges. Clamped to a s臼nd on the opposite side of the 阳怡，ais 伪e reflecto.ι且metimes called a bounce臼M

For a portrait, t,y to angle the reflector to add enough fill l也•ht so the shadowed side of the face is one 归 two stops darker than the sunlit side. Here's how to count the number of stops’ difl♀rence. Meter only伪e lit side and note 伪e shutte俨speed and aperture settings. Meter only阶e shado附d side and note the shutter speed and aperture. 7百e number off stops ( or shutte问：peed settings) between the t附 exposures equals the number of stops' di如renee.

Using a pho阳flood for fill I也·ht- The photographer pla臼d the main light at about a 45。 angle 阳 the lef飞 then positioned a second photoflood on the right side of the camera so it increased 阶ebr也htness of the shado附 This fill l也ht was placed close to the 臼mera's lens so it did not crea阳secondary shado附 that would be visible from camera position. The main light was pla臼d closer to 伪e subject so it would be stronger than 伪e fill light.

Meter the lit side of the scene and the shaded side; then adjust 阶el.也hts until the shaded side is one 归 two stops darker than the lit side. To get an accurate reading, you must me阳r each area separately without including阶e background or other ar，臼s of different br，也•htness. !(you are photographing＿时少 smallo句；ec筒，you臼n use a spot meter or make substitution readings from a pho归•graphicgray card positioned first on the lit side, then on the shadowed side.

Using flash for fill light. To I.也•hten the shadows on the subject's face, the photographer attached a flash unit to her camera. If the flash light is too bright, it 印，3 0时,power阶e main ／也•ht and create an 川，，atura/ effect. To prevent 阶is, the photographer set the flash for manual operation and draped a handkerchief over the flash head to decrease the intensity of 阶e light. She could also have stepped back from the sut庐d (al伪ough this附uld ha昭changed 伪e framing of the s，四ne), or, 时阶 some flash units, decreased阶el，也ht output of the flash.

The handkerchief also cha怨自阶equality of伪e light. Like a small version of the soβbox pictured abo吨 it increases the apparent size of the source and如s/igh吵如卢·ens the harshness 阶at usually results from small 臼mera-mounted flash units. Many flash at臼chments and light modifiers are available坦1Ja rately to further alter the harshness 。fon-camera flash.

See your owner's manual for instructions on how to set your camera and flash for fill lighting. In general, for a subject that is partly lit and partly shaded, decrease 伪ebr，也-htn醋。fthe flash on the su侬d until it is one to two stops less than the 切sic 由:posure from the sun.

Simple Portrαit Lighting

M any fin e portraits h a ve b een made u s ing simple light ing setups. You don ' t need a com- plicated ar rangement of ligh ts to make a good p。rrrait. In fact, the s impler t he setup, the m ore comfortable an d relaxed your subject is likely to be. (See pages 166- 169 for m ore about ph。to graph ing people.)

Ou时oors, o pe n sha d e or a n overcast s ky surrou nds a subject in soft, even lighting (photo- graph opposi te, b。ttom). In open shade, the per- son is o ut of direct s un ligh t, perhaps u nder a tree or in t he shade of a buildi ng. Illu m ination comes fro m light reflected from th e ground, a n earby wall, or oth er surfaces. If th e sun is hidden by an overcast or cloudy sky, ligh t is scattered over the SU均ecr from t he entire sky. In sunligh t, shadows may appear relatively bluish because t h ey are hid- den from t he s un and illu minated o nly wi th light fro m the sky.

144 USING LIGHT

Indo ors, window lig h t is a conven ient source of light du ri ng the day (th is page, bottom). T he closer your su bject is to the window, the brigh ter the ligh t will be. If direct sunlight is sh ining th rough the wi ndow an d falls on t h e subject, contrast w ill be ve1y h igh: lit areas ve1y light, unlit a reas very dar k. A small wi ndow will create harder shadows than a large o ne. U nless you want ext reme con trast, ir’s best to have the subject also lit by indirect ligh t bounci ng off o t her surfaces. A reflector opposi te t h e w indow can lighten sh ad- ows by adding fi ll light to t h e s ide of t h e pers。n fac ing away from the window.

A m a in light-photo何ood or 何ash-plus re何ector fill is a si m ple setup when available ligh t is inadequate (see opposi te top). Bouncing the m ain light (s。metimes called the key ligh t) into an u m brella reflector provides a softer light than sh ining it directly onto the subject .

Amy Stein. ＼，＼斤，，dow#2, 200S. Window light can be contras飞y unless other windo町， as here, a nearby l也·ht-colored wa吧。ra well- placed reflectoιprovide fill.

Stein's series D。mest1cat ed "e净lores our paradoxical relation sh伊时阶 the ’wild. ” ’ Like the birds, the woman looks at the world from inside her geometric enclosure.

Sam Com en. Amy Adams for The New Y，。rkTimes, Los Angeles, 2014. A main light plus reρector fill is the simplest setup when you want to arrange the lightingyourself. 7百e ma巾source of light here is from a medium-sized如，ftbox pointed at the subject. A reflector on 伪e。伪er side 。｛the SU侬ct bounces如me 。fthe

fightback 阳也·hten the shadows. αmenwasiven about tweno/ minu阳阳shoot the staro{Tim Burton's Big Eyes in a hotel's conferen臼 room.

John Weiss . Carry Temple阳”， San Diego Padres, 1984. In open shade outdoors, a buildin阜 tree, orothero协d blocks the direct rays of the sun. So卢er indirect lif!),t bounces onto the su怡cι Here, the ballplayer was shaded 钞the dugout roof ηe photographer hung a black cloth on the dugout wall to pro时de a plain background.

C H A PT ER 8 I!'需 1 45

Using Artificiαl Light PHOTOLAMP OR FLASH

Ar训cial ligh t sources let you bring your own light with you when the sun goes down, w hen you ph otograph in a relatively dar k room，。E when you need just a little m ore lig h t t han is avai lable. Arti ficial sources are consistent an d never go beh in d a clou d jus t when you’re ready to ta!也 a picture. You can manip ula te them to produce any effect you want-from lig ht t h at looks like natu ral sun light to underlighting e仔ec臼 that are seldom fo und in nature. 01日erent sources produce light ofdi险阻nt color balances, each requ iring a d iffe r- ent wh ite balan ce setting.

C ontinuously burning ( incandescent) lamps s uch as LED bu lbs, t ungsten ligh ts, and q uartz （。r halogen) lamps p lug into an electrical o utlet . Because they let you see h。w t h e lig h t a仔ects th e SU均已ct, they are excellent for portr出“， sti ll l治s, and other station ary s山，jects that give you t ime to adjust th e lig ht exactly. Determ in ing th e exposure is easy: you met盯 the brightness of t he light j ust as you do outdoors. Professional ph otographers often refer t。 continuous sources as hot I.也hts.

Electronic 何ash or strobe is the m ost popular source of portable lig h t. Power can com e from eith er batteries, a rechargeable power pack, or an electrical o utlet . Som e un i臼 are built into cam-

eras, bu t the m ore powerfol o nes, wh ich can light o均eccs at a g reater distan ce, are a separate acces- sory. Because elect ronic flash is fast eno ugh to freeze most m。tion, it is a good choice w hen you need to light u nposed shots or moving subjects.

Flash must be s归chronized with 由e cam- e ra’ s shutter so th e flash of light occurs when the shu tter is fully 。pen. 飞With most single-lens refl四 can1eras that have a focal -plane shutter, shutter speeds of l/60 sec. or slower will synch ro- n ize with elect ron ic flash; some models have shutters t hat syn chronize at h igher speeds, u p to V300 sec. At sh utter speeds faste r than t h at, the camera’s sh utter curtains are open only part of the way at any time so o nly part of t h e sen sor would be exposed. T h e fastes t shutter speed d uring which th e curt ains open all the way is called the

146 USIN G LIGHT

sync speed. Caiτ1eras with leaf shutters synchr。nize with flash at any sh utter speed. Somεtop-oιthe lir speci白C camera m odel) can operate in h（坦b平时d sync mode so the camera’s focal -plane shu tter can be set for any sh utter speed. See your owner’s m anual for details o n how to set the camera and

connect the flash ro it.

A utomat ic flas h units have a sensor that mea- su res the amount ofl> 1t reflected by the su同ect during the flash; the unit terminates the flash when th e exposu re is adequ ate. Even if you have an automatic u n it , s。metimes you will want to calcu late an d set the flash exposure manu ally, such as when the su均ect is ve1y close ro the flash or very far from it and not wi t hi n the automatic flash range. Like a utomatic foc us, automatic flash units may give less accu rate results when your su bject is not centered in th e frame. M。St dedi卜 cated flash models allow the came问 when set fo r one of its auto-exposure modes, to control the brightness of th e flas h automatically to add a preset level of fi ll.

Determining your own exposu re with 何ash IS different fro m doing so with o ther light sources because th e flash of light is too brief to measure with an ordi na1y light meter. Some professionals use a h and-held light meter that can measure th e brief burst of a flash, but you can also accurately determine flash exposure using the histogram display on the back of a d igital camera Use a manual 四posure mode and test exposu res, va1ying t he aperture, ISO, or flas h power set- t ing. Because the farth er the su同ect is fro m a given flash un it , the dimmer the light that it receives, you can also calcu late y。ur flas h expo- sure by knowi ng-or guessi ng-the subject’s distance (opposite).

Automatic electronic flash is a standard accessory for an au阳matic由p出ure 臼mera. The flash has a light－旦时iti，时 cell and electronic circuitry that sets the duration of the flash~ metering the amount of light reflected by the sut庐dduring the 自：posure.

The inverse square law is the basis for flash exposure 臼lculations. The farther that light traν岭， the more the light rays spread out and the dimmer the resulting illumination. 7百e law states that at twice a gj时叫＇istance, an 。收ct re出i昭sonly o，陪fourth the I也•ht (intensity of illumination is 巾versely proportional to 阶e square of the distance from l也'ht tO SU句iect). In the illustration here, only one-fourth the amount of light falls on an o与ect at 10卢 from a l也＇ht source as on an o向；ect at 5 ft. from the sou町e

To calculate your own flash exposure,you need to know two 伪ings: the distance the l也•ht travels 阳 the subject and the guide number (a ratinggjven by 伪e ma阳｛acturer for the flash when used with a specific ISO) . Divide the distance that the l也·ht travels from flash unit to subject into the guide number to give you the lens fstop you should use.

Some flash units have a calculator dial that will do the division for you. Dial in the ISO and the flash-to-su句；ect distance, and the dial will show the correct fstop.

Bounce flash travels an extra distance. If you are 臼lculating a bounce flash exposure, measure the distance not from flash 阳 SU与ect but from flash to reflecting surface to subject. In addition, open the lens aperture an 臼tra one-half stop or full stop toallowforl也ht absorbed by the reflecting surface. Open even more if the reflecting su彷ce is not white or very l信仰in 阳ne.

Some automatic flash units ha昭a head that can be swiveled up or to the side for bounce flash while the flash sensor remains pointed at the s吻丽而h type of unit 臼n au阳matica／，ψ臼lculate a bounce flash exposure be臼use no matter ，.响ere the head is pointe~＇. 伪e sensor will read the light reflected from the SU协ct toward阶e臼mera Some cameras can measure flash light 伪rough the lens: these also can be used au阳matica吵with bounce flash

。 5 仕 20 丘

X. the light asat 5 丘

10 丘

14 the l唱ht asat 5 丘

Manually Calculating a Direct Flash Exp。”re

Guide number is 80 with this fl ash unit used with ISO 100 fil m

曾三布鲁稽可。 5 仕 20 丘1 0 仕

Guide number , 80 一一一一一－ . 卜stop - • 16

Distance from 由ash to su均ect

80 -- a x 10

80 . - a n

@@ 0 可16 f/ 8 f/ 4

Manually Calculating a Bounce Ras h Exposure

/ ~ Re而ectmg surface

sY ~年 / //\\ J仨，.＿、.......

Gu ide nu mber _ • t-st。。

Distance fr。m ’ flas h m陀fleeting sur缸e tO SU均ect

~ • 8 10

Open lens 。ne stop 。rm。re to c。mpensate fo r hght absorbed by refl ecting surface

f/8一》 f/5.6

C h a n g ing t h e s hutter s peed d o es not a仔ect 由e exp o s ure from a 何ash, as long 曰：r is wit h in the a ccep table ran ge for synchr。nization (the sync speed 。E slower).

You can determine the amo unt oflig ht fal lmg o n th e su均ect by d ivid ing th e d is tance to t h e su b - ject into the flash u n it’s outpu t (its gi.ide nmnb旷）

T h en you set th e aperture accordi咆ly (see illustra- ti。ns above). Som e manufact川rs overrate gu由 n umbers a b it (in o rder to m ake the ir prod u cts s。und mo re power ful than th ey actual抄 are), so it’s a good idea to t ry out a new flash u n it with s。me test exp osures o r a professio n al flas h m eter before you use it fo r a n ything imp o rtant.

C HA PT ER 8 I!'需 1 47

More αbout Flash HOW TO POSITION IT

per haps you can change your own position to have the same effect. You can also modi今 the fl ash so it m ore evenly reach es vari。us parts 。f the scene, such as by bou ncing the lig ht o n to t h e SU均ect 。r you can use more than 。ne flash u n it. If none of t h ese options is possible, you s imply have to work w it h the fact that those parts of t h e scene t hat are fa rt h er fro m the fl ash will be darker than those that are closer. U nless it is extrem e, you can effectively co m pensate fo r uneven expo- sure in editing. If you know the light falls off and gets di m mer t h e fa rther it t ravels, you can at least predict how t he flash will illu m inate a scene.

lig h t ge岱 dimmer the 也rther it t ravels. Lig h t fro m any source-a w indow, a conrinu。usly burning lamp, a fl ash-follows t he same general rule: the light falls off (gets d im mer) th e farther 巾 lψE source is fro m an o均ect. You can see and measure that effect if, for 四ample, you meter o均ects that are near a brig ht lamp compared to those that are farth er away. But ligh t from a flas h comes and goes so fast that you can't see the effect of t he flash on a scene a t the t ime you are ta!。ng the picture.

同ash portrai臼. In one way, flas h is easy to use for portraits: the flash of light is so fast that you don't have to wony about th e subject blurring because it moved during the exposure. Bur t he ligh t fro m the flash is so quick (1/1刷sec. o r shorter）巾tyou can ’t really see what th e su bject looks like when lit. Howev凹， with some practice you can predict the qualities 。f lig ht t hat are typical of different flash positions. Sho叭响。n the opposite page are some si mple lighti ng semps for portraiture.

A 何ash-lit scen e m ay not be evenly illumi- n ated . Because light from a fl ash gets di mmer the farther it travels, you h ave to use a smaller lens apert ure fo r subjects close to th e fl ash, a wider ap盯ture for su bjects farther away. There are several ways to determine t he correct exposure for a SL均ect at a given d istance (pages 146- 1 4乃 But w hat do you do if different parts of t he same scene are at different distances fro m th e fl邵阳

Someti mes you can rearrange the su均ect, such 臼 the people in a group p。rtrait , so all are more or less at the sam e distance fro m the flash;

When obje出 are at different distances from a flash, those that are closer will be l也ighter than those that are farther a协‘，·a Notice how dark the back of the room i. ·s: , e时n阶e dots tail is darker than his head. T,y 阳position the m出t important pa础。fa 阳·ne (or position the flash) so they are more or less the same distance from the flash

Notice the dots unusually b时rght 电yes. In a color photograph they would appear red. Red-eye 且a reflection of the eye's retina through its lens and occurs when the flash is mounted too close to the 臼mera's lens The retina's surface 且covered with blood ve出·Is that make 伪e reflected I，敏tred. Foran 自·ample of red吃ye in coloι see page 218.

只伽旱’伽 a －3

US ING LIGHT 148

Direct flash on camera is simple and easy to use be臼use the flash is attached to the 臼mera. The light shining straight at 阶e subject from camera position, however, tends to flatten out roundness and gives a rather harsh look

‘阿

’

Flash bounced from above onto 阶e SU句iect gives a softer, more natural light than direct flash . L也•ht can also be directed into a large pie臼 ofwhite 臼rdboard or an umbrella reflector and then bounced onto 阶e subject. Bouncing the flash cuts the amount 。fl也ht that reaches the subject. Some flash units au阳matically compensate for this, or you 臼n make 伪e exposure adjustment your四lf(see page 147)

气墨画 Direct flash o疗camera-usual如raised and 阳one side- gi，时s more roundness and modeling than does flash on camera. A 毛ynchronization ( or synφ cord lets you mo时 the flash away from the camera To avoid a shadow on the wall, move the subject away from it or raise the flash more.

Flash bounced from the side onto the su句；ect gives a soft, flattering l也ht. You can use a light-colored wall, a large piece of white cardboard, or an umbrella reflector. The closer the subject ι to the reflector, the more distinct the shadows will be. To avoid a shadow on the back wall, mo昭 the SU句；ect away from it.

C H APTER 8 I!'需 1 49

Using Flαsh

150 USI N G LIGHT

Bruce Ci/den. Old Man at a Racetrack, Ireland, 199丘 Flash can be unflatter- ing, especially direct l也ht斤。ma built-in flash or one attached 阳 the camera. Gilden often shoo臼with his camera in one hand and the flash in the other, connected bya~nc白，d By moving伪el，吵tsource away from the臼mera he creates shado削阶at』归depth to his subje，ι

And, because of its 时可y short duration, V,ooo sec. or I，阳，flash 臼，，al如呻阳rea momentary expression. Gilden used this image in A仕er the O ff, his坦ries on rural racetracks in Ireland

Carl De Keyzer. GI.κ6. Krasnoyarsk, 2002. Flash fills 伪e shadows. Without the flash, shooting in阳阶e light like this附uld put the su侬ct 巾silhouet.缸， the position of the sun is revealed by 伪eshado附ofthe man and the building coming toward the photographer. 7丁oe blur of movement around the birds’ wings is the result of’”。ν·eme’” during the 由：posure and is noticeable here because the daylight provides more of the overall exposure than the flash.

This photograph is from a selfassigned p.’可iect investigat- ing Siberian prison 臼mpι former gulags, that was published as 阶e book z。na

CHAPTER 8 I!'需 151

MARC PoKEMPNER I What's in the Picture ... ...... . 154 Do附at T加e扭亏， 1974. I The edges or frame ...... ...... . 154

Formal: Setting them up . ..... ... 168

The background ........ ...... . 156 Photographing

Fo口皿...... ........... ...... . 158 the Landscape ...... ...... ... 170

\Vhich parts are sharp . ... ...... . 158

Time and Motion in a Photograph ...... ...... . 160

Photo.~raphing the Cityscape ....... ...... ... 172

Depth in a Picture ..... ...... . 162 Three dimensions become t阳o.... . 162

Photographing Inside ...... ... 174

Chaos into order . ....... ...... . 163 Assembled

Photographing for Meaning .. . 164 to be Photographed . ...... ... 176

Portraits ... ........... ...... . 166 I呐rmal: Findi哝them .. ...... . 166

Responding to Photographs ..... ...... ... 178

Seein~ Like αCαmerα 1重l 9 In this chapter you 'LL leαrn ...

• to break down your i ntu ,rive way of阻k, nga pictu陀 i nto consci。us component parts-subject and con四nt, framing and the edge, and the fo陀ground/background relati。nshi p.

• to make considered dec凶。ns ab。ut h。wyour camera settings, location, and subject will affect the meaning of a photograph.

• h。wto discuss y。ur photog，目phs and those 。f others in ways that s。 beyond " I like it” 。r “It’sg。。d ”

、－－”守·

piαures t r…h e w o r ld y d飞eW。rid outside thei r edges, and mal<e the parts t hat are recorded flat- cer and, usually, much s1τ1aller. Black-and呐1 ice ph。tographs are even

mote abstracted than th ose in colo r . No photograph is the same thing as what you ph otographed; it refers somehow to the origi nal scene but has its own life and mean ing. The o nly way to und erstand and master this t ranslatio n is to conti nue the work cycle: make a photograph, look at it, think about it, make an o ther.

Photographs can tell a sto1y, arouse an emotion , o r evoke a mood. T hey can convey a political, sociological, o r t h eologica l insigh t, or t hey can m erely be a rem inder of an event. T he weigh t and import of your photographs will depend on your own aspiratio ns and the effort you devote to masteri ng t he medi u m.

Photog raphy is a kind of lite rature一in two ways. First, any time you can spend absor bing the work of recognized masters wi ll reward your o叭响 work wit h insight an d inspiratio n ; th e In ternet is useful but a good libra1y is as im portant as a good lens. Second, photographs can be assembled like sen- tences placed consecutively to cany a larger an d more complex m ean ing. For example, the two photographs on pages 172- 173 sh ow a rom antic and a g ritty side of city life, an d togeth er say more t h an ei th er one 。f them says by itself.

Th is chapter’5 illust rations should be a jumpi ng-off point, but t here is no better way to become a good p hotographer than co keep m冰ingph。tographs. Eve1y ti me, before you shoot，臼k yourself what you want in the ph otograph. O nce you have taken th e photograph as y。u imagined it , stop for a moment to consider other optio ns. How would it look if you framed t h e scene vertically instead of horizontally? What if you moved the camera to a very low point of view? What would a slow shu tter speed do to motion in the scen e? T ry some of the variations, even if you are not sure how t hey will look in a pri nt . In fac t, try them especially if you are not sure, because that is t h e way to learn h ow the camera wi ll t rans late the world before it . Photographs affect their viewers, someti m es profoundly. Take t hem serious ly; see and read more about your choices, and h。w to ma!<e then飞。n the foll。wing pages.

Santiago Harker. Norte de San阳ndeι Colombia, 1985. You have choices. To begin wi，伪， what do you choose 归photograph? In a portrait, the whole person, head 阳toe? Their face? Or just a part of them that reveals some伪ing about their life?

Opposite, Poκempner moved 巾close to con臼-ntrate on the hand holding阶e snapshot. Depth of field is shallow when the 臼mera is close to 阶e SU向；ect, so it is important to select and focus on the part of the s四neyouwant归be sharp.

Leff, Harker made many choices that were d，加rent. He chose full color, natural light, a more distant 阳ntage point, more depth of field, and a 昭rtical format. More impo刷nt如 he chose a different balance between form and content (see page 164 ), choosing to emphasize bold colors and strong graphics over a clear description of an e时nt.

1 53

Wliαt ’s in the Picture THE EDGES OR FRAME

O ne of t h e fi rst choices t o m ake with a pho- tograph is wh at to include an d what to leave o ut. T h e image frame , t he rectangle you see when you look throug h the viewfi nder or at the LCD moni- tor, sh ows only a section of the m uch wider scene that is in fro n t of you . The frame crops the scene- or, rath凹， you crop it-when y。u decide where E。 point th e camera, how close to get to your subject, and from what angle co shoot.

D ecid e b efore you s ho o t wh ether you wan t co s how the wh ole scene （。r as m uch of it as you can) or whether you want to m ove in close (or zoom in w ith a zoom lens) for a derail. You can focus atten- tion o n something by fram ing it tightly o r you can s eep back and h ave it be j us t ano ther element in a larger scene.

Wh ere is your s ubject posi tio ned in t h e fram e? We naturally look at the m iddle of things to get t h e clearest vie即 M。SC 。f us have a simi lar tendency to place a subject squarely in the m iddle of the fran1e, especially when hand holdi ng a cam- era and 台aming t h rough a viewfi nder. Usually it ’s better not to center your subject, althoug h there are exceptions to th is an d to any oth er rule.

W h e n you look t hro ug h t he viewfi nder o r at t he cam e ra ’s m o nitor, imagi ne you are view- ing t he fi nal image on d isplay. Th is will help you fra me the su均ect better. T he tendency is to "see” only the mai n subject and ignore its surround- ings. In t he fi nal print, h owever, t he surroun dings and the 台arning are im mediately n oticeable.

You can a ls o change fra m ing later by cropping the edges of a p icture when it is p rinted Many ph otographs can be improved by croppi ng out distracti ng elements at th e edges of the frame. But it is best to frame exactly wh en y。u take t he picture; the highest q uality results from usi ng all the image area you capcur巳 Keep in mind the 。Id sa沪鸣， “crop wit h y。ur fee t .”

154 SEE IN G LI KE A C AM E R A

How much of the subject should you include? What you put in the picture and what you leave out are among the most important decisions you hove to make when pho阳•uophing. Do you need to mo时的 close to your subject or will a wider view better represent your ideas?

Project: THE curr1NG EDGE PROCEDU RE Expo se a few d ozen d ig ital pictures 。r a roll offilm using the edges 。f由e picture, the 什ame, in various ways As you look 由rough the view而nder, use t he frame t。 surround and shape t he image in d i仨 fe rent ways Make a viewing aid by cutting a small 陀ctangle in a n 8 x 1 0 -inch piece 。f black cardb。ard. It will be easier to move a round a nd l。。k through than a came阻 and can help you visualize you r ch。ices

Put t he m ain su时ect off to 。ne side o r in one corne r of t he frame. Can you bala nce the im age s。 that the scene d。esn't fee l lo psided ?

Put t he h orizon line a t t he very to p o r very b。眈。m of a ph。to g用ph，。r try t ilt ing it intenti。nally.

Have “ nothing” at the cen回r of the frame, like t he photogra p h a bove Kee p t he viewer's interest d irected t oward t he ed ges.

Make a port日it of some。ne with。ut h is o r her head in t he pic ture T叩 to have the image express s。mething of t he su bject's pe目。nality.

Terry E. Eiler. Old Fiddler's Convention, Gal.叫“'fginia, 1978. You can frame the central subject of a picture wi伪。伪er parts of the scene. Showing阶e instruments surrounding the fiddler at centeι while cropping out most of the other musicians themselves, focuses attention on the卢ddler.

Have some。ne looking 旺。r reach ing for somet h ing outs id e t he frame. Have them close to the side 。f the 什ame they a re looking 。r reachi ng toward . Then have t hem fa r from t hat side, at the 。ther sid e of the frame

Ph。tograph s。methi ng in its entirety: a person, a sh。p什。nt, an animal, an 。verstu仔ed chair-whatever gets your 刮目nt i。n. Move in a lit tle closer H。w will you use the fra m e to cut into t he o均ect? D。 you cr。p t he 。同ect evenly a ll a round? More on 。ne sid e t han t he other? M。ve in even closer Closer. Ph。叫。urnal ist Robert Capa said ， “l fy。ur pict ures a ren’ t g。。d en。ugh, you aren’t close en。ugh ” Do you agree>

HOW DID YOU DO? Whaεworked best? What would n't you o rd i- na ri ly have d o ne?

CHAPTER 9 • 155

Whαt ’s in the Picture THE BACKGROUND

S eeing t h e background . When you view a scene, you see most sharply whatever you are look- ing at directly, and you see less clearly o均ects in the background or at the periphery of your vision. If you are concentrating on something of inter- est, you may not even notice o ther things nearby. But th e camera's lens does see them, and it sh。WS

u nselectively eve1yching wi thin its angle of view. Unwanted or distracting details can be ignored by the eye l。oking at a scene, but in a picture t hose details are much more conspicuous. Before shoot- ing, try to imagine how the scene wi ll look if the SL句ect and background are given equal emphasis. To reduce the effect of a distracting background, you can shoot so that the background is 。ur of foc us or change your angle of view as sh own in the photographs at right. There is no rnle that says you sh。uldn't have a distracting background; sometimes that can be exactly the point, as in the picture opposi te. Just be aware of the different way the camera sees.

T h e r elations h ip of s ubject to b ackgr o und is ca lled figure/grou n d, or positive and negative space, and these terms give you a way to talk about why a picture works o r doesn't work. Having a vocabula1y for the way pictures are structured (thei r fonnal qualities) d。esn't n ecessari ly make you a better photographer, but does allow you to discuss these issues with o thers and to analyze what you might be doing subco nsciously. See pages 178-179.

156 SEE I NG LI KE A CAM E RA

Where's the subject? The c/u阳rofo吵巾 in the bac/cground attrac臼the eye at least as much as do the man and bird in the foreground. /{the picture is about 伪e lo臼tion, then the

A less-intrusive background resulted w由en the photographer simply moved 归a lower vantage point and changed the angle fro’”

building can make a u且·(i,I contribution. But if 伪epho臼，graph is supposed阳be about the man and his bi叫then the busy background seems an unnec1血sary distraction

which she shot. The p归巾sky provides a clear separation bet附en figure and ground, and doesn't distract 斤。m伪e subject.

Lee Friedlander. New York City, 19 7 4. M ak e sure you look at the background of a scene as well as the main subject of interest. If you aren't paying attention, you may lose your subject entirely. Con卢,sion of the background and foreground, however, may itself be the SU句ect. Here，丹iedlander uses ch阳。scuro, as artists call patterns of l也·ht and dark, to suggest the intensity

Project: u川G THE BACKGROUND

。f/ife-even for a statue-in New York. The picture is visually chaotic and ambiguous, but intentionally so.

Remember that the camera records everything wi.阶m its angle of view with equal impo巾，ice, even if you are looking on如at one su向；ect. A photograph 臼n render阶e relation between a foreground ol庐ct and a background very differently than you perceive it.

PROCEDURE Make p hot ographs in which the bac kground either complements or contrasts with the su均ect For example, some。ne

descri bed in t he Pr。，ject b。x 。n page 155) as y。u t ry d i仇町、t posi- t ions from which to photog日ph.

drinking coffee in fr.。nt 。f a large ornat e espress。 maker, an argu ing couple in front 。fa smiling-face p。ster; a child by a "Library Closed ” sign; a shopkeeper stand ing in front 。f a store.

Look through the viewfinder ( o r a viewing aid, like the 。ne

HOW D ID YOU DO? Compare several ofy。ur most successfu l prints. c。u ld the ba句round be seen as clearly as the su均ect? What d id the background c。ntribute?

CHAPTER 9 • 157

FψC us WHICH PARTS ARE SHARP

Whe川ou see a scene y，…y…叫ly fo cus on only o ne d istance at a ti me; objects at all oth er distances are n o t as sharp. Your eyes automatically adjust t heir focus as you lo。k from one 。均ect，。g pan of an object, to another. If you were at th e scene sho叭响。pposite, bottom, y。u m ight look at the wire rack and n o t notice you were seeing the sai lors much less sharply. If you lo。ked at th e sai lors your eyes would instantly refocus to see them sharply. Bu t in a ph。tograph, differences in the sharpness of o均ects at diffe阳1t distances are immediately evident because focus relatio nships are froze n at the ti me of exposure. Su ch differen ces can be distracti ng o r they can add interest to th e pho tograph , depending o n ho回y。U use t hem .

158 SEE I NG LIKE A CAMERA

Controlling 由e depth o f field. In some p hoto- graphs you have little choice ab。ur depth of field (the area 丘。m near to far w ith in which all 。均e.cts appear acceptably sharp). For example, in di m lig h t, or with a low ISO, or un der other condi- ti。ns, t he depth of field may have to be very shal- low in order to get any picture at all. But usually you can control the depth of field to some extent, as sh own o n pages 44-45. It is not necessarily bet- ter to have everything sh arp, or th e background o ut of focus, o r to follow any oth er rules, but it is important to remember that in t he p hotograph you wi ll notice what is sharp and what isn’E You get to choose, and it is one 。fthe most importan t choices you have.

Ian van Coller. Eastern lcefield, Mt. Ki/iman- jaro, Tanzania, 2016 Landscapes are o~en photographed so that everything is sharp from foreground to background. In this case, land in the distance is rendered sha’?# e时n though it is so斤ened by low clouds.

Van Coller endured an arduous five-day trek 阳 reach these remaining ice fields at 19,000 feet for hι series Th e Last Glacier, that records par缸。fthe earth 's environment threat- ened by climate change.

Pro_ject: USING DEPTH OF FIELD PROCEDURE As you look at various su均ects, t叩 to anticipate h。w much depth of fie ld y。u want, and how you can increase （。r decrease) the depth 。f fie ld t o get more ( o r less）。fthe photog日ph to appear sharp. Page 45 sh。ws how to use aperture size，而ocal length, and/ 。r d istance t o do this

Make several phot。－ graphs of each scene, using depth 。f fie ld in d i民rent ways. See for example, the landscape on page 47. You m ight have the entire scene sharp, as shown, o r for the same scene, the river in 府。nt sharp and the background out of focus . How ab。ut j ust the mountains in the d istance in focus? Is there some 。均ect you can call attention t。 using shall。w depth 。f fie ld that m ight be over- looked with 凹e『γthing in focus?

Kee p n。tes 。fy，。ur aperture size, foca l length, d istance, and why you chose them, to rem ind y。u later what y。u d id

HOW DID YOU 。O? C。mpare your results. Were you able to get everyth ing sharp when you wanted it that way? When you wanted something out 。f币OCUS, was it 。ut of focus en。ugh? Now that y。u look a t the p时nts, do you see a nything you m ight try next t ime?

Elliott Erwitt. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City, 1949. The illusion of depth is enhanced when the foreground ι in sharp focus and the background becomes gradually softer. The gentle transition from near to middle distance 归 background in this pho阳，graph emphasiz，臼its realism

R吨y K. Metzk er. The Loop: Chicago, 1958. Here the background is out of focus-but the photographer wanted the out-of-focus figu_n田阳be come the most impo刷nt element. We naturally g,ve more attention to what is 巾阳，sand what is close but there are alw，吵怨自出ptions. 7百is photograph pushes its subject toward the edge of recognizability. Even further toward that edge is the photograph on page 163，叩 Both re时m ourexpec臼t，。叫 putting

the foreground out of focus and leaving the background sharp

CHAPTER 9 • 159

Time αnd Motion in α Photograph

A p h o t ogra ph is a s lice o f t im e. Just as you select the section that you want to photograph out of a larger scene, you can also choose th e section of time you want to re.cord. You can chink of a photograph as ca1ving through rime, caking a wide slice at a slow shu tter speed or a narrow slice at a fas t shucter speed. In chat slice of rime, th ings are movi ng, and, depending o n the shutter speed, direction of the morion, and o cher factors discussed earlier (pages 18-2 1), you can sh ow o均ects frozen in mid-movement , blurred u nti l they are almost unrecognizable, or blurred to any extent in between

160 SE E I NG LIK E A CAM E RA

Blur p art of a picture for e mphas is . If t h e SU均ecc moves a l川le d uring the 四posure (or if by panning-see page 19-you keep 巾 subject still and m ove t h e background) you create visual in terest wi th t h e com parison. Use a t ripod to keep the background ve1y sharp w hile your sub- ject moves, as w臼 done in th e photograph below. Rarely is it effective to have the entire image blurred by motion, t h e way it wou ld be if you used coo slow a sh utter speed or didn' t h old t he camera s teadi ly. But even a photograph that is everywhere our of focus can be a visual treat; it is up to you to m冰e it work.

Mik e M andel. Emptying the Fridge, 1985. Expo- sure time controls the suggesti。”。fmotion. In a reference to motion studies made 良ye伊ciency experts Frank and Lillian Gilbreth early in the 20<h ce刷ry, Mandel tied blinking lights to the person垃 hands and left the camera's shutter open for five minutes. The objec臼 moved to the coun- ter later in the exposure (forle虹。fthe total time) appear more translucent.

PJ4!!iect: SHOWING MOTION

YOU W ILL NEED A trip。d, when you want to keep the camera steady during long 四p。sures.

P ROCEDU RE Make a series of ph。tographs thaεdepict m。tion in different ways. Select a scene that will let you ph。tograph the same acti。n several t imes, such as people moving on a crowded streeε， children 。n swings, or m。ving wa回r or leaves. Or have some。ne per£.。m the same acti。n for y。u several t imes, such as a skateboarder, a runner, 。r a dancer

H。w can y。u make a ph。tograph that makes a viewer阳l the SU时ect is m。ving? Try showing the SU均ecεsharp. Try showing it blurred. Tl)'. panning the camera with the SU均ec飞 so that the SU均ect appears sharp against a blurred back- gr。und Page 19 sh。ws some 。fthe ways y。u can c。ntrol the represen- tation of motion T叩 photographing

fo。m a different angle, such as very low to the ground . lf y。u move cl。ser toy。ur subject’s feet or skateb。ard, or whatever is moving, y。u’II get more of a blur than if y。u stay farther away.

Keep notes of the shutter speed, d istance, and relative subject speed so later y。u can 陀con struct whaεyou did

HOW DID YOU DO? What w。rked well? What didn’ t, but might have worked for another type of su均ect? Did some exp。sures produce ε。。 much blur? Did the SU均ect d isappear entirely in any frame?

Russell Lee. Soda jerk, Corpus Christi, T,田：as, 1939. Time is frozen by a flash. The rapid motion of 阶e flying ice cream has been halted in midair by the quick burst of light from an on 臼mera flash . Stopping time thιabrup吵臼n be unflattering, for example, by catching faces 时 bet附en expression鸟 but it 臼n also produce magical visions the eye could ne昭rha时seen

Lou Jones. Boston, 1998. Move the camera along with your subject to keep it in focus. Here, the photographer was positioned on the 臼rnival ride itself so his re归ti时如long shutter speed held near，句y passengers in focus but a/lo附dthe parts of the scene not moving with him to blur. Pannin旱， ormo时ngthe camera duri，，飞ge柳川to follow a movings咐ect, of- ten makes your photograph appear伪bway: a subject in focus against a streaking background.

CHAPT E R 9 • 161

Depth in α Picture 丁H REE DIMENSIONS BECOME TWO

P hotograph s can seem to change伽depth in a sαne. When you ph。cograph, you trans- late the three di mensions of a scene that has real depth into the two dimensions of a visual image. In doing so, you can expand space so o均ects seem very far apart or you can compress spaces。。同ects appear to be flattened and crowded close together. For example, compare these two photographs of buildings in a city. One shows us flat planes that look almost as if they were pasted one on top of • the other and the other gives the scene volume，一 mass, and depth.

Your c ho ices m ake a di仔·erence. T he top

photograph was made with a long-focal-length lens. Its narrow angle of view and close croppi吨， combined with the str缸ght-on vantage point, helped the photographer reduce what we can see to a simple-and flattened-geometry. The bot- tom photo was made with a normal-focal-length lens but e。m an elevated position. This wider angle of view includes more buildings, and more of the bottom and top of each building. There was probably a limited selection of possible vantage points, but this one was still carefully chosen. Pages 48-49 口plain more ab。ut how to use your lens and position to control the way a photograph shows depth.

All of your choices affect the viewer’s imp res- sion of your subject’s depth, something the pho- tograph itself-being two dimensional-d。esn't have at all. Showing only part of an object or a narro即view 。fa scene, for example, may conrrib- ute to reducing a viewer’s impression of volume in a photograph. T his may be easy to do by choos- ing a longer-focal-length lens, bur framing, focus, vantage point, and lighting are all important fac- tors as well.

Every time you take a picture, the three dimensions of the real w。rid are translated auto- matically into the two dimensions 。f a photo- graph. But, like E对《ing control of automatic focus and automatic exposure, it is usually best to make your own decisions.

162 SEE I NG LIKE A CA M ERA

Two perspectives of伪e city. Building,. (top) seen from the side seem 阳 lie on 阳p of each other. A bird's-eye night view (bot阳m) gjves the building,< volume. All your choices,

Dan McCoy. Midtown Manhat臼n, 1973.

especially focal le哝·h, I，也•hti，，也阳ntage point, and focu皂白n contribute 印刷阳ncing or sup- pressing the sense of a third dimension in your photographs.

Be肌·enice Abbott. New York at N.也•ht, 1934

Larry Fink. Man Drinking, Alan Turner Party, 1982. The eye and brain hesi- tate when an image 岳阳ocomplex 阳 be quick如dee，伊hered. Creating that kind of hesitation is a goal of some photographers 在ee page 157)

CHAOS INTO ORDER

Y our c hoices of timing, va ntage poi nt, focus, and le ns are a complex m ix. You are making ph。tographs, n ot just taking them , an d m ust keep in m ind that viewi ng them will be a di仔erent experience fro m seeing the world from wh ich t hey were made. What kind of experience do you wan t to commu n icate?

c。nsider the two p hotographs o n th is page. T h e o ne below is carefully ordered an d organ ized to create a mood of calm an d serenity. \Ve imag- ine t he place-because of the way it is shown to us-to have a sto rybook quality t hat we can’t credi t to a si mple choice of lens or depth of field. At left is a ph otograph so chaotic it is d ifficu lt at fi rst to son out . It is jangled and en凹getic, wi th no clear subject.

In both cases the ph otographer h as im posed a personal sensibility o n w hat was in front of t h e lens an d so directed our experien ce in viewing them. The ability to create a un iq u e sens ib ility, and to do so consis ten tly, is often called s纱le. Style takes ti m e to develop, an d it hinges o n both an u nderstan d ing of the available tools an d a sense of what it is i mportan t to u se them fo r.

Pete Turner. Ibiza Woman, 1961 . You can simplify your subject with choices of where, when, and how to uike the picture.

C HA PT ER 9 • 1 63

Photogrαphing for Meαning

G ood compos it ion a nd technical qua lity are not 由e only goals you could keep in m ind as you p hotograph . For some, it is enough to m ake a competent, well-d esig ned p hotograph of the SU均ect of your choosing. In fact, many pho- tograph ers make a good livi ng doing j ust that. All ph otographs h ave both for m -the way a picture looks, including its c。mposition-and c。ntent what a p icture is about , includ ing its su均ect. And there is a balance between fo rm and content t hat

the ph。tographer ca n control. If you ’d like an additio nal challenge, h。wever, consider the way you can use form an d conten t together to create mean ing in a ph。tograph.

M eaning can be reinforced , as in the ph o to- g raphs o n these two pages, by arranging th e way you show your subject . For example, mean ing can be created using a metaphor based o n appearance, like the supermarket st retch ing its mouth （。ppo site) o r the m uscular lines of Sheeler’s Ford factory (righ t). To 四pand a picture's poss以lities, think not only about what somet hi ng i。oks like, but wh at else it looks like o r m igh t mean. Mytho logy, literature, an d religion have invested many sub- jects with symbolic mean ing-a pomegranate in a still life or a rntted path in a lan dscape-that can add sig nificance. Your pictures can be more t han just a record of a subject's existence.

C o ns ide r t h e physica l qua lities of you r photog raph . A slightly brown or sepia colo r of a black-and呐1i te photograph is called warm tone because it impart s an em otio nal warmth to the

164 S E E I NG LIK E A CAM E RA

su bject of the image. The wide panoram ic sh ape of the landscape below suggests an endless ho ri- zo口， a topography so vast it can ' t be contained in an o rdin ary rectangl巳 Scale also changes t h e effectiveness of an image: a tiny print often exudes inti macy, a very large one can project power. A th。ughtful presentation 。fyour work w ill make a big difference in its impact.

Charles Sheeler. Ford Plant, Ri昭r Rouge, Dearborn, Michigan, 1927. Sheeler imagined Ameria,n fac- 阳斤臼阳 be like modern cathedrals, a substitu胆for rel也iouse叫perience. Th臼e po附，而I shapes reach toward the heavens, but seem to do so 时r田：pectfi,I silence.

‘四F

Warren Padula. Mouth, 1996. Your subject can be a metaphor for something else. Here, the dairy aisle 的a supermarket becomes an open mouth in an amusing stu命。，（consumer阳lture. Made by using the bottom rack of a supermarket臼rt as a tripo.d 阳 hold a home- made pinhole臼mera-a simple lensl，四box-it reminds us that the success or failure of a photograph is not the result or出pensive equ伊 ment, but of the efforts and ability of the user. Ano伪er example of a photographic metaphor is on page 202, botto’” Art Sinsabaugh. Midwest landscape #24, 1961. A photograph's shape can affect its meaning.

7百e臼treme panoramic format used for 伪且image W削阶e photographer's re写ponse to 阶e relentlessly horizontal and often featureless landscape of the American Midwest.

CHAPTER 9 • 16 5

Pοrtrαits INFORMAL: FINDIN G 丁H EM

A g o o d po巾ait shows mo阳出anme呻what someone looks like. It captures an expression, reveals a mood, or tells something about a per- son. Props, cloth ing, o r a view in to t he su均ect’s environment are not essen tial, but they can help show w hat a person does o r wh at kind of a person he or she is (see p hotograph s at right and o n the opposi te page).

Put your s ubject at ease. T。 d。 th is, you have to be relaxed you rself, o r a t least look that way. You'll feel bett盯 if you are fami liar with your equip ment an d h ow it works so you don' t h ave to worry abou t how to set the 四posure or make other adjustmen ts.

Don’t skimp on shooti ng when mak mg a port rait. Make s ure you aren’t imp。sing on some- one’s ti me, then take three, fou r, o r a dozen s hots to warm up so your subject can get past the nerv。usness that many people h ave at firs t when bei ng photographed.

Try to use a fast enoug h sh utter speed，比o sec. or fas ter, if possible, so you can s hoot when your su bject looks good, rath er than your having to say, " Hold it," which is 。nly likely to produ ce a wooden expressio n . Don 't au tom atically ask your su同ect to s m ile, either. A quietly pleasan t, relaxed 口pression looks better t h an a pasted-on big sm ile.

Lig h ting. See what it is doi ng to the subject. Soft, relatively d iffused ligh t is the easiest to use; it is ki nd to most faces and won't change m uch even if you alter your position.

Side ligh ting, like in t he p hotograph s o n these two pages, adds rou ndness and a three- dimensional modeling. T h e m ore to th e side the mai n light 叭 particularly if it is not diffused, them。re it emphasizes facial texture, including w rinkles and lines. That’s fi ne fo r many su bjects, but bad, for instan ce, for your U ncle Pete ifhe s till wants to see himself as the young adult he used to be. Front lighting produces less modeli ng than does s忧 lighti咯（see pages 140- 141), but it m in- im izes mi no r imperfectio ns. T hree s imple portrait lighti ng setups are sho胃口 on pages 144- 145.

166 S EE I NG LI KE A CAM ERA

Alec Soth. Charles, Vasa, Minneso阳， 2002. Leave yourself open to chance meetings. Sot.仇 driving阶rough an unfamiliar ne也•hborhood, noticed a large glass room built on the roof of a house. He introduced himself to the owneι who said the glass room was his "cockpit， ”apla出 where he and his daughter built model airplanes.

Proj~: A PORTRAIT PROCEDURE There a re at least as many d ifferent ways to make a p。π日it 。f someone as there are p四pie in the world t。 photograph. Use at least t hree d。zen 四posu陀s to photog甩ph t he same pe目。n in as many diι ferent ways as you can Twice as many 。f the same pe陌。n are even better It may take a while before bot h you and your subjecε他l relaxed and c。m币。rtable. Here a re some possib ilities, b ut you can t hink up even m。陀

As a baseli ne, c。nsider the c。nventi。nal head -and - sh。ulders graduati。n-type p。πrait. Where can you go from there?

Try di能rent sites and background s, such as in a park, at h。me, a t worl< D。es t he background have to I。。k pleasant ? H。wab。ut in fron t of a row 。f beat-up sch。。l l出kers?

Try di民r町、t angles: from above or below, as well as from eye level. Try moving in very close, so t he came日阻aggera回s facial features D。es t he person always have to be sitt ing 。r stand ing?

If the pe陌。n fee ls relaxed en。ugh o r can role』play, have h im o r her 巳xpress di民rent emoti。ns, such as ange飞 sad ness, silly good hum。r.

Vary t he lighting: fr.。nt, side, top, bottom, back ( see pages 140-14 1 ), in d irect sun, by a wind ow, in the shad e (see pages 136-137! D。 you have to see their

face? Can y。u make a 陀veal ing p。同rait from the back? As a silh。uette?

You’ II know you have shot en。ugh when both you and your subject are w,。m 。ut

HOW 010 YOU 00? W hic h are your favorit e ph。tographs? Why? Wh ich are y。ur su均ect’s favori四ρ W hy? H。w d id the back- gr。und , props，。r o ther elements contrib ute to the p icture? What would someone wh。 didn’t kn。w this person th ink a』。ut them, based sim ply 。n seeing t he ph。tographs?

Chris Ki/lip. Torso, Pe/aw, Gateshead, 7于neside, 1978. A person can be revealed by more than just a face. Ki/lip Jived in Newcastle during the 19 70s, a period of economic decline and h也h unemployment in England’s industrial north. He was drawn to photograph thι man, seated on a wall near Ki/lip 's home, by the stained trousers;

hedidn’ t notice the poorly repaired coat and mismatched shoelaces until he printed the imag~

Years late巧 when asked to participate in a museum 臼hibit on po时-raiture, k川＇ip sent this photograph. The museum sent it back with a note sψ'ingit wasn ’t a portrait. Do you think it ιp

C HAPT E R 9 • 167

Pψrtrαits FOi主MAL: SETTING THEM UP

C ont r ol mor e of由e situ a tion when you want your portraits to look a certain way. You may want your portrait to 1。。k spontaneous, like you j ust stumbled on your subject, but a ph otograph can fee l casual even if you've made an appointment in advance, asked your subject to wear your choice of clothes，。r made t hem hold a given posture. Like the photographs on pages 166- 167 show, there is a power in presenting someone in a believable setting, especially if you wan t your constructed narrative to have the ring of truth.

S om e portrai也 should look m ore fo r m a l. A P。litical leader or business executive may want a ph otograph that suggests the traditions of a srn- dio portrait, like the 。ne 。n this page. A celebrity magazine may want som eone photographed in a more expressive way, but o n e (like o n the opposite page) that appears just 臼 deliberate. T hese styles require an understanding oflighting (see Chapter 8) and are usually made in artificial illumination s upplied by the ph。tographer.

A mode l re lease pro tects you if you sell a ph otograph of someone for commercial use. It is a contract with your subject that gives y。u the right to sell or publish h is or her image. You can fi nd sample releases o n line with a simple Internet search. T he ASMP (American Society of Media Photographers, asmp.orρd叩lays several use- ful versions online, and 。ffers legal and business informatio n to its m embers. Remember, even if someone asks you (or pays you) to make their ph otograph, its ownersh ip, or copyright, remains yours unless you sign it away.

168 SEE IN G LIK E A CAM E RA

Yousuf Karsh. Sir Winston Churchill, 1941. The photographer was given only two minutes of伪is world leader's precious time. L也•hting was arranged using a stand-in. Churchill arrived with his trademark c驴r clenched in his teeth; Karsh instinctively reached out and remo时d it, capturing the angry and belligerent re.『ponse that, for him, represented England's wartime defiance.

Arnold Newman. Igor Stravins纱， 1946. The structure of a photograph can reinforce its meaning. Newman cropped this portrait to its essentials, departing from the con晤，，tional rectangje. Compo坦r Stravinsky 且shown with a piano, the image connects him to music. The isola胆d piano top's shape suggests the qua时er no胆的 musical notation. Newman says that the image 匀choed my feelings about Stmvinsky垃 music: strong, harsh, but with a stark beauty of its own. "

CHA PT ER 9 • 169

Photogrαphing the Lαndscαpe

H o w d o you p hoto graph a pla ce? There are as many different ways to view a scene as there are ph otographers. Most important for you : what do you want to remem ber? \Vhat is the best part of the place for you? Is it the sweep of the land- scape as a who le that is breatht对《ing or is some particular part of it especially significanθIn what way does the p lace speal< to you?

Richard Misraclr. 7于·ack骂， Black Rock Desert, Nevada, 1989. A landscape can have an opinion. Beautiful as th吃y are, the pattern of these tire tracks make us wonder if we are doing

170 SE E I NG LIK E A CAM E RA

Look a t a s cene fro m d iffe r e nt a n gles, walk- ing around to view it fro m different positi。ns. y。ur location can profoundly affect the relatio n between foregro u nd and background; the closer you are to an o均ec飞 the more a slig h t change of position will alter its relationsh ip to the back- ground. Change your point of view an d a subject m ay reveal itself in a new way.

enough 臼pro阳d the earth from ourselves. Many landscape photographers try to exclude signs of civili:u,tion from their imageιMisrach has made such encroachmen缸a major阶eme.

Stuart Rome. Horsetail Falls, Oregon, 1996. Landscapes are oβen sharp from foreground to background. Depth of field increases with sma/lerapertun田， butyou must compensate with longer exposures. Here, the longer 呻osure allowed the motion of the waterfall to blur into a 崎L surreal presence－巾marked contrast to the hardness and sha’pness of the surrounding rock.

Rome photographed from inside a 阳时 to frame the waterfall in rock and show it aga的·st a background offorest. Your location can profoundly a庐d the relation between foreground and background; the closer you are 归an object, the more a sl也ht change of position will alter its relationship to the 切ckground.

Barbara London. Point Lobo.ι Californ巾， 1972. A landscape doesn't have to be a wide view. This photograph of dried mud taken from up clo坦 and direc.吵。时rhead is slightly disorienting. Not only is the su句ect matter ambψous, but it isn 't clear w由ich way is up. The top of a picture usually identi· fies the top of a scene because附are used 归seeing 阶咯s-and photographing them-from an upr也ht position. Change your point of view and as战；ectmay reveal itself in a new way.

C H A PT ER 9 • 171

Photogrαphing the Cityscαpe

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Walking gives you t ime to photograph. Stop if you see something interesti ng; don't be in such a hurty that you can' t pause to t h ink about h ow best to 日rame your subject or wai t fo r a m。ving presence to enter t h e scene. A passing pedestt i凹， d吨， or city bus in transit may be j ust the graph ic element to ma!也 your cityscape distinctive.

R etu rn to a place w he n t he lig h t is best. T h e s un w ill illum inate a different s ide of a building in the morning than it does in th e afternoon. Clouds or an overcast sky im part an entirely different emotio nal tone t han a bright, sunny day.

Don’t ig nore the possibilit ies of photograph- ing at dawn, dusk, or at night. A tripod will let you make long exposures, bur be careful setti ng o ne up on a busy sidewalk.

T he ti m e of d ay a仔·ec也 more than just t he light, as does the day of the week. Downtown s treets look strangely deserted on Su nday mo rn- ings; rush hour is a g reat opportunity to capture h uman interacti。n.

Alfred Stieglitz. 7百e Flatiron Buildin阜 New 自此， 1903. Choose your moment careful，伊. Soft focus and wi, ter weather combine for a peaceful, con阳mp归ti时 S臼ne. StieDitz asserted 伪is photograph垃 role as an art object by emphasizing its picturesque qualities and printing it on an elegant, t臼tured paper.

172 SEE I NG LIKE A CAMERA

Walker Evans. Graveyard and Steel Mill, Bethlehem, Pennsyl阳n巾， 1935. Your vantage point creates relationships. Evans helps us see parallels here between 阶er伊hmicapp臼ranee of apartment

house windows, the gravestones, and the smokestacks 巾 the background. All these unre归胆d elements seem pu’pose fully convened before the foreground cross as 伪ough for a sermon.

C H A PT ER 9 • 173

Photogrαphing Inside

I n terior spaces a lways present multiple chal- lenges for the ph。tographer, bu t overcoming them will be rewarding. Eve1y indoor sp ace h as its o叭响 character an d can im ply m ean ing, m uch like a lan dscape. You may wan t to capture t he volume an d scale of t he space itself, 剖 m t he ph otograp h o n the opposi te page, or you may use it- like below-to h igh lig h t your subject t he way a stage set features actors. In teriors refl ect the lives of people wh o live o r work in t h em, and even of those wh o just pass t h rough them . Wh en photo- graphs 。f people reveal s。mething of t h e su同ects’ SU口oundings they can fi n d resonance with a much wider audience than can a si mple head-an d- s ho ulders port rait .

174 SEE I NG LIKE A CA M ERA

Vantage poin臼 are lim ited indoors. Often there is an inconven iently located wall that prevents you from backing u p to fit ev凹γthing into your p icture. It is no won der that architectural ph otog- raphers, who are o日i:en asked to photograph interi- o rs, carry w ide-angle len ses in several focal lengths. Even for the professio nal who is allowed to move the furniture, fi nd ing t he righ t spot for the camera can be a challen ge. D。n't ig nore the possibi lities opened up by a van tage poi nt above your head o r below y。ur waist.

Shelby Lee Adams. The Napie市’ Living Room, 1989. Bring your own light if necessary. For h岳阳tended series on Appalachian families, Adams carried a set of studio strob由to provide enough light for dark 巾teriors l放e this one and to let him control the illumination 。n his SU句iects for阶e clarity and dep阶 he wanted.

Pay atte ntion t o t he lig h t. Most inreri。r spaces a re illum in ated by several sources; there m ay be wi ndows o n m ore than o ne wall, and wind ow

l ig h t is often su pplem ented by art ifi cial ligh ting d uring the day. \Va tch fo r unwanted sh adows t hat m ay a p pear m o re bothersom e in a ph。to grap h t h an in the scen e itself, and be o n the loo k- o u t fo r excessive con trast fro m strong s ide o r top l ig h t. If you are working in color an d can’t co ntrol t h e ligh t in g, you may see d ifferent colo r casts in di fferent 缸eas.

T h e re is less ligh t ind o o rs t han you ’d fi nd 。ut doors, al most invariably. S tay aware of d ep th of fie ld ; it is especially im porta nt to interio r p horog- raphy be.ca use you are often close to your s ubject. Remem』er that the closer you ar e to a su同ect, t h e less d epth of fiel d y。u'll get w it h any given focal length an d a pertu re. If you need to close d own the a perture to keep m ost of the environmen t in focus, as did the p hotogra p hers in t h e examples on these two pages, yo u may n eed a tripod, som e extra light, o r both.

Kate Joyce. Residen血， Chi，臼，go, 2012. lnte- rior pho阳，graphs made for a client usually need controlled I也ht 阳 balance what's

巾臼photograph 伪ιconverted industrial space in between owners. It is unusual for her 阳 be hired to photograph an unfurnished residence,

already 伪ere. Fi，昭 fights 附re added 阳伪扭

S时ne, but it still looks natural. Joyce was called but she appreciat，田 that 付it's pure structure and material, plus one wall clock ”

C H A PT ER 9 • 175

Assembled to be Photogrαphed

You 国n p ho tograph scenes t ha t could n ever exist by creating directly from your irnag卜 nation. There is an idea most of us share that ph otography has a connection to the truth. Even the m ost soph isticated and skeptical 。bservers perceive photographs differently than paintings. Even wh en we know we can’t really believe a ph o- tograph , we wan t to. Th is natural reaction to pho- tograph s is a powerful tool in your hands.

The re a re no rules for p e rs ona l e xpressio n .

an individual publication. If you ’re n。t repomng the n ews, however, you can exert as much control as you’d like over what your photographs look like.

You are already comfortable w ith certain deci- si。ns w hen you capture an image, choosing su b- ject matter, van tage point, timing, and lighting. You may ask some。ne to sm ile fo r the camera. It’s only a short step to hiring, costum ing, and posing a m odel, or creating an en tire environ- rnent (ph otograph o n opposite page).

Journalists must abide by a set of general ethical The cam e ra sees wit h o ne eye. You don ' t need principles and-usually-a specific set imposed by to be concerned with anyth ing outside its vision.

176 SE E I NG LI KE A CAM E RA

Lori Nix. Libra,y, 2007. Nix fabricated and assembled every element of this photograph in miniature, filling the living room of her New York apartment O时ra period of about seven months 7百e image is not digitally ma· nipulated. She gets ideas while m’”’？”’ti，，恕。，， the subway and " ... postulates what it might be like to live in a city that is post mankind, where man has le卢 his mark by the architecture, but mother nature ι阳king back these spaces. "

Jeff Wall. After Invisible Man by Ra仙凹的on, the Prolope, 1999-2001. Wall was inspired by an "ac- cident of reading" to create 伪is environmenι based on 付the hole in the basement" 时伪 ’e自·actly 1,369 lights" in which the narrator of El/ison's novel lives. Wall pr，出ents this photograph, a composite of several自：posures, as a transparency oν·er eight feet wide that is illuminated from behind so，即•he，，由hibited, it becomes itself a light source. Ellison's character says ”With - out I.也•ht I am not only 巾visible but formless as well. '’

To constmct an en viron ment to be photographed, like the o n es on these two pages, it helps to I。ck t he camera in place wh ile building t he structure, so you can refer to its uniq u e vantage point 。ften d uring t he ti m e it takes to co mp lete. Like a m ovie set, nothing 。ut of view needs to be fi nis hed .

Perspective 国n b e manipulated . We normally get most of o ur depth perceptio n fro m s tereoscopic vision, each eye sees a sligh tly different image. But because a photograph is fla t, we perceive depth by

US！咯other v阳al cues-for example，。均ects at a distance appear s maller. By creating objects sm all- er than they wo uld be n orm ally o r, for examp le, making a t able that is narrower at one end t han t he 。ther, you can use fo町d perspective to create a false sense of d epth. In th e world of Hollywood m ovies, m any props and special effects depend o n forced perspectiv巳

Look at advertising p hotograph s, as well as fi lm s, for ideas. Corporate clien ts h ave immense budgets and can materialize almost anyth ing.

CHAPTER 9 • 177

Responding to Photogrαphs

CCI I t ’ s g ood .”“It's n ot s o good.” What

else is there to say when you lo。k at a photo- graph? What is there to see-and to say-when you respond to work in a photography class or workshop? Looking at other people’s pictures helps you improve your own, especially if you E冰e some ti me to exami ne an image, instead of merely glancing at it and movi ng o n to the next o ne. In addi tion to responding to o ther people’s work, you n eed to be able to look at and evaluate your O＼＼•吼．

178 SE E I NG LI KE A CAM E RA

The e lem en ts o f d esign are a commonly used vocabulary fo r describing pictures that will be useful for responding co photographs. You might begin wi th poinι like t he ice-cream scoop o n page 161 top, or line, like the sides of buildings on page 162 top or t he curve of the track o n page 16 1 bottom. Shape could describe the shadow in the m iddle of the image o n page 35. Other design ele- m encs include di陀ction or movement, size or scale, volume, text，叫 color or b肘， and value or 地b阳回 Try findi ng examples of t hese in th is bo。k-and

Roe E伽idge. Old Fruit, 2010. What do you respond to in a photograph? This scene sugg，田ts the kind ofsti/1·/ife paintings popular in 16th and 17th century Europe, 臼/led vanitas, that su~臼t the transience of living阶ings. Do you see hope in 伪ιpicture or de.写pair? Is it beaut扩i,/ or offensive? Spiritual or temporal? Could it symbolize the cycles of life or be a meditation on the wastefulness of consumer culture~

Visual Eleme nts

l。。k at the other 四amples in the box below. See if breaking d。叭响 a p icm re into formal elem ents-

the way it I。。ks, apart from its con ten t or what it

describes-makes you more a ttentive to thei r pres-

e nce in your own p h otographs.

飞When evalu a ting your own p h otograph s, ask

yourself what you saw w h en you brou gh t the camera to your eye? Ho即 well did what you h ad

in mi n d tra n s la te into a piccure? \Vould you do

a n yth ing diff盯encly n ext time?

Following are other ite m s to con s ider when

you l。。k at a p h otograph. You don’t h ave to con- sider each o n e every time, bu t t h ey can give you a place to start.

Type of photograph. Is it a portrai t ? A land-

scape? Adverti sing p h otograph ? News ph。to?

飞What do you t hink t h e p h otograp h was inte n ded to do or to m ean? \Vas it meant to be functional

or 口pressive? Both? A caption or title can provide

info rmatio n , but look a t the p icture fi rst so the

caption does n ot limit your respon se.

S u ppose the p icture is a portra it. Is tt one

that migh t have been m ade at the request 。f the subj ect? One made fo r the personal satisfactio n

of the p h otographer? Is the si tter s imp ly a warm

body or d。es h e o r she con tribute s。me in d ivid u -

ality? D。es the environ m ent, t h e setting in which

the s itter appears, add anything?

Em phasis. Is your eye d raw n to some part of th e

p icture? What leads your eye t h ere? For example,

is depth of field s h allow, so that o n ly t h e main

s u bject is s h arp and everyth ing else o u t of focus?

T echnical c onsideratio n s. Do t h ey h elp o r

hinder ? For example, is contrast harsh and gritt y?

Is t h e techniq u e suitable to t h e su均已ct or n ot?

Emo t ional or physical impact. Does the p ic-

ture make you fee l sad, amused, peaceful? Does it ma!忧 y。ur eyes w iden , your muscles tense? Wh a t

elements might cause these reactio n s?

What e lse does the picture tell you besides w hat is immediately evident? Ph。tographs often h ave more to say t h a n may appear at first. For

example, is a fas hio n p h otograph about the design

of t h e clothes，。r is it really abou t the roles of m en and women in o u r culture?

Trust your own responses to a photograph.

How do you accually respon d to an image and what do you actually n otice abou t it？飞What do you

re m e mber about it the n ext day?

Here are some 。f the 回rms we canυse to describe the visual or g目phic elements of a ph。toε甩ph See the page cited for an illustra-

Light Front I助企 Li~ht comes from camera p。sition, shadows not prominent (page 145 bottom) a础1吵t: Light comes toward camera, front 。fsu均ect is shaded (pages 65, 71)

High m”trast: Very dark and very light tones, few gray tones (pages 204 bottom, 205) LDw contrast: Mostly gray tones (page 172,205 top)

P町spective Compre回edpersp,町tive (telepho阳 e御t):O均m seem crowded together, closer than they really are (pages 36, 162 top)

t i。n of a particular element

Focus and D叩th of Field 5阳咿 overr,/1 (pages 38, 164 b。眈。m), soft fr,耐， overall (page 165 top) Selective fi,cus: One part sharp, othe陌 not (page 44). See also Shall。w depth of field. Sholl，阳忡饰。,ffield: Little d is- 国nee between nearest and far- thest sharp areas ( pages 152, 159 b。ttom) Extensive d，酬。f例： Considerable distance between nea陀st and farthest sharp a陀as (pages 59, 170)

Moti。” Frozen s阳，1' e四n th。ugh sub- jectwas mo叶ng (pages 35, 36) Blurred: Moving came阻。r sub- ject blurred, part 。r all 。f the image (pages 20, 161 bottom)

Side I，柳· Light com田from side, shad。ws cast to side (pages 2, 137 lefi:) Direct I惋Hard-edged，。fi:en dark shad。ws (page 136) Dire巾。nal diffi,sed light: Distinct, but s。仕－edged shadows (page 144) Diffused ligl,食阳， or almost n。， shad。ws (page 1 37 咆ht) Si/ho帽悔： Subject very dark against light background (pages 72 top, 169) G脚·ingl，吵ι· Su均ect glo晒 with its own 。r reflected light (pages 67, 139 bottom)

c。ntrast and Tone Full sea也· Black, white, and many tones in between (pages 121, 138)

High key: Mostly light εones (page 24) LDwkey: M。stly darkεones (page 52)

Tex阳m

Emp阳•sized: Usually results from light striking subject from an angle (pages 138, 1 SO) Minimized: Usually results from light c。ming from camera p。siti。n or from all sides (page 101, 204 top)

V田wpoint and Framing 句F抽d响呻oint (pag，自 160, 166) H也h ( page 162 b。眈om), low ( page 155），。r unusual viewpoint (page 161 bottom) Frami，吨F The way the edges of the ph。tog日ph meet the shapes in it (page 153)

E桐柏dperspe呻ve f嗣命唱句gle “＇disto呻。”勺： Parts of the scene seem stretched 。r positi。ned unusually far from each other ( pages 52, 39 bottom)

Line Curved (page 163 bottom) 5阳柳（page 170) Horiz酬ta/ (page 164-165 b。眈om)

协呻cal (page 48 b。ttom) D阳，gonal (p咿 21 ，国的 Position of horizon line ( pages 97 b。目。m, 173)

Balance An intemal, physical resp。nse. D。es the image feel balanced 。r does it tilt or fee l heavier in 。ne part than an。theρ

c ” APT ER 9 • 179

E STHεR Bu BLεv A阿d旷，Taking Machine in 曲e Lob/!)' at 曲e United Nations Service Cente吃

W西hington, DC, 1943. From its start, ph<>- tography was most po，户’缸， for its ability 阳 record a person For most of the 19伪 cent妒 ,y, portraits were made only by pro向sionals or very serious amateurs. George Eastman's 1888 Kodak camera gave t阳general public " w吨y 阳 memorialize themselves and others

nearly a’,y time, but getting the prints meant sending 曲e r.amera away阳加e the film

inside it p”由:essed, and t./rat took time The photobooth's inventoηa Siberian immi·

grant named Ana归IJosepho, opened the first ~hotobooth on New Yo础 City's Broadwa! in 1925; it made eight portraits on a strip 。｛paper, in a阳时 e阳 minutes, for 25,

j出epho's Pho阳•maton Studio was a sensa· 阳•n, there, over a quarter-mil/ion people d伊•pedbehind 曲eα川·ain o( one of its

pho阳booths in 曲e first six months, as many as 7, 500 a day

Daguerreotype ........... .... 182 咀自igns on silver b咆ht"•••• •••• 182

Calo巧rpe ..... ............ .... 184 Pictures on paper •••••••••• •••• 184

Collodion Wet-Plate ...... .... 185 Shaψand reproducible • ••••• •••• 185

Gelatin Emulsion/ Roll-Film Base .......... .... 186 Photograp.抄卢r everyone • ••• •••• 186

Co lor Photogr aphy ....... .... 187

Early Portraits ........... .... 188

Early Travel Photograp h y . .... 190

Early Images of War ...... .... 191

Time and Motion in Early Photographs .... .... 192

The Photograph 副Document. ........... .... 193

Photogr 3:phy and Social Change ... ...... .. 194

Pho叫ournalism ..... ...... .. 196

Photography甜Art in the 19由 Century... ...... .. 200

Pictorial Photogr aphy and the Photo-Secession ... .. 201

The Direct Image in Art ..... .. 202

The Quest for a New Vision . .. 203

Photography画Art in the 1950s and 1960s ..... .. 204

Photography画Art in the 1970s and 1980s ..... .. 206

Color Photography Arrives-Again ...... ...... .. 208

Digital Ph otography .. ...... .. 210 P陀·decessors •••••••••• •••••• •• 210 Becomes mainstream ••• •••••• •• 212

His tor Photo 10

In this chαpler yo1L'll learn ...

• ab。ut the unique era on history into which photography was b。m

• the l i mi臼 that early photograph ic materials and processes placed 。n the ki nds 。fphot。graphs that c。uld be made.

• how ph。tograph_y_grew as an art form, and 。vercame opp。白tion from many d,rect,ons

Joseph Nicephore Niepce. View from His M币，，dow at Le Gras, Saint-Loup-de-Varennes, France, c. 1826. Niepce produced 伪e world's first photographic image-a view of the cour切rd buildings on his estate in about 1826. It was made on a sheet of pewter covered wi伪 bitumen of Judea, a kind of asphalt that hardened when exposed to ／，也•ht; he 臼/led it a Heliograph 7丁oe unexposed, still-soβ bitumen was then dissolved, leaving a permanent image. The exp出ure time was so long (eight hours) that the sun moved across 阶e sky and illuminated both sides of the courtyard.

p………川…川19由 century- the electric ligh t , the safety pin, dynamite, and the automobile are j us t a few others-and of all 。fthen飞 photography probably created

the most astonishment and delight. Today, most people take photographs for granted, but early viewers were awed an d amazed by the objective records the camera made.

Photography took over what previously had been 。ne 。fthe main func- ti。ns of art-the recording of factual vis ual information, s uch as the shape of an object, its s ize, an d its relation to o ther objects. Instead of having a portrait painted, people had “ S un Drawn Min iatures” made. Instead of for ming romantic n。tions of battles and faraway places from paintings, people began to see firsthand vis ual reports. And soon photography became an art in its 。wn right.

The camera obscura was the forerunner of t he m ode rn camera. It was known that rays of lig h t passing through a pinhole for m ed an image. The 1 0由 centmy Arabian scholar Alhazen described the effect and told how

to view an eclipse 。f the s un in a camera obscura (literally,“dark chamber") a darkened E。。m with a pinhole open ing to d飞e o utside. By d飞e time of t he Renaissance, a lens had been fitted i nt。 the h ole to im prove the image , and t h e E。。m-sized device had been reduced to the size of a s mall box that could easily be carried about The camera obscura became a drawing aid that enabled an artist to trace an image reflected 。nro a sheet of drawing paper.

What rem ained to b e d iscovered was a way to fix t he cam era o bscur a im age p e rm a n e ndy. T he darkening of certain s ilver compounds by expo- sure to light had been obse1ved 臼 early as the 17由 cenru1y, but the u nsolved and difficult problem 即臼 how to hair t his reaction so that the image would n ot darken completely.

The first permanent picture was m ad e by J oseph Nic岳phore Niepce, a gentleman inventor living in central France. He first experi m ented wi th si lver chloride, wh ich he knew darkened o n exposure to ligh t, but t h en h e turned to bitumen of Judea, a ki nd of asphalt that hardened when exp。sed to ligh t. N记pce dissolved the bitumen in lavender oi l, a solvent used in var- nishes, then coated a sheet of pewter wi th the mixture. He placed the sh eet in a camera 。bscura aimed t h rough an open windo即 at h is courtyard and exposed it for eig h t hours. The light form ing the image on the plate harden ed the bitumen in bright areas and left it soft an d soluble in dark areas. N iepce then washed t h e plate with lavender o il. T his removed the s till-soft bitumen that had not been struck by light, leaving a permanent image of the scene (left). Niepce named the process h eliography (from t h e Greek helios,“sun," and graph邸，“drawing").

181

Dα.guerreotype “ DESIGNS ON SILVER BRIGHT”

N ews of N ie pce ’ s WO毗国me t o t he atten- t ion of a not h e r Fre n chman, Louis J a cques Mand垂 Daguerre. Daguerre had been using the camera obscura fo r sketch ing and had also become interested in ttying to preserve its images. He wrote Niepce suggesti ng an exchange of infor- mation, and by 1829 had become his partner.

The mid-19由 century w as ripe for an inven-

t ion s uch as phot o g r a phy. Interest in this new invention might have spread simply by a growing interest in science, but ph。tography was more. In 飞.Vestern countries, a rising m iddle class with money to spend wanted pictures, especially fami ly portraits, which, until then, o nly the rich had been able to afford. In additio口， people were interested in faraway places; they t raveled to these places w hen they could and bought travel books and pictures when they could n。t

N iepce did not live to see the impact that ph otography was to have. He died in 1833, several years before Daguen-e perfected a process that he considered different enough fro m Niepce’s to be ann。unced to t he world as the daguerreotype (rig h t and opposite).

The resp onse t o t h e d agu e rreotype was sensationa l. After experi ment ing for many years, both wi th Niepce and alone, Daguerre was final ly satisfied wi th his process, and it was announced before the French Academy of Sciences on January 7, 1839. A French newspaper rhapsodized：。“What fi neness in the strokes，飞.Vhat kno飞.vledge 。f chiar- oscuro ! What delicacy! What exqu isi te fin ish!.. How admirably are the foresh。rtenings given: this is Nature itself!”

Almost immediately after t h e process was announced, daguerreotype s tudios were open ed to provide “ Su n D rawn Miniatures” m a very will- ing public. By 1853, an esti ma ted three million daguerreotypes per year were being produced in the Un ited S tates alone-mostly portraits bu t also scenic vie飞，VS

182 HI S TOR Y OF PHOTOGRAPHY

Louis Jacques Mande Dague"•· Boulevard du Temple, Paris, 1839. The busy streets of a Parisian boulevard appear depopulated because of the long由，posure this daguerre，。”e required. O吵a person getting a shoeshine n臼r the corner of the sidewalk stood still long enough to be record- ed; all the other people, horses, and 臼rriag，由had blurred so much that no image of them appeared on the plate. The shut- ter was pro切b如open for several minut，白， much less than the eight hours required by Niep臼＇s he/iograph, and the results were far superior-rich in detail and 归na/ity. The enthusiastic reception of Daguerre's process extended 阳poetry: "Light is that silent artist / Which without 阶e aid of man / Des也rns on silver br，也·ht/ Daguerre's immortal plan. ”

Photographer Unknown. Emi如 Dickinson at se时nteen, ι 1847. Daguerreotype. The daguerreotype reached the height of its popularity in America. Millions of Americans, famous and obscure, had their portraits made. Although the exposure time was reduced to less than a minute, it was still long enough to demand a quiet dignity on the part of the su句；ect.

This portrait, taken by an itinerant daguerreotypist, is the on如known f.hotograph of the 19血century poet Emily Dickinson. Just like her poemι it seems direct on the sur· face but elusive on more intimate le时Is Dickinson later described herself as "small, like the wren; and my hair is bold, like the chestnut burr; and my eyes, like the sherry in the glass that the guest leaves."

The daguerr eo type was made on a hig hly polished surface of silver t hat was plated on a copper s h eet. It was sensi tized by being placed, silver side down, over a contai ner of iodine c1ystals inside a box. Rising vapor from the iodine reacted with the silver, producing the light-sensi- tive compound silver iodide. During exposure in the camera, the plate recorded a latent image: a chemical change had taken place, bur no evidence of it was visible. To develop the image the plate was placed, silver side down, in another box con- taining a dish of heated mercury at the bottom. Vapor from the mercu1y reacted with the exp。sed areas of the plate. Wherever light had s truck the plate, mercury formed a frostl ike amalgam, or alloy, with the silver. This amalgam made up the bright areas of the image. Where no light had s truck, no amalgam was formed; the unchanged s ilver iodide was dissolved in s。diurn thi。sulfate fix凹， leaving the bare metal plate, wh ich looked black, to fo rm the dark areas of the picture.

The daguerreotype was very popu lar in its time, but it was a tech nological dead end . There were complaints about the difficulty of viewing, for the h ighly reflective image could be seen clearly only from certain angles. T h e mercury vap。r used in the process was h ighly poisonous and probably shortened t he life of more than o ne daguerreotypist. Bue the most serious drawback was that each plate was unique; there was n。 way of producing copies 四cept by rephotographing the original. The beautiful daguerre。巧’pe was rapidly-and easily-eclipsed by a negative-posi- tive process that allowed any number of p。sitive images to be made fro m a single negative.

CHA PTER 10 也 183

Calotype PICTURES ON PAPER

A n oth e r pho吨raphic process was announced aJmost at once. On Janua1y 25, 1839, less th an three weeks after t he an nounce- ment of Daguer陀、 process to t he French Academy, an English amateur scientist，飞William Henry Fox Talbot, appeared before the Royal Institution of Great Britai n to announce that he too had invented a way to perman en tly fix the image of the camera 。bscura

T a lbot made h is im ages o n pape r . His first experimen ts had been wit h negative silhou ett es made by placing 。bjects on paper sensi tized with s ilver ch loride an d exposing chem co light. T h en he experi m ented wi ch images formed by a cam- era obscura, exposing t h e ligh t -sens it ive coating long enough for the image co become visible dur- ing t h e exp。sure.

In June 1 840 T a lbot a nnounced a technique t hat b ecam e 由e b asis of m o de rn phot o g r a- phy: th e sensitized paper was exposed only long eno ugh co produce a latent image, wh ich then was chemically developed. To make che latent negative

image visible, Talbot used si lver iodide (the light- sensitive element of the daguerreotype) treaced wich gallo n itrate of silver. He called his invention a calotype (after t h e Greek kalos, “beauciful," and typoι “1mpressio口”）

T albot realize d 由e value of phot o g raphs on p a p e r rath e r t han on m etal: r ep ro ducibility. He placed th e fully developed paper negative in contact w ith an other sh eet of sensitized paper and exposed boch co light, a pr。cedure now known as contact printing. T h e dark areas of che negative bl。cked che light 企om che oth er sheec of paper, while the clear areas allowed ligh t through. T h e result was a positive image on paper resembling che tones of the original scene.

Because the print was made chrough the paper of a negative, the calotype lacked the sharp detail of the daguerreotype. Cal。巧’pes are beautiful- che fibers in the paper producing a soft, slightly cextured image that has been compared co a char- coal drawing. Bu t the process didn't d isplace che o ne-of-a-kind daguerreotype until the transparent negative appeared.

William H阳吃y Fox Talbot. 1』／bat's Pho臼,graphic le~, an assistant copies an engraving. In the cen毗 Graces. At far r.也ht, the kneeling man holds a 旬’罗t for the maker of this photograph 臼focus on. Talbot gave assurance that ”the plates of the present附rlc are imp -essed钞the ageng, of I，敏ta/one."

岳阳blishment, 1846. The act,vities at Talbot's Talbot himself prepares a camera 阳臼kea portra此 establishment near London are shown in this early At riiJ,t，阶e man at the racks makes con归aprints ca lo type 臼ken in two par由andpieced toge伪配 At whileano阶er photographs a s阳。P阳mof the Three

184 H I STOR Y OF PHOTOGRAPHY

Collodion Wet-Plαte SHARP AND REPRODUCIBLE

T he coll odion we叩late proc阳 combined t h e best featu re of t he d agu e rreo type- shar p n ess-and t h e b est o f t he calotype- r e producibility. An d it was m ore light sensi tive t han eit her of them, wi th exposures as short as five seconds. It combined so many advantages t ha t despite its drawbacks vi rt ually all photogra- p hers used it e。m its introduction in 1851 u ntil t he com mercial availabi lity of the gelati n d1y plate alm ost th ree decades later.

For some ti me, workers h ad been looki ng for a s ubstance th at wou ld bin d light -sensit ive salts to a glass plate. Glass was better than paper or metal as a support for si lver ch lor ide because it was textureless, t ransparent, and chemically inert. O n e bi nding material was the newly invented collodion (n itrocellulose dissolved in ether and alcohol), which is sticky when wet, but soon d ries into a tough, t ransparen t skin.

T he d isadvan tage of collodion was t hat the p late h ad t o b e exposed a nd p r ocessed while it was still wet. A m ixture of collodio n and potassi u m iodide was p。ured onto th e middle of t he p late. T h e photographer held the glass by t he edges and tilted it back and forth and from side to side until the su rface was evenly covered. The excess collodion was poured back into i臼

The collodion wet-plate process had many advantages, but convenience was not among them. The glass pla阳 on which the emulsion was spread had to be coated, exposed, and de时loped before the emulsion dried, which required transporting an entire darkroom to wherever the photograph was to be made.

conram er. Then the plate was sensi tized by being d ipped in a bath of si lver ni trat巳 It was exp。sed for a latent image wh ile still damp, developed in pyrogallic acid o r iron sulfate, fixed, washed, and dried. All th is had to be don e righ t where the ph otograph was taken, wh ich m eant that to take a pictu re th e photographer had to lug a complete darkroom alo ng (below).

C o llodion could b e used t o form e ithe r a n egative or a positive im age. Coated on glass, ’E produ ced a n egative fro m wh ich a posi t ive could be p rinted onto albu men -coated paper. If the glass was backed wi th a dark material like black velvet, paper, or paint, the image was transform ed into a posi t ive, an ambrotype, a kind of imi tation daguerreotype. Coated on dark ena meled metal it also formed a posi tive image-t he durable, cheap ti ntype popu lar in America for port raits to be placed in albun凹， on campaign buttons, and even on tom bs.

By d、e 1 860s, t he w o rld h ad mill io n s o f pho t o g r a p h ic im ages; 25 years earlier the re h ad been n one. Photograph ers were every- wh ere-taki ng p。rtrai ts, going to war, exploring d istan t p laces, and bringing home p ictu res to prove it .

A Photographer in the Field, c. 1865

C HA PTE R 1 0 也 185

Gelαtin Emulsion/Roll-Film Bαse PHOTOGRAPHY FOR EVERYONE

LJ ntil t h e 1880 s, few photogr aph s were m a d e b y t h e gen e ral p u b lic. Almost eve1yone had been ph。tographed at one time or an oth er, certainly everyone h ad seen ph otograph s, and probably m any people had thought of taking pictures them selves. But the tech nical ski ll, the m臼sive effort, and the expense and s heer q uan tity of equ ip ment needed for t he collodion wet-p late process restricted photograp hy to professionals and t h e most dedicated amateurs. Even t hey co m- plain ed of th e inconven ience of the process and m ade many attempts to improve it.

Br t he 1 880s，由e p erfection o f two tech - n iq ues cre a t ed a 也st d ry p late and e lim in at- ed t h e n eed for 由e 价agile g lass p late i臼elf. The firs t development was a new gelatin emu lsion in wh ich the light -sensit ive s ilver salts could be s uspended. It was based on gelatin-a jellylike s ubstance processed fro m cattle bones and hides. It retained its speed when d1y , un like collodion and cou ld be applied on the o ther invention-film in rolls. Roll fi lm revolutionized photography by maki ng it simple enough fo r anyone to enjoy.

Much o f the credit for p o pularizing p hot og- raphy g oes to George Eastman, who began 部 a bank clerk in Rochester, New York, and built his East man Kodak Company into one of the coun- try's foremost industrial enterprises. Almost from th e day Eastman bought his fi rst wet-plate camera in 1877, he searched fo r a simp ler way to ta!也 pic tu res. “ It seemed," he said,“that one ough t to be able to carry less than a pack-horse load. ”

Manype。ple had experimented wi th roll fi lm, but Eastm an was the firs t to market it com- mercially, wi th h is invention of the equipment to m ass-produce fil m. The result was Eastman ’5 Am erican Film, a roll 。f paper coated wit h a th in gelatin 凹nulsion. T he emulsi。n had to be st ripped fro m its paper backing to provide a negative that light could sh ine th rough fo r mak- ing prints. Most photograp hers h ad t rouble wi th th is operation, so the fi lm was usually sent to the company fo r processing.

186 HI STO R Y O F PHOTOGRAPHY

Roll fi lm made p ossible a new ki nd of C副nera-in四pensive, ligh t , and simple to oper- ate-that made eve1yone a potential p hotogra- pher. Eastman introdu ced th e Kodak camera in 1888. It came loaded with en ough fi lm fo r 100 pictures. When th e roll was used up, the owner returned t he camera wi th the 四posed fil m sti ll in it to the Eastman company in Rochester. So。n the developed and printed photographs and t h e camera, reloaded with fi lm , were sen t back to t h e owner. The Kodak slogan was，咋ou push t he but- ton, we do the rest ”

The Ko d ak camera b eca m e a n internationa l sensation almost o vernig h t. Wit h the inven- tion of a truly modern roll fil m (a transparent, fl exible plas时， coated wi th a th in em uls ion and sturdy enough to be used without a paper sup- port), a new photographic era had begun. T h e Eastman Kodak Com pany knew who would be the m ain users of its products, and it di rected its advertising accordingly:“A collection of these pic- tu res may be made to fu rnish a pict。rial h istory 。f life as it is lived by the owner, t ha t will grow more valuable eve1y day that passes.”

Fredrick Church. Geo也e Eastman with a Kodak, 1890. George Eastman, who put the Kodak box camera on the market and thereby put photography into everybo司r's hands, S阳，，ds aboard the 立5 Gall ia in the act of using his invention. Roll film made the 臼mera small enough to carry easi吧y Fast gelatin en”’/sions permitted ~ s-sec. exposures so subjects did not have to strain to hold still.

Alfred T. Palmer. ＼，＼巾men War M血rker事， circa 1942. Kodachrome transpar· ency fjlm was introd11ced for 16mm movie cameras m 1935, and for the 35mm still photography market in 1936. It was the first acrn· ra饵，；nexpens，时， ea9'·阳－ 1/S鸟 and reliable method for er，甜ting color photographs.

Color Photogrαphy

D aguerre him self kn ew t hat only one t hing was n eeded to make his wonderfu l in vention complete-co lor. After several false starts, one 。f the first successes was d凹nonstrared in 1861 by the British physicist James Clerk Maxwell. He had three negatives of a tartan ribbon made, each through a different color fi lter-red, green, and blue. Positive black-and呐1ire transparencies were made of the three negatives and projected through red, green, and blue filrers like those on the camera. \Vhen the three images were superim- posed, they produced an image of the ribb。ninits original colors. Maxwell had dem。nstrared addi- tive color mixing, in which colors are produced by adding together varying am。unrs of light of the three primary colors, red, green, and blue.

In 1869, a n even m o re signi衍cant 由eory was m a d e pub lic by two Frenchmen, Louis Ducos du Hauron and Charles Cros, working independently of each other. Their process, sub- tractive color mixing, is the basis of present-day color photography. Colors are created by com-

bining cyan, magenta, and yellow dyes (the com- plements of red, green, and blue). The dyes sub- tract colors from the " white” light that contains all colors.

T h e 筒，st commercially suαessful color was a n additive process. In 1907, two French broth- ers, Antoine and Louis Lum iere, marketed their Autochrome process. A glass plate was covered with tiny grains of potato starch dyed red-orange, green, and violet, in a layer only one starch grain thick. Then, a light-sensitive emulsion was added. Light struck the emulsion after passing through the colored grains. The emulsion beh ind each grain was exposed on ly by light from the scene that was the same color as that grain. The result after development was a full-color transparency.

Kodachrome, a subtractive process, m ade color phot og raphy practical. It was perfected by Leopold Mannes and Leopold Godowsky, two amateur photographic researchers who eventually joined forces with Eastman Kod冰 research scien- tists. Their collaboration led to the introduction in 1935 of Kodachrome, a single sheet of film coated with three layers of emulsion, each sensitive to one prima1y color (red, green，。r blue). A single exposure produced a color image (left).

In the 1940s, Koda!< introduced Ektachrome, which allowed photographers and small labs to process slides, and Kodacolor, the first color negative film.

Today it is di仔icult t o imagi ne photo graphy without co lor . Amateurs make photographs by the millions each day, and the ubiquitous snapshot is always in color. Commercial and pub lishing markets use color almost exclusively. Digital cameras always start by capturing a color image; anyone who wants a black-and-white end product must discard the color information. Even photojournalism, documentary, and fine- art photography, which had been in black and white for most of their hisro厅， are most often now m co lor

C HAPTE R 1 0 也 187

Eαrly Portrαits

P eople w a n ted portrai岱. Even when 出po s ure rimes were long and having o ne’s pm trait taken meant sitting in bright su nligh t for several minutes with eyes watering, trying n o t co blink or move, people flocked to portrai t s tudios to have their likenesses drawn by “ the sacred radiance of the Sun.” Images of aim。st every famo us person who had not died before 1839 have come down

to us in portraits by photographers such as Nadar and Julia Margaret Cameron (right). Ordin ary people were photographed as well-i n Plumbe’S Nari。nal Daguerrian Galle厅， where hand-cine- ed “ Patent Premiu m Coloured Likenesses” were made, and in cut-rate shops where double-len s camer臼 took them " two at a pop.” Small portraits called carres-de-visice were immensely popular in the 1860s （。pposi ce). For pioneers moving 飞;t'est in Am凹ica, the pictures were a link to the fam ily and friends they had left behind. Two books went West wit h t he pioneers-a Bible and a photograph album.

Photogr a phs h a d a n almost m ystical pres- e nce. After seeing some dagu erreotype portrai臼， the poet Elizabeth Barrett wrote to a friend in 1843，“Several 。fthese wonderful portraits. . like engravings-only 四quisi te and delicate beyond the work of graver-have I seen lately-longing to have such a memorial of eve1y Being dear to me in the world It is n ot merely the likeness wh ich 1s precious in such cases-but th e association and the sense of n earness involved in t he t hing

t h e fact of the ve1y shadow of the person lying there fixed for ever! . I would rather have such

a m emorial of o ne I dearly loved, than t he noblest artist's work ever produced. I do not say so in respect （。r d isrespect) to Art, but for Love’s s冰e 飞;trill you u nderstand?-even if y。u wi ll not agree?”

188 H I STOR Y OF PHOTOGRAPHY

Julia /1,旬’-garet Cameron. Alfred, Lord Tennyson, 1865. Cameron photographed her friends and peers, the well- known and the well-born, in Victorian England. Tennyson fol/o附d William Words附rth as the Poet Laureate of Great Britain and Ireland from 1850 until his death in 1892

F呐。阳，grapher Unknown. Woman in Costume.

Pho阳，grapher Unknown. Andre Adolphe Disderi. Ca时·es de-visite were taken with a camera 伪at exposed only one section of the photographic p归te at a time. Thus the customer could strike several different poses for the price of one. At leβι shown a print before it is cut 巾归 separate pictures. People collected cartes-de-visite 时 albums, inse时ing pictures of themselves, friends, relatives, and famous people like Queen Victoria .

One album cover advised: "Yes, thι is my Album, but learn ere you look;/ that all are expected 阳 add to my book. / You are welcome 阳 quiz it, the penalty is, / that you add your own Portrait for other军阳 quiz."

Andre Adolphe Disderi, who popularized these multiple portraits, is shown above on a 臼rte-de-visite. Carte portraits became a fad when Napoleon Ill stopped on the way 归 war 阳 pose for cartes-de－νisite at Disderi's studio.

C H A PTE R 1 0 也 189

Eαrly Trαvel Photogrαphy

E art~ travel photographs m et a d e m a nd for pictures of far awa y p la ces. In th e mid- 19由 century, the world seemed full of u nexplored

wonders. S teamships and railroads were making it possible for more people to travel, but distant lands s till seemed exotic an d mysterious and peo - p ie were h u ngry for photographs of them. There had always been drawi ngs po rtraying unfami lia r p laces, but they were an artist' s personal vision. The camera seemed an extension of one’sown visio n; travel photographs were accepted as real an d fai thfu l images.

The N ear East w as of s p eciaJ interest. Not on ly was i t 础。tic, b u t its biblical associa tions and ancien t cul tures m ade it even mo re fasc inating. 飞.Vithin a few mo n ths of the 1839 annou ncem ent

of D aguerre’s process, a p hotograph ic team was in Egypt . “ We keep d agu erreotypi ng away like lions," they reported, “ and from Cairo h ope to sen d home an interesting ba tch.” Because there was n o way to reproduce the d ag ue!'reotypes d irectly, they were traced a nd reproduced as copperplate e n gravings. W ith the inventio n of t h e calotype a nd later th e collodion processes, a ctual p ictures from t h e Near East were soon availa ble.

1 90 H I S TORY OF PHOTOGRAPHY

πmothyH. 。’＇Sullivan. 8归ck Canyon, Colorado River, 1871 . Expeditions 阳pho tograph distant pla&es were /aun&hed as soon as the invention of photography was announ&ed. In addition to all the materials, chemicals, and knowledge needed to coat, expose, and pro白血伪eir photographs in remotepla出毛自：peditiona,y photographers also had to have considerable fortitude.

TimothyH. O’'Sul/ivan, whose dark，。。’” 。n a boat appears at left, described an ar，臼臼/led the Humboldt Sink: ’'It was a pretty lo臼tion 归 work in, and viewing there was as pleasant work as could be desired; the on如drawback was an unlimited m

- the most 叩racious and particula瓦Jy poison ous mosqui阳臼 that we met ‘ν'ith during our e,’tire trip. Add 阳 this. . frequent at阳cksof that most ener、'Oting of all fevers, known as the ’mountain ail,’and you will see why 、ve did not work up more of that country. ”

The most s p ectac ular scene ry of由e w estern U nited S tates was not much phot o g r a phe d until the la te 1 860s. Explo rers a n d a rtists h ad been in the Rocky Mou ntain a rea lon g before t h is ti me, b u t the ta les th ey cold of the region and the sketc h es they m ade were o丘en thought to be exaggerations. After the Civi l 飞.Var, wh en severa l government 口pedi tions set o u t to explore and m ap t h e West, p hotograp h ers a ccompan ied t h em, not a lways to t h e delig ht of the o ther m embers of the expedi tions. “The ca m era in its s t ron g b。x was a h eavy lo a d to car1y u p th e rocks,'’ says a descripti。n 。fa Grand Canyon trip in 187 1, “ but it was noth ing to t h e chem ical and plate-ho lder box, which in t u rn was feathe rweig h t C。mpared to the im itation hand 。rgan which served for a darkroom. Th is dark box was th e special sorrow of t h e expedition .. "

C iv il War ph。rographers T imoth y H. 0 ’Su llivan (a bove and opposite) and Alexander G ardner bo th went 飞:Vest wit h governmen t -

sponsored 四pedi tions. W illiam Henry Jackson’s p h otograph s of Yellowstone helped con vince Con gress to set the a rea aside as a natio nal park, as d id the photographs of Yosemite made by Carleton Eugene 飞X/atkins.

Eαrly Imαges ofWαr

Timothy H. 。’＇Sullivan. A Harvest of Death, Get.切切，-g, ）吵 1863. The first realistic view of war was shown by Civil War pho- 阳•graphers such as Brady, Gardne巧 and o’'Sullivan {rt沪纱. Oliver Wendell Holmes had been on the battlefield at Antietam searching for his wounded son and later saw 阶e photographs Bra吵made there: “Let him w加剧拍出阳know what war is look at this series of illustrations. It was so nearly l放e 时siting the battlefield to look over these views, that all the emotions 臼cited 钞 the actual s拗t of the stained and sordid scene, strewed with rags and wrec缸， came back归叫 and we buried them in the recesses of our cabinet as 附would ha昭 buried the mutilated remains of the dead they 归o vivi<功’-epresented. "

P hotographs gave war scen es a u t hority, and made t h em m o re immediate for those at h o m e. Un t il photography’5 invention, wars seemed remote and rather exciting. People learned of war from delayed n ews accounts or even later from the tales of returning s。ldiers or e。m paintings or poems.

The disastrous Brit is h campaigns in the Crimean War of the 1850s were t h e fi rst con-

fl icts to be extensively photographed. T he ill- fated Charge of the Ligh t Brigade against Russian forces in 1854 was only o ne of the catastrophes; 。fficial bungling, disease, starvation, and 四po sure took more British lives than did t h e enemy. However, Roger Fenton , t h e 。fficial photogra- pher (who had been introduced to photography o n ly three years earlier), generally depicted the war with scen ic an d idealized images.

Photographs from 由e American Civil War were the 而rst to show the reality of war (above). Mathew B. Brady, a successful portrait photographer, conceived the idea of sending teams to photograph the war . No pho tographs were made during a battle; it was E。。 hazardous. T h e collodion process requ ired up to several secon ds’ exposure and the glass plates had to be processed on the spot, wh ich made the photographer’s dark- room-wagon a target for enemy gunners.

Alth。ugh Brady hoped to sell his photographs, th ey often showed what people wanted only to fo rget. Brady took only a few, if any, ph。tographs h imself, and some of his men （川口ander Gardner and T imothy H. 0 ’Sullivan among t hem) broke with him and set up thei r o叭响。peration. But Brady’s idea and personal investment launched th is invaluable documentation 。f Am erican h istory.

CHAPTER ，。然 191

Time αnd Motion in Eαrly Photographs

T he earliest photographs 陀quired v町 long exposures. Today, photographers using modern cameras consider a o ne-second exposure relatively long. Bue photographers using earlier processes had to work with much slower maceri- als, and an exposure 。f several seconds was con- sidered quite shore.

People or objects that m oved during the expo- s ure were blurred or, if the exp。sure was long en o ug h , d isappeared completely. Busy streets sometimes looked deserted (page 182) because m。St pe。ple had not stayed s till long enoug h to register an image.

Stereographic photographs were the first to show action as it was taking place, with peo- ple in midstride or horses and carts in m。tion. This was possible because the sh。此－focal-length lens of the stereo camera produced a bright, sharp image at wide apertures an d thus could be used with very brief exposure times.

These “mstantaneous” phot。graphs revealed aspects of motion that t h e unaided eye was not able to see. s。me of the arrested motions were so

d仔erent from the conventional artistic represen- tations that the photographs looked wrong. A gal- loping h。rse, fo r example, had often been dra飞m w ith all fo ur feet off th e ground-the front legs extended forward and h ind legs extended back.

Eadweard Muybrid ge was a pion eer in motion studies. When h is ph。tographs of a gallopi ng horse, published in 1878, showed that all fo ur of its feet were off the ground on ly when they were bu nched u nder the ho rse’s belly, some people thought that 如fuybridge had altered the ph otographs. Using the n ew, fast gelati n-si lver em ulsio n and a specially E。nstructed multi-lens cameras, Muybridge compiled many stud ies of different animals and h umans in action (righ t, bottom) that were distributed w陆ly.

192 HISTORY OF PHOTOGRAPHY

Platt D. Babbitt. Joseph A昭·,y Stranded on Rocks in the Niagara Rive.巧 1853. Tl』is is 刷刷，fy eX4mple of a news photograph, unusual because newsworthy even臼rarely held

Eadw，田rd Muybridge. Motion Stu很ι 1885 Capturing motion became technically pos- sib/e as the sensitivity of photographic emulsions increased. M吧ybridge’s project Animal L。com。口。n analyzed 阶emo时ments

still for the long缸”•sur，臼a daguerreot;伊 required. Th且 unlucky man was stranded cling- i喀阳a log afier a boating accident; his situa- tion held him motionless enough 臼 be recorded.

。｛humans and many animals. M吧ybridge often used seν·era/ cameras 与ynchronized 阳 work toge阶er so that each stage of a move- ment could be recorded simultaneously from different angles.

Karl 8/ossfeldt. Nigel/a Damascena Spinnenkopf, ι 1932. 8/ossfeldt’s rigor- ous plant studies inf/u- enced generations of artists Each 平ecimen in the long 坦ries was presented alone against a neutral background 且 the plant forms could be considered without any hint of the decisions or interpre阳－ tions of an artist. Published as a book in 1929, hι imag es were studied by pa巾臼甩， ar而tects, d，田驴ers, and others who inco’pora阳d nature's ideas into their own

The Photogrαph αs Document

Eugine A贯get. Quai d说’,jou, 6am, Pa时， 1924. Eugine Atget artfully revealed the essence of Paris while seeming merely to document its 缸阳rnal appearance. A silent street along伪e Seine in the 臼吵mornin阜时阶 i臼graceful trees, moored ba馆出， and如βlight 写peaks of the pervasi时charm and architectural harmony of the city.

P ho tog r a phs C甜 be d ocume nts o n many leve ls. Most snapsh ots record a particular scene to help the part icipants rem em ber it later. A news ph otograp h implies that this is what you would have seen if you had been t h ere y。urself, alt h o ug h digital ph otography continues to ch ip away at th is belief (see page 112). O n ano ther level, a p hotograph can reco rd reality whi le at t he sam e t ime recording t he p hotograp her's commen t o n that reality. Lewi s 飞V H ine said of h is work : “ I wanted to show the t h ings t ha t h ad to be cor- rected. I wanted to s how t h e th ings that had to be appreciated.” Hi s statem en t describes the use of photograp hy as a fo rce fo r social change an d a s tyle that came to be known as document a1y (see pages 194- 195).

Eugene Atget’ s w o rk wen t b eyond simple r ecords, alth。ugh h e cons idered h is p h oto- g raphs to be d ocuments. A sig n o n his d oor read “ Docum en ts p our Artistes.” Atget m ade thousands of photograp hs in the early 1900s, of the streets, cafes (le丘， top), shops, m o numents, parks, and people of the Paris he loved . H is pic- tures won h im lit tle notice during h is lifetime; he barely m an aged to eke o ut a livi ng by sell ing prints to art is ts, arch itects, and o thers who want - ed visual records of the city. Many ph otographers can record the external ap pearance of a p lace, but Atget conveyed the atm osp here and m ood of Paris as well.

Ka rl B lo ssfe ld t's phot o g r a phs of p lan ts r ej e ct ed commentary, as well as sentiment, to be as straigh t fo1ward and fac tual as possible (left). He has been associa ted with the New O bjectivity m ovement (Neue Sachlichkeit}, that applied si milar goals to a range of m edia. August Sand er attempted to record an entire peop le- the cit izens of pre-World War II Germ any-i n utterly factual portraits m eant to show society’s classes an d not individual char acter. Later, Bernd and Hilla Becher applied si m ilar fo rmal and proced ural rigo r to p hotograph ing industrial s tructures, and were teachers to a gen eratio n of notable a rtists whose artistic lineage can be traced di rectly back to Blossfeldt.

CHAPTER ，。然 193

Photogrαphy αnd Sociαl Chαnge

Photogr叩hy s oon went 衔。”’ document ing t h e w orld t o docu m enting it fo r a cau se. Jacob Riis, a Danish-born newspaper reporter of the late 19由 centmy, was o n e of the first to use

ph otography for social change. Riis had been writing about the g rinding brutality 。flife in New York Ci旷s tenem en ts and slums and began to take picmres (righ t, cop) to show, as h e sa风what “ no mere description could, the m isery and vice that he had n o ticed in h is ten years of experience . and suggest the direction in which good m ight

be done.” To take photographs inside t he t en e- mencs at night, Riis used magnesium powd凹 ign ited in an open pan co provide ligh ting in the dark rooms. The techn ique was the fo rerunn er of the modern flash

Lewis W. Hi ne was a trained sociologist with a passionate social awareness, especially 。f the abuses 。f chi ld labor 。ight, bottom). T his evi l was w idespread in t h e early 20th century, and Hine

documented it co provide evidence fo r reformers. With sarcastic fury he wrote of 削opportunities’

fo r the child and the family co ... relieve th e over- burdened manufacturer, help h im pay h is rent, s upply his equipment, ta!也 care of h is rush and s lack seasons, and h elp him to keep down his wage scale. ”

Lewis Hi.，皿 Sadie Pfeifer, 48 Inches H也h, Has Worked Half a Year, Lanu,ster Cotton Mills, Lancaster, South Carolina, 1908. Lewis Hine documented the abuses of child labor between 1908 and 1921, making 5,000 pictures for the National Child Labor Committee. One foreman casually dismissed accidents, such as children getting caught in the machinery. “Once 巾 a while a 卢nger ι mashed or a foot, but it doesn' t amount to anything ”

194 H I ST O RY OF P H O T O G R APH Y

Jacob Riis. Home of Italian Rag Picker, Jersey Street, 1894. Riis used his camera 阳 expose the slum conditions of New York City. His phot，怨raphs led 阳 housing ’·egulations that outlawed overcrowded quarters and windowless rooms

Dorothea Lange. M也rant Mother, Californ巾， 1936. Lange' s work rev臼Is herempa阶!Y for her拥向；e.出－ She had a unique ability to photograph p四，pfe at the moment that their e叫pressions and ges，阳r田rev田led their Ii闹剧d feelings. Her photograph of a mother of seven w由o tried 臼support her children 句’pick句p臼•s, was one of those that came to symbolize the 1930s Depre.且ion.

The photog r a phers of t h e Farm Security Adminis t r a tion recorded t h e D e pressio n o f t he 193 0s, wh en the nation’s en ti re economic s tructure was in deep t rouble and far m famil i e s were in p缸ticular n eed, Assistan t S巳crerary of Agriculmre Rexford G. Tug飞飞 g。vernment's program 。f aid to fa rmers was expensive and controversial. To p rove both the extent of the problem and the effectiveness of the cure, he appointed Roy Sttyker to supervise p ho- tograph ic coverage of the program .

Stryker recruited a remarkable band of ta!- enc, including D orothea Lange (le丘， top), Walker Evans (page 173), Russell Lee (page 16 1, top), Marion Post Wolcott, Arthu r Ro thstein (left, bot- tom), Gordon Par ks, and Ben Shahn. The p horog- rap hers of t he Farm Security Administrati。n pro- duced a m onumen tal collection 。f im ages sh ow- ing the plight of “ on e th ird of a nation ” during the Dep ressio n.

Arthur Rothstein. Dust Storm, Cimarron County, Oklahoma, 1936. Rothstein was 伪e firrt photographer Roy Stryker hired 阳document 伪e plight of people during 伪e Depression. Du斤’怒that period, drought turned parts of Oklahoma into a dust bowl. Here, the building and fence posts are almost buried 巾 drifts of sand. Rothstein later wro阳 that while taking阶e picture，何I could hardly breathe because dust was everywhere."

CHA PTER 10 也 195

Photojournαlism

W hatever the news …t-fro m a prize- fight to a war-we expect to see p ictures of it. Today we ta!也 ph。tojournalism fo r granted, bur news and pictures were not always partners. Drawings and cartoons appeared only occasion- ally in the drab 18出－century press. T he 19由 cen tury saw the growth of illustrated newspapers s uch as the Illustrated London News and, in Am erica, Harper's ＼串＇eekly, and Fra价 Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper. Because the various tones of gray needed to reproduce a ph。tograph could nor be printed simultaneously with ordinary type, pho- tographs had to be converted into drawings and then into woodcuts before they could appear as news pictures. T he photograph merely furnished material fo川he artist.

The h a lfto ne process, perfected in t h e 1 88 0 s, perm itted p h oto g r aphs a nd typ e to be pri nted togeth e r, and ph。tographs became an expected addi tion to news stories. “These are no fancy sketches," t he Illustrated American prom- ised, “they are the actual life of the place repro- duced up。n paper.”

T he p h oto essay, a seq ue n ce o f p h o t ographs p lus b rief textu a l mate rial, came o f age in t he 1930s. It was pi。neered by Stefan Lorant in European picture magazines and later in America by a score of publications such as Li庐 and I』ok. Today, the heyday of the picture magazi ne has passed, du e in pal't to competition from televi- s ion . But photographs remain a m叮or s。urce of our information abou t the world and photo essays have returned o n the Internet.

The halftone process converts the continuous shades of gray in a pho阳•uaph (ri劲。巾归distinct units of black and white that can be printed with 巾k on paper ( far right).

196 H I ST ORY OF P H O T O G R A PH Y

Erich Salomon. Visit of Prime Min ister MacDonald to Berlin, 1931. Not until the 1920s did photographers get a small camera able 阳 take pictures easily in dim I也·ht. Ea吵cameras were relati时如bu／凯 and the slowness of available films meant that using a camera indoors required a blinding burst of flash powder. The 卢刚 ofthe small 臼meras, the Ermanox，阳be followed soon by the Leica, had a lens so fast-f/2-that unobtrusive, candid shooting finally became practical. Cameras began to infiltrate places where they hadn’t been before, and the public began to see real people 巾 thene附

Erich Salomon was one of the pioneers of 阶is practice, with a 非自由l talent for dress - ing in (ormal clothes and crashing diplomatic ga伪erings-sometimes shooting through a hole in his bowler or di：结uising his 臼mera within a bouquet. He o卢·en recorded those in power while they were preoc，阳，pied with other matter>, such as at this 1931 meetin~ of German and British statesmen In tribute to Salomon, the French fore.驴 ministeι Aristide Briand, is said to have remarke叫i "There are just three things necessary for a League of Nations conference: a际νfore驴secre臼ries, a table, and a Salomon ”

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讥I, Eugene Smith. 舟。，，， Span ish Village, 1951. The pho阳 essay-pictur，臼p阳 supporting text-was the mainstay of mass-circulation picture magazin臼 such as life and t。。K Above are t,咽pag，由from ”'Spanish “llage,”photo- graphed for U鱼岛y WEug，臼e Smith, w由自e picture essays are un.阳’如ssed in 伪eirpo附randpho臼，graphic beauty.

CHAPTER 10 也 1 97

Photojournαlism (continued)

Photojournalists were 由e 侃rst t o e mbra ce digital phot o g r a phy. T h e news is now. Ph otographers o n l。cati。n n eed co get pictures from the middle of the action to t he editors' desks as rapidly as possible. Fi lm requires t ransportatio n to a lab, devel。pment, drying, an d proofing before anyone can tell wh ether t he pictures can be used. T h e length of a roll lim its the n umber of photo- graphs th at can be 四posed qu ickly. And it is easy for info rmation about a picm re’s conten t to get separated from the p icture itself.

The Associated Press (AP) began t r a n s- mi忧ing conve nt ional photographs digitally b efor e 1 980 . T h eir system was used to d istrib- ute pictu res to editors at d iffere nt newspapers. In the m id-90s practical digital cameras began to appear in the han ds of a very few photographers. T he can1eras were specially m odified 35m m SLRs, the same m。dels m any ph。tojournalists were already using, and were very expensive. By 200 1 nearly half of all jou rnalists used d igital cameras; today virtually all d。．

Ashley Gilbertson. Baghdad, Iraq, 2004, Ci/be巾。” has photographed &onflict in

Whiskey Ta鸣。 Foxtrot, records not o吵the drama of scenes like 阶is, but also the people

Iraq sin&e 2002, on a臼盼ment for a var时吵。fpub/i，臼tions and as a personal project. He时， an Iraqi's at阳mpt阳田tinguish the 卢mbu m ing in a van ends spectacular如 Gilbertson 's book,

that are 臼ught up in the conflict. George Packer, writing in The New Yorker, said that warpho阳,graphy 臼n 毡阴阳ck 阶eir subjects the humanity 伪at the war is taking away.”

198 HISTOR Y OF PHOTOGRAPHY

Alfred Eisens臼edt. Ethiopian Soldier, 1935. War and social i呼ustice are among伪e stap1'苗。fnews photography. 7百e饨st ofthesepho问graphs go beyond the simple recording of an e时nt. 7百ey become symbols of the time in which they occurred.

In 1935, when the overw\elmingforce of a modern, mechanized Italian army invaded an ill-prepared Ethiop巾， Eisenstaedt focused on the feet of a barefoot E阶iopian soldier.

Susan Meise/as. Awaiting Counterattack by the Guard, Ma阳，ga伊a, Nicaragua, 1978. During the Sandinista revolt in Nia1rag1将a, Susan Meise/as pho曲,graphed these men at a barricade awaiting attack 句ygovernment troops. She had to decide whether 臼 stay and continue photographing or 曲 lea时阳make the deadline for publica- tion. “A a do阳menta,y phot，络rapheιl 附uld have liked归stay, but I had to leave 臼get the pictur，出out. It was the first time that Ir，臼lized what it means to be a pho曲－ journalist and d，臼／ with a d臼d/i，盹”

C H A PTE R 1 0 也 1 99

Photogrαphy αs Art in the 19th Century

W部 it j u st a photograph o r w剖 it art? Almost from the moment of its birth, photog- raphy began st冰ing 。ut claims in areas that had long been reserved fo r painting. Portrai臼， still lifes, landscapes, n udes, and even allegories became photographic subject matter.

At the rime, the most famous and commer- c1ally the most successful of th。se intending t。 elevate photography to an art was Henry Peach Robins。n Robins。n turned o ut many illus tra- t ive and allegorical composite photographs. T h ese were carefully plotted in advance and com- bined several negatives to form the final print (rig h t , top). Robinson became the leader of a so-called High Art m ovement in 1 9由－century photography, which advocated beauty and artistic effect no matter ho即 it was obtained. Robi nson

advised:“Any dodge, trick and conjuration of any kind is open to the photographer’S use.”

By t h e 1 880s, a new m o vem ent ch a m pio ned natl』 ralism a s a rtistic phot o g r a phy. Its leader, Peter Henry Emerson, felt t hat true ph otograph ic art was possible o nly through exploiti ng the camera’s ability to capture reality in a direct way (right, bottom). He scorned th e pictorial school and its composite printing, cosrumed models, painted backdrops, and sentimental views of daily life.

Emerson laid do叭响 h is own rules for what

he called naturalistic photography: simplicity of equipment; no “ fak ing” by means oflighti ng, pos- ing, costumes, o r props; free composition wi thout reliance on classical rules; and no retouching. He also promoted what he believed was a scientific foc using technique that imita ted the way the eye perceives a scene: sharply focused on the main SU悖ct, wi th t h e foregro und and especially the background slightly 。ur of focus.

His ideas influenced a new gen eratio n of pho- tograph ers wh o no longer felt the need to imitate painti ng bur began to explore photography 臼m art in its 。叭响 right.

200 H I S T O RY O F P H O T O G R APH Y

Henry Peach Robinson. Fading A叫y, 1858. Henry Peach Robinson's H也h Art pho阳，graphy was inspired by romantic literature. He de时loped a composite photographic technique that allowed him 阳pro御自 imagina,y s，四nes. Fading Away (abo昭j wass臼1ged by posing models separately and piecing together the imag，由e

Peter Henry Emerson. Gathering Water Lilies, 1885. Peter Henry Emerson rejected 伪e methods 。fthe M沪 A时photographers. He insisted 阶at photography should not imitate art but should strive for a naturalistic effect that was not artificially contri，昭d He illustrated his theories M阶 his own photographs of peasants on the East Anglian ’”arsh目的 England.

Pictoriαl Photogrαphy αnd the Photo-Secession

Robert Demachy. Panel, 1898. Pictoriolist photog· rophyot the 阳m of the 酬阳吃y often -esembled impressionist painting,, wi，阶 light and atmosphere more impor臼nt than sharp details.

Alfred Stiegli缸. 7百e Steerage, 1907. Alfred Stieglitz chom- pioned photography as art, including pictorial臼t photogra- phy. Howeve巧 his own photographs U白cept for a brief ea吵 period, see page 172) did not include soft 阳，乓 hon即时， or other alterations of阶e direct 臼mera image

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Many pictorialists believed that artistic merit increased if t h e photograph lo oked like someo由er kind o f art-charcoal drawi ng, mez- zotint, or anyth ing other than ph otography. T hey patterned th eir wor k q uite frank ly on painti ng, especially the work of the Fren ch lmpressionis囚， fo r whom mood and a sense of atmosphere an d light were importan t. The pictorialists favored m ist-covered landscapes and soft ci tyscapes; light was diffused, line was softened, an d detai ls were s uppressed (left, top).

In America, Alfred Stieglitz was t h e leader and catalyst for photography as a n art form and h is infl uence is ha rd E。 overestimate. He ph otograp hed (le丘， b。ttom), organized sh。叽，s and p u blished infl uential and avant-garde wor k by phot。graphers and other a rtists. In h is galler- ies-the Li ttle Gal leries 。f d飞e Pt飞。E。－Secess ion (later known simply by its address, 291), t he Inti mate Gallery, and An American Place-he s howed not 。nly what he considered t he best ph。tographic w。rks bu t also, fo r t h e fi rst ti m e in the U nited States, t he works of Cezanne, Matisse, Picasso, an d other m odern artists. In his m aga- z ine C町，i.era ＼冈州， he pu blish ed p hotograph ic crit icism an d wor ks whose on ly requirement was that they be worthy 。f the word art. N。t on ly d id he eventually fo rce m useu m cu rators an d art crit ics to gran t p hotography a place beside the o ther arts, bu t by exam ple an d s heer fo rce of personality h e n川ce set the s tyle for Am erican ph。tography: fi rst toward t h e early p ictorial impression istic ideal an d later toward s ha rply realis tic,“s t raigh t” ph otography.

CHAPTER ，。然 20 1

The Direct Imαge in Art

S ome phot咆raphers interested to m ake a rt in t h e early 20由 century created unma-

nipulated images even wh ile pictorialis臼 were making photographs that l。。ked very m uch like paintings. A movement was formi ng to return to the direct photographs that characterized so much of l9由，century imagerγ. In 19 17, Stieglitz devoted the last issue of Camera Work to Paul Strand, whose photographs he saw as a pow凹fi.tl new approach E。 photography as an arr form. Strand believed th挝、bjecrivity is of the veiy essence of photography ... T he fi.tllest realizatio n of this is accomplished with- o ut tricks of process o r manipulation.”

S tieglitz’S 0胃口 ph otographs were direct an d u n man ipulated. He felt t hat many of them were V阳al metapho rs, accurate im ages of o均eccs in fro nt of h is camera an d at the san1e t ime external “equivalents” 。f h is inn er feelings. After 1950, 如fin。r 飞亨h ite carried o n an d expanded S tieglitz’S concept of t he equivalent For Wh ite, the goal of the serious ph otographer was “ to get from the tangible to the intangible” so t hat a straight ph otograph also functi。ns as a m etaphor for the photographer’s 。E t h e viewer’s s tate of mi nd.

Str在ight photography d o minated photogr叩hy as a n a rt form 命。”’ the 1930s to 由e 1 9 70s and is 四emplified by Edward Weston. He used the simplest techn ique and a bare m in imu m of equip ment: generally, an 8 x 10 view camera with lens stopped d。叭响 to the smallest apertu re for sharpness overall. He contact-printed negatives that were seldom cropped. “ My way of working-I start wi th no preconceived idea-discovery excites me to focus-then rediscovery th roug h the lens- fi n al fo r m of presentatio n seen o n ground glass, the fin ished print previs ioned complete in every detai l of textu re, movement, proportion, before exposure-th e sh utter’s release automatically an d fi n ally fixes my conceptio n, allowing no after man ipu lation-the ulti mate end , the print, is but a d uplication of all that I saw an d felt t h rough my camera.” Many other photographers, such as Ansel Adams, Paul Capon igro (right), Imogen Cu n ningham, and Ch arles Sheeler (page 164) have used t h e s t raig h t approach.

2 0 2 HI S TOR Y O F PHOTOGRAPHY

Paul Strand. The White F面脯， Port Ken; New V切成， 1916. Strand's stra敏e app.刷ch 阳p协 tography as an art form combined an objective view wi，伪 personal meaning. “Look at the thing; a刷ndyo盹 the immediate附，rJd around you. If you are alive it will mean 酬，ething to you. »

Paul Caponigro. Galaxy Apple, New York City, 1964. The a仰le is a symbol of the biblical story of creation：，的伪ispho阳,graph it m回nat，臼叫h 伽时sual metaphor of a universe reflected in its skin. 何Pho臼，grap.均y'sp。但n阳I，＂α，ponigro said, “ .is rea吵nod，，庐，切t from the same po阳阳I in the best poetry where familiar，刷,yday words, placed时hin a special酬t叫can 皿arabo昭伪e intellect and阳uch subtle real钞的a unique w命”

Usz/6 Moholy-Nagy. j臼lousy, 1927. Photog· raphers such as Laszlo Moholy-Nagy and Gyo也Y Kep臼 used many techn句ues 归劝eir explorations of real, unreal, and abstract image· ,y. The photomontage (right) com岳阳臼pi自由ofse时rat

phott.苍raphs. Mohofy defined pho阳montage as "a tumultu- ous collision of whimsical detail from which hidden meani，咿 flash, ” a de卢刚仿on that fits this ambiguous picture.

Cyo，罗Kepes mined sci- entific advances for image饥 collaborating with physicist A. R von H伊•pel to generate the image above. Lichtenberg {igu -es result from h也•h- νoltage s阳tic electrici，纱， a principle that led direc.吵阳 modern xerography.

The Quest for α Ne飞v Vision

T he b eginning of t h e 20由 centu叩 saw g reat ch a nges in many areas, including science, tech nolog)’, m athem atics, p olitics, and also the ans. Movem ents like Fa uvis m, Expressi。nism, Cubism , D ada, and S urrealism were perm anently changing the m eaning of the word “ an.” T h e Futuris t art m ovem ent proposed “ to sweep fro m the fi eld of arr all m。tifs and su均ects that h ave already been exploited .. to destroy t h e cult of the past .. to despise u tt erly eve1y form 。f im itation ... to extol eve1y form of originality.”

At the ce nter of rad icaJ art, d esign , a nd thinking was t h e Bauh aus, a school in Berlin to wh ich th e Hungarian artist Laszlo Mo h oly-Nagy cam e in 1922. H e att em pted to find n ew ways of seeing th e world and experimented with radical uses of p hotograph ic m aterials in an attem pt to replace 19由，centmy p ictorialist conventio ns

w ith a “ n ew visi。11” compatible wi th m odern life. Mo h oly explo red many ways of expanding ph otograp h ic vision, through phorograms, ph。． tom ontage (le丘， bottom), t he Sabattier effect ( often called solarizat阳市， unusual angles, optical distort io ns, and multiple exposures. He fel t that “ properly used, they help to create a mo re com-

Cyo,xyKe阳. Lichtenberg figure.乓 1951.. plex and imaginary language of ph。tography.”

人

The Bau haus school closed in 1933, under pressure fro m the German governmen t, wh ich at the same time made it d ifficult fo r fo reign citizens like Moholy to work. He m oved to London, an d then to Ch icago, where in 1937 h e fo unded the New Bauhaus sch。ol. Moholy brought Gy凸rgy Kepes fro m Europe to head the sch。ol's “Light Workshop” area, wh ich included both g raph ics and ph otography. Kepes, a prolific artis t and writ- 凹， later fo unded the Center fo r Advanced Visual Studies at MIT, a program that sponsors th e arts at the intersection of techn ology. Over several decades, the CAVS invi ted dozen s of in novative artists to collab。rate wit h scien tists worki ng at the cutting edge of their own fie lds, just as Kepes was d oi ng in his own work (le丘， top).

C HAPTE R 1 0 也 203

Photogrαphγαs Art in the 1950s αnd 1960s

A t r e m endous g rowth t o ok pla ce in t h e aαeptance o f photography as an art form, a change char scarred in the 1950s. Since the口， photography became a part of the college and arc school curriculum, an museums devoted con- s iderable actenci。n co photography, an galleries opened co sell only ph otographs, while photog- raphy entered other galleries that previ。usly had sold only paintings or o cher trad itional arcs, and es cab I胁时 magazines such as h怡mm (page 208) and Art in America regu larly pub！胁时 pho- cograph s and essays about the m edium.

A m e rican work o f t h e 1 950 s wa s o伐en d escribe d in terms o f regiona l styles. Chicago W臼identi自ed \\~th the work of A缸。“民md (right, bottom) and Hany Callahan (right, cop). The 飞:Vest Coast was linked to the so-called straight photog- rap he叭 such as阳sel Adams (page 仍and Minor White (page 53). New York was a cen四r for social documentation, such 部 by ph。cographers in the politically active Photo League. Meanwh ile, tied co no region, Robert Frank, a Smss immigrant，、m traveling across the United States photographing his 0 \\~1 view 。flife (opposite).

A n increasi ng numbe r of colleges a n d art sch ools in t he late 1 9 60s o仔ered phot o g- r a phy courses，。fcen in their an departments where a cross-fertilization of ideas took place between photographers and artists working in tra- ditional art media. Some painters and 。ther arc- ists used photographs in their work or som eti mes swi tched to photography altogether. Some ph。－ tograph ers combined their images wi th pai nti ng, printmaking, or 。ther m edia. Older photograph ic processes were revived, such as gum bichromate and platinum printing. Minor 飞:Vhite said that in t h e 1950s ph ocogra-

ph ers fu nction ing as artists were so few that they used to clu m p together for warmth. The 四plo s ion of photography in academia helped push the m edium in many directions, and the l。ng battle over whether ph otography was an arc was fi n ally resolved. The win ners were t h ose wh o said it could be.

204 HI STOR Y O F PHOTOGRAPHY

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Harry Callahan. Eleanor, 1947. Harry Callahan's work was lyria,/ and pe.俨 sonal. He returned again and again to three main themes, the emptin醋。f city scenes, the rich de臼i/of lands臼pe.毛 and portrai臼of his w檐， Eleanor. He sa均匀t 阳k由me a long time to change. I don’t think you can just go out and figure out a bunch of visual ideas and pho阳•uaph. 7百e change happens in living and not 阶rough 阶inking ”

一呵，－ '471

Aaron Siskind. Chicago 30, 1949. Aaron Siskind's best-known work consists of surfaces abstracted from their context such as peeled and chipped pa巾t or posters on walls. 7百e SU句；ect of the photograph is the shape.ι 归nality, and other elements 伪at appear 的 it, not the particular wall itself

Robert Frank. Bar - New 沟rk City, 1955. Robert Frank's ironic view of America exerted a great infTuence on both the s咐ect matter and s忱。｛photography as an art form. Like Frank's photographι the works of Diane Arbus, Lee Friedlander, Garry Winogran叫j and others were personal observations of some of the peculiar and occasiona吵 grotesque aspects of American society.

Above, a glimpse inside a New York bar is an unset伪ng comment on the emptine.且 ofmodem soαety. Jack Kerouac wrote in his introduction to Frank's book The Americans, "After seeing these pictures, you end up finally not knowing any more whether a juke切，x is sadder than a coffin »

CHAPT E R 10 也 205

Photogrαphγαs Art in the 1970s αnd 1980s

Photogr叩hers continued to explore a vari- ety of su均e出 and issu es. Some 阳nained committed to the str缸ght photography t raditio n of Edward Weston (page 164) or Ansel Adams (page 47), while others 口perimented with fo rm to find a new visi。n Shaped by repercussi。ns of the Vietnam War and o cher conflicts, some photogra- ph ers rook the medium in political directions, fo l- lowi ng the leads ofRoben Frank (page 205) or \V. Eugene Smith (page 197). Photograph ers like Lee Friedlander (page 157), Diane Arbus, and Garry Winogrand (page 135) roamed the stree叭 record ing the humo几 pathos, and irony of daily life.

Photogr aphy fo und acceptance as a legiti- m ate art fo rm . During the late 1970s and early 1980s, emerging artists using photography like Cindy Sherman (right, t。p), Robert Mapple- thorpe, and Barbara Kruger were exhibited in art gall凹ies, as opposed to photography galleries, and fo und they could prosper. Photographers like Irving Penn and Jljchard Avedon (opposite), bet- ter known for t heir commercial work, were given exh ibitions of th eir editorial and personal work in major arr museums, evoking controversy 111 some quarters. Tech nological advances in color ph。tog raphy, seldom used by art photographers in the past, helped it gai n popularity.

Museums hired photograph ic curators and charged them w ith bu ilding collections and exh ibi t ing ph otography more regu larly. New institutions like the International Center fo r Photography ( 1974) and the Center for Creativ Photography ( 1975) werεfounded By d飞e earl y 1980s, photography had become a fixture in museums, academia, and the art world at large.

Photogr a phy attracted t h e attention of respected intell ectu a ls from other fields as well. In On Photography (1977), Susan Sontag raised pen- etrating questions about the medi um, its aesthet- ics, and its ties with the culcure at large. Sontag validated photography as a subject worthy of seri- ous analysis. By the early 1980s, photography was not merely accepted, it was hot.

206 H I ST ORY OF P H O T O G R A PH Y

Robert Cumming. Tile/ Mirror, Milwaukee，时·sco’”的， 1970. “Photographic conceptualism" is a label applied to Cummini「sea吵photographic wor屿， like 伪is one, be臼use they broke from the tradition of formal beauty 巾 favor of str，四ing an idea. Many of his "conceptual" pieces also displ.吧ya 时qd,y sense of humor.

C切司y Sherman. Untitled Film Still #13, 1978. Sherman examined modern culture by pho阳,graphing herse扩in various roles. 归 thι image from her Untitled Film Stills series, she pl.钞宫 the role of an actor pl.ψ'ing a role.

Richard Avedon. 匀，，dra Bennet飞， twelvey，臼rold, Rocky 问'ord, Colorado, August 23, 1980.

C H A PTE R 1 0 也 207

Color Photogrαphy Arrives-Agαin

B y 1970, almost everyone’ s snapshots were in color, but art photographs were n ' t . The sud- den respectabi lity received by serious photography in the la te 1960s d id not include col。t Many o f the e阻’s well-known artists h ad photographed in color-Ansel Adams, Har1y Callahan, Helen Levitt and even Edward \Vesto n amon g them-bu t what was seen of t heirs was always b lack and wh ite.

In part, this was d u e to the expense of p rint- in g books and m agazines in colo r. Bu t t h ere were oth er r easons as well. Serio us photographers cook pride in t h eir expressive darkro。m craft; the tones of a black-an d -wh ite print were easi ly man ipulated in t h e han ds o f a master. Color pho- cographs either looked accu rate o r they looked wrong. Also, dark r。。m colo r c hem icals required more att en tio n , so q u ali ty con trol favored the auto ma ted processing machines in h igh-volu me com m ercial labs. Until the 1970s n。 ph。tograph ic a rtis ts could make a livi n g just by sell ing prints, so the ir darkr。。ms were us ually econ omical- s m all spaces with s imple equ ipmen t. There were few options for a modest color dark room .

Color materials had (and continue to have) permanence issues; over t ime, col。m fade a n d ch a n ge. In m useums you can see many pristin e examples of black-and呐1ite prints made by the fi rs t generatio n of p h otograph ers in the 19,h cen -

tury. Research in to the lon gevity of ph。tographs proved th a t, with careful processing and s to rage, silver-based b lack-and -whi te pri n ts a n d negatives can last n early forever . But t h e n ews about color U咀s a ll bad. It was so bad that u nti l the mid -1970s

most m useums, because 。f thei r obligation co pre- serve 。同ects in their care, would not collect color p h o tograph s at all Photographers who wanted thei r prin臼 to outlast them would口’E tak e a c h ance.

Colo r photography arrived-sudden ly, 1t seemed-in the mid -1970s. Art schools and Lm i- versi ties t hat had o nly recently introdu ced ph。tog raphy courses fo und them increasingly popular. Art departmen臼 grew fro m teachi ng o n e o r two p h o to classes to offering a full academic maj时， which meant expan di ng thei r faci lities to meet the demand Color photography classes entered

William Eggleston. Gree，，附od, Mississ,”i, 1973. Egg/es臼n had his 35mm color transparenci，臼 madei.，，阳司ye tran价rprin恒. Now discontinued, the

dye transfer P_rocess was labo户巾tensi，昭and required absolute precision, but the prints are amo，结 the most permanent and accurate color photographs ever made.

2 0 8 H I STORY OF PHOTOGRAPHY

In 1978Jan C伊oover exhibited color pho阳－ graphs at the Sonnabend Gallery in New York. Because So啊，abend was lcno附for exhibiting Pi叩，，，i nent conte明po叩,yp由nters and sculp归rs, the appea俨 an臼ofcolor pho阳，graphs 印used a sensation. Writing about herwo旷k almost ten years later in the New York Times，的tic An吵。undberg said, “'When 。明e appeared on the co,er of Art forum magazi叫 it was a signal that pho阳，gra phy had arri时din the a叫附rid-complete with a marketplace 归 support iι ”

Artforum. January, 19 79.

the course catalogs and school labs set up color processing machines. More facilities meant more emerging artis臼 with color portfolios, and more color prints on view.

Newly available research showed t hat cooler temperatures slowed the deterioration of color photographs. Museums began constructing refrigerated vaults to s tore the color photographs they could then collect, and some photographers found r。。m in their studios for freezers to keep their color negatives.

For years, Kodak ignored pleas fr。m com- mercial photographers and artists alike for a more permanent color printing paper, but Fuji listened. They began to marl也E color paper in 1980 and

improved its 口pected lifespan with a new version eve1y few years. Photographers-and collectors- began to trust that color photographs wouldn’t vanish overnigh t.

Colo r photography was valid ated by muse- um exhi bit ions. S tephen Shore was represented by color prints in the enormously influential New Topograph ics exhibition at the George Eastman House in 1975. Although color photographs had been shown occasionally at New York’s Museum of Modern Art since 1937, its 1976 exhibitions of 飞.Vil

were hailed as a 叭，atershed in the acceptance of col。E ph。tographs as fine 缸t

Stephen Shore. South of附ama曲Falls, U.S. 97, Oregon, July 21, 1973. Shore pho阳•graphed with an 8 × 10 view camera using color film. The resulting prints

'7here’s something arb占ra,yabout 臼king a picture. So I can stand at thee司geofa h吵way and take one step forward and it can be a natural landscape un阳uched~ man and ／酬阳ke one stφ加c/c and include a guard-have saturated colors_，卢，，ede阳ii, and cry宫阳/line clarity

but, he Sd）侣，飞it's that awaren甜。,freally looking at the everyday world wi，阶 clear and focused attention 阶at I'm interested in ”

rail and change the meaning of the picture radi，臼fly." His not-so-arbitrary decision 曲stφback allowed him 归 rai：且questions about the nature of pictures.

C HAPTER ，。然 209

Digitαl Photogrαphy p R巳D ECESSORS

T oday, i白 di俑cult t o t h ink o f a sector of our society t h at isn ’t a仔ected in s ome m easure by digitize d imagery. T he print an d media industries, the ans, m edici ne, politics, and sports all use an d depend on d igital images. Web sites and apps such as Snapchat, Instagram, and Facebook regale us with the latest pictures of frie nds, pe臼， kids, and everyth ing else in ways that few people could imagi ne even a decade ago.

M a ny of photography’ s inven t ors were g ro unde d in t h e sciences, for 口ample, William Henry Fox Talbot (page 184) and Sir Joh n Herschel in t he early 19由 century. Talbot, coin- cidentally, was friends with Charles Babbage, a mathematician whose “ difference engi ne," was the fi rst successful automatic calculator-t he direct ancestor of today's computers. In the mid-20由 centu厅， scientists and engineers played key roles in devel。ping digital imagi ng systems. Space navi- gation and mapping drove th e development 。E for example, t he H ubble telesc。pe an d advan ced television cameras

The impulse t o m a n ipulate photographs is n early as o ld as 由e m e d ium itself. Long before computers were invented, people wan ted to do (an d som e were d。i ng) one of the 巾ngs t hat d igital imaging does s。 well-combining imag- es. Herny Peach Robinson (page 200), Oscar G. Rejlander (right), and o thers cut, p臼ted, masked, 缸1d reph otographed images to ma!也 allegories, illustrate Biblical stories, an d create dramatic 。g s imply a musing scenes.

In the early 20th cen tu ry, artists like Man Ray and Laszlo Moholy-Nagy (page 203), Hann ah Hoch, and John Heart field created surrealistic- and s。metimes polincal-mon tages

I ns钮，，t feedback was a n elu sive g o a l for phot o g raphers. Until t h e availability of Edwi n Land’s firs t Polaroid camera in 1948, there was no practical way，。ther t han years of experience, to know if a captured image would match t he expe.c- tations 。f the p hotograph er. Polaroid’s instan t- print cameras and fil m were enorm ously popular for snapsh。“， and their professional fi lms were an essential proofi ng step in stud ios, but most

210 H I STORY O F PHOTOGRAPHY

instan t fi lms limited th e photographer to produ c- ing-like t h e early daguerreotype-only a small, uniqu e print.

Dig it al imaging s o o n re a ch ed a popu la r a udience. Soph isticated computer equ ipment was used to generate new special effects and m卜 m ation techniques in popular fi lms like Star \Va盯 {1977). Dazzling imagery captivated au d iences, including fi lm makers and artists who began to glimpse and use t he visual possibi lities (see pages 2 12-213). C。mpeti tion among Koda!飞Sony, Fuji, and other cot porations led to the introduction of cameras t ha t could capture an im age digi tally, an d sh。w it to the ph otographer immediately, in the early 1990s. In Janua巧， 2008, t h e Japan ese camera manufacture凹’ trade organ ization report- ed fi lm camera sales 。f less t h an 0. 1 % of total cameras sold; after t h at t h ey stopped inclu d ing fil m cameras in their month ly sales reports.

Oscar C. Rejland，配问lander Introduces R可lander the Volunteer, c. 1865. R吃ilanderoβ·en pieced 阳·~ether negativ，自阳produce composite images. He enjoyed theatrics and pho归•graphed

himself and other军 di.平laying emotionι made character studies, and created comp Ii，臼阳d allegori，臼Is，臼nes. 归伪h坦·If portrait, he appears as both the artist and the soldier he is 巾traducing.

Jim Stone. Dawn and Krista at the Lemonade Stand, 与yra阳血， New York, 1984. To 户hotograph strang- ers, S旬，，e used a now-discontinued Polaroid instant positiv，电／negative film in his 4 × Sview camera. It made an instant print that he gave 归his SUψcts 归 make sure they附re comfortable with the image, and a negative he kept to make 归也uprints.

7百e film pack, a sandwich of black-and-white film and print pape巧 contained a pod of developing chemicals that would process the materials after ex- posure-in daylight-in twenty seconds. The 斤·ame's distressed edges, visible in the image abo吨 are the result of including a part of the negati时阶at extended beyond the ins阳nt print's masked w由ite border.

CHAPTER ，。然川

Digitαl Photogrαphy BECOMES MAINSTREAM

T h e 1990 int roduction of A d o be Photo s hop w as a major t urning p oint in t h e aαeptance a nd u se o f digital im aging. An early exhibi- tion, D锣ta/ Photograp抄 Cap阳陀d Image.毛 Volatile Memory, New Montage ( 1988) gathered work by artists such as Paul Berger, MANUAL (Suzanne Bloom and Ed Hill), Esther Parada, Martha Rosier (page 76), and o thers who used digital imaging for a variety of purposes. T he flexibi lity of digital imaging and the integration of applications o n the computer led many artists to exp！。re cross- media and interdisciplinary production using 1nsrallat1ons, music, and video.

In the 1990s, many traditional photographers, who had long been committed to black and wh ite, began us ing color, in part because digital techno l- ogy simplified color management and made the printing process m ore accessible.

212 H I STOR Y OF PH OTOGRAPHY

In less t h a n a gene ration, digital technol- o gy t ook ove r 由e m edium of photography. Anyon e who owns a camera, or even just a cell ph。ne, is an image maker. In 20 17, Facebook claimed that its members upload 136,000 ph。tos eve1y sixty seconds. By 2014, there were more active cell ph。nes than people in the world, and about 95% of them were camera phones. Virtually every- o ne in the world 1s carrying-and using-a camera

D igi tal manipulation of images is common- place, whether in the news, in advertising, or in the si m ple act of removing unwanted power lines (or unpleasan t relati s) fr。m o ur s口apshots. T h e allure of ph otography has always in part been abou t controlling and even altering our experi- ence of reality. We have experienced a revolution wh ose contours and implications we are just beginning to understand.

Martina Lopez. Heirs Come to Pass, 1991. Lopez was a pioneer in the use of digital collage, or composit- in阜 as a 卢，，e art medium 7百is pie出 references her own family's photographic archi吨， and she imagines herself as all the female characters, but the figures all came from found photo- graphs. Individuals印，，s 附m assembled using a very ea吵 ν·ersion of Photoshop, before version 3 (in 1994) intro- duced L砌的 and a/lo附d each piece of a composite to beman伊ulated 时dividually.

Direct high咛uality print- ing from diiJtal fil<臼 was not wide.世d时i/able at the 时，e. Lopez坦-nt 伪e completed file 归a film recorder to create a 4x 5 film tran平,arency仇。tshe 伪en printed剧。bachrome

(now called 1/fochrome) in a co/orda放，即m

Nancy Burson. Warhead 1, 1982. Burson made combination portraits like 伪h 。”e after working with scientists at MIT in the 1970s 归 develop software to graphically advance a portrait subject's apparent age (it was used to find se时rat ’”issing children).

This digi，臼I composite superimpo阳images of five 附rid /eade.，骂，伪e visual阳讲t of臼ch face represents how ma’,yofthe附rld's nuclear warheads they controlled: Ronald R臼，gan (55%) and Leonid Br，臼＼nev (45%), wi伪 Margaret Thatcher,二丹·anfois Mitterand, and De’飞gXiaoping (each less than 1%). It was made n臼r夕a decade before photo-quality digital printers appeared; Burson used a film camera to photograph her composit，由displayed on a CRT monitoι then made exhibition prints in a darkroom.

CHAPTER 10 也 m

More Leαrn How to

Use a search engine to fi nd pages 。n a specific topic. Most browsers h ave search e ngines a l- rea dy st。red as b。。kmarks, three useful 。nes among many a re c。ogle, B,ng , and Yah。。 Type keyw。rds to locate your top,c, using sev- era I t。 narrow the search. A recent search 。n t he ke沪N。rd phot':f,'aphy in En_glish tu rned u p 。ver 1.5 billio n sites. Narr。wing the search t。 photography museum listed 8 m ,lhon p。ss1b1 li ties. Changing the searc h to photography museum Roch田ter NY reduces the n u mb er E。 a still- daunting 650,000 entries, but the first 。ne 。n that 11st ,s pro bably the 。ne y。u’d want-the h。me page fo r the Ge。rge Eastman Museum.

M。st u mvers1t1es and public li braries have c。mputers that are always 。n l ,ne, meaning they are c。nnec四d to the In四rnet. M。st cof- 自eehouses and many 。ther bu引ness白。他r free WI陀less ( Wi存） connewon to the Int ernet chaε y。u can use ,f y，。u bnngyour 。wn laptop c。m pu四r, tablet，。r smaπph。ne.

T。 c。nnect fr。m y。ur home, y。u need a com put er, tablet，。r smartph。ne and a c。n tract wit h an Internet Service Provider （。r ISP) A l。cal c。mputer retail store can help answer questl。ns, a nd nu me rous self-he lp b。。ks are av副lable on the topic

Further informatl。”。” ph。tography is readily available. Many b。。ks and magazines extend techn ical 1nformat1。n；。thers re produce greaε examples-b。th c。n四mp。rary a nd h istorical- 。f practical and aπ，st,c ph。t。，graphy. The b,b- l，。graphy。n page 226 and a local 。r university library are g。。d places to start

Camera store pe陌。nnel can answer questi。ns ab。utthe pr。ducts 由ey sell. Additi。nally, the sta怦， n m。st camera st。res are 。丘en avid ph。tographers themselves, and they m ay b e eagerε。discuss ph。E。graphy-espec,ally when the store ,s n。t c rowd ed

O nline magazines, portal sites, and biogs are very useful fo r ma ny m户口 Any。ne can staπ and maintain a blog （。nginally weblog), a regu- la rl y updated Web s，回They 。ften include links to other, s,m,la rly focused biogs. Over t ime, some have grown larger, blurnng t he defi m- ti。n S。me a re like pub lic d,an凹，。thers c。n- s。hda四 poπfol ,os 。r εechn1cal inf.。m、at,on，。r

feat ure in四rviews, b。。k reviews, a wards, and c。ntests. T ry DPRev,ew. c。m, FlakPh。mc。m Fraw。nMagazine.c。m, and Le nsCulture. c。m to seeεhe range Also 四e the hst 。fWeb Sites feat un ng the work 。fphotographe目 repre- sent ed in ch ,s b。。k，。n page 2 20

AWebbr。wser is t he s。仕ware program your c。mputer uses to rea ch t he World W ide Web Do m inating the fi e ld are M。zi lla Firefox, Ap ple Safari, G。。gl e C hro me, and Micros。仕 Internet Explo rer. They a re free (b ut you need t o use 。ne t。d。wnload an。ther), and m。st c。mputers are s u pplied with at least 。ne alread y install ed Your Web browser le ts y。u type in a l。c.at1on 。r a ddress, called a URL (f.。r Uniform Res。urce Locator), to rea ch a specific Web page Ad d resses begin w ith http：／／。rM的V M。st pages c。n阳n links that C。n nect y，。u d irect ly to 。ther related pages si mply by clicking 。n t hem. Your b rowser lets you save a ny URL as a 胁。k mark s。 y。u can easily re tu rn t。此

Advanced classes and w。rkshops are 。fl'ered aim。st eve叩where, &om guided photo tou陪m professional l『ght,ng sem inars. Ask about them at a camera store, a local c。mmumtyc。liege or u n附rs,ty，。r search the Internet (see b elow)

The In回met can answer aim。st any question you may have about ph。E。graphy Like an imme nse library, the w。rldW由Web gives you a ccess t o , nformaεi。n，。pinions, and ,m- a ges. O n ,t y。u ca n search fo r prices and o rder b。。ks, supplies, a nd eq u ipment And y。u can show y。ur 。wn phot。graphs t o any，。new,ch an Internet c。nnecc，。陀w。rldwide

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Ph。tography 。rganizations h ave gallenes and libraries; many p ublish newsletters and books and-hke Light Work, the Syracuse, N ew Y，。rk a rtist' s space sh。wnab。ve-spons。r a rtists with res1denc1es, gran臼， and in 。ther w ays. Find 。ut ab。ut their pr。g日ms &om their Web sit es

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Museums have sites 。n the Int ernet. This 。ne has an 。n hne vers1。n ofa book-lengt h cata - l。g-an exhib1t1。n 。f landscape ph。E。graphy t hat w a s held at the Smi ths。man Ame rican Art M useum. lnformat1。n ab。川 ind1v1dual aπ眩目旺。仕en presen四d a lo ng w ith images

Product information is plentiful 。n t he Web Camera m a kers featu re n ew p ro d ucts a nd pr。－ v1de l istings 。f lenses a nd access。nes. Paper ma n ufact u rers' s1白毛 hke ln nova's shown here, have pnn阻’ profi les y。u can download , as well a s c。mple四 pr。d uct l1st1ngs

H OW T O L EA R N MO R E 2 14

Troubleshooti！些

1'-rom tim e to t im e, ever y p h otograph er enco unte r s ca ptured 1mag凹， scans,

I or pri口ts that d isplay unexpected problems. T h is sect n c an help y。u巾 d、e ca use o f some com m o n probl e m s-and ho、、， to p r event t h e m in t he fu ture.

SOLVING CAMERA AND LENS PROBLEMS

IMAG E AREA COMPιETELY BLACK

Cause: The sensor ( or 刷m) recerved n。四p。sure Prevention· Increase exposure by several stops and sh。。t again

Check that the lens cap is 。ff. Wi th electronic flash , the Aash may n。E have fi red

LIGHT STREAKS. Image area flared 。r foggy looking 。veral l. If y。u use 民Im, darkened in a negative, lighte ned in a pn nt 。r slid e, with 民Im ed ges u旧的cted. The ,mage may als。 showgh。sting 。r ge。metnc sp。ts in the shape 。fthe lens d1aph用gm

Cause: The sun, a bnght bulb，。r。ther l,ght s。urce was w1th1n 。r close to the ,mage，。r b n ght hght struck t he lens a t an angle

Prevent，。”： Expect s。me Aare ,f y。u can see a light s。urce in your viewfinder. The l a咆er 。r b nghter the hght, t he m。re 自are y。u w ,11 get, d istant 。r d1 m l 1gh臼 may not pr。duce any A are at a ll. T。 pre- vent stray light fr，。m stri king t he lens, use the c。rrect size lens shade for y。ur lens 币，cal length (n ght ) . Even with a lens shade, make sure the sun ,s n。t sh,nong directly 。n y。ur lens

PICTU R E NOT S H A RP. Easier to see in a n enla rged print 。r screen display at 100% magnoficatl。n

Cause: Too slow a 址、utter speed will blur a moving subject。r blur the picture 。verall due to came阻m。口。nT。。 w,de an apertu陀w, 11 make t he scene sharp where y，。u focu坦d It but n。t ,n front 。for behind t hat part. An 四t陀melyd，πy lens can somet,m臼 reduce sharpness 。ve阻11, especially when c。mb,ned with lens 自are

Prevent，，。”： U臼a faste r sh utter speed 。r smaller apeπure，。r supp。π the came用m。re stead ily. Keep finge rpn nts and dirt 。何the lens

V IGNETTING . Image obscured or ve叩dark a t the c。rners

Cause: A lens shade，而lter，。r b。th pr，。＇Jected E。。 far fo阳•ard 。fthe lens and partially blocked the image fr。m reaching the lens

Prevention· Lens shades are shaped to match d，伯rent focal-length lenses (nght ). Use t he c。rrect shade for your lens：，田。 l。nga le ns shad e can cau四vignetting, b ut 。ne that IS E。。 shall。wwill not provid e adequate pr。四口，。n from flare. Using more than 。ne filter。r a filter plus a lens shade can cause vignetting , espe- c1ally with a sh。rt lens

([ Lens shade for

l。”Z伽：al•leng甜lens

＠应 Forsho呻·focal•le，”Z曲lens

T R O U BL ES HO O TI N G 2 15

SOLVING CAMERA AND LENS PROBLEMS, continued

LIN ES T ” ROUGH IMAG E. Cause· N。nresp。nd,ng CCDs A line 。n a d igital camera ph。E。 means a r。w。fCCDs o n t he sensor ,s n。t collecting p ixel data . A 1 ,ne 。n a sc.an 1s from a single d ead CCD that m。ves across the ,mage

Prevention· Focmg the problem may mean replacing 出e scanner 。r cam- era, but suc h lines a re easy to retouch in the ,mage. Ph。toshop lets y。u selecεa single-pixel row or c。lumn a nd adJUSt it sepa阻四ly (see als。 Lines Across a Pn肘， page 2 19 )

OUST S P E CKS . Dark 。r black specks 。r marks 。n a digi臼I image, clear specks 。n a negative

Cause· Dust 。n the sensor 。r 民Im dunng exp。sure. 81白。f d ust 。n t he hg ht-sens1t1ve surface w,II keep the light b。m reaching a small part 。f ,t duri ng the exp。sure

Prevention· Keep the m引de 。f t he camera dust 什ee by carefully blowing

。r dusting camera surfaces when y。u change lenses 。r reload fi lm （四e p age 29). Clean d ust 。ut 。f t he cap thaεc。vers the back 。fy。ur le ns before use. Specks can be retouc hed d uri ng image ed iting to re- m。ve t he m but It 1s better not to get them.

21 6 T ROUBL E SHOOT I NG

LIGHTNESS / DARKNESS PROBLEMS

S UBJ E CT VERY DARK AGAINST LIGHTER BACK- GROUND.

Cause· The me四r averaged all the t。nes ,n ,cs angle of v,ew, the n c。mputed an exp。sure 品。r a m1dd le-g日y tone. The p roblem ,sεhat the average 。f the 。verall scene was lighter than a m iddle tone, s。 a ppears t。。 dark

Prevention: Don’t ma ke an 。verall reading w h en a subject 1s against a much lighter background . Instead _, m。ve in cl。se to me te r JUSt a paπ 。f the su bject t ha t 1s middle-toned, then seεyour shutter speed a nd aperture acc。rdmgly （坦e pages 70-72).

每一－

SUBJ ECT V ERY LIGHT AGAINST DARKER BACK- GROUND .

Cause: If t he su bject 1s c。。 light, Y。ur me ter was overly mff uenced by a dark background a nd 。verexposed t he image

Prevention: D。n't make an 。verall read ing when a subject 1s against a

m uc h darker backgro u nd. Instead , move 1n close to meter JUSt a paπ 。f the subject t hat 1s m iddle-toned , then set your shutter speed and aperture acc。rdmgly (see pages 70-72)

SHARPNESS PROBLEMS

NOT ENOUGH （。r t h e wr。”g p art) OF TH E S C E NE IS IN FOCUS .

Cause: 1 . N。E en。ugh depth 。ffield. Too wid e an aperture w ill result in shall。wdepth 。f自eld, making the scene sharp where y。u foc used the camera, b ut not ,n front 。f。r behind that pa同。fthe scene. 2

Shutter speed was t。。 slow, subject 。rcamera m。ved dunng exp。－ sure. 3 . Camera wasn’ t focused 。n t he main subject

Prevention: 1. Ch。。se a smaller apeπure. 2 . Ch。。sea faster shutter speed 。r set the camera 。n a tnp。d . 3 . Ch。。se manual 币OCUS，。r make sure you kn。w h。wy。ur autofocus lens selects a 自，cus d is- tance ( see page 43 )

A LL O R PART OF SCAN OUT OF FOCUS.

Cause: If the e ntire i mage 归。ut 。ffocus, the scanner v,b甩出d dunng

the exposure 。几 with fi lm, the 。nginal 1s held t。。 far fr。m t he scan- ner’s plane 。f focus . If part 。f t he scan ,s out 。f而ocus, the scan ner may have been b u mped dun ng t he scan. The film may be buckling 。r m。vmg d unng the scan，。r may not be he ld fl at en。ugh

Prevention: Make sure the scanner sits 。n a s。l,d surface and ,s not

vibrated by nearby equip ment. A glass h。Ider or c。vering sheet will keep the fi lm flat, b ut may introduce Newt。旷s n ngs, undesired 阳n bow-c。lored patterns. Spe口al ant1-Newton glass is av副Iable

FLASH PROBLEMS

PART OF SCEN E EXPOSE D CORRECTLY, PART TOO LIGHT OR TOO DARK.

Cause: ObJec臼 ,n the scene were at d，的rent distances from the flash, so were exposed to d。他rent am。u n臼。f light

Prevention: T，叩 to group imp。rtant parts 。f t he scene a t ab。ut the 姐me d旧ance from the fl ash (see page 148)

FLASH PROBLEMS, continued

ONLY PART O F SCENE EXPOS E D .

Cause: Sh。。t1ng at to。也st a shutter speed with a came甩出at has a foca l pla ne shutter, such as a single-lens reflex camera . The flas h fi red when t he sh utter was n。t fully 。pen

Prevention· C heck manufacture r’s instructions fo r the correct shutter speed to sync hronize with 由ash, and set the sh utter-speed dial acc。rdingly F。r m。st cameras, 11,;o sec is safe：，也ster speeds are usable w ,th s。me cameras. The fl ash shutter speed may appear 。n

y。ur came阻’s shutter-speed d ia l ,n a d倪rent c。1。r h。m the 。ther shutter speeds，。r it may be marked w,th a n X

SUB』ECT APP EARS TOO DARK OR TOO LIGHT. Manual flash 坦mngs are m。re likely to cause problems t ha n automatic 。pe阻口。n, wh,ch reads t he 1 llum,nat1。n from 由e 刊ash t hrough the le ns. M。re ab。ut flash 。perati。n。n pages 146-147

Cause: T，。。 dark-the scene was underexposed, not enough l,ght reached the 民Im 。r臼肘。r T。。 l ,ght-too much lig ht reached t he 白Im or sensor. Semng exp。sure fo r Rash manually, an 。ccas,onal too

d ark 。r lig ht fra me p robably results from setting the lens aperture ,n- correctly 。r making a n exp。sure before t he flash ,s fu lly c harged

Prevention: In manual 。pe用tion, increase the 四posure ab。ut a stop for scenes shot 。utd。。目 at night 。r ,n a la rge room like a g归nna- s1um; t he relatively d ark surroundings abso巾 l ight that would 。ther wise b ounce back to ad d to the exposure. W ith a n。n built-in fl ash , 1f

y。ur p ictures a re freq uently to。 dark, t叩 setting the fl ash u n比m ha lf the ISO y。u are using

Close d。wn the apeπure ab。ut a st。p when shooting ,n small, l 1ght-c。lored rooms to c。mpensate for excess light b。uncing back from walls and ceiling. W it h a non bu1lt -1n Rash, if your pictu res a re usually 。verexp。到d a nd too hght , t叩 semngεhe fl ash u n『t to twice the ISO y。u are using

TROUBL ES HOOTING 217

SOLVING FLASH PROBLEMS , continued

F l ash p。inted s trai g ht Same scene shot at reflec创ve surfaεe at an angle

UNWANTED REFLECTI ON .

Cause· Light bouncing b ack fr。m reflective surfaces such as g lass, m ,r- r。r，。r shiny walls

Prevention· P。Sltl。n the camera aεan angle to hig hly reflective surfaces 。r a im the flash at the subject 击。m。仔came阳

RED EYE. Ape目。n’s o r animal ’S町es appear red 。r amb er ma c。l。r p ic ture, ve叩l ight ,n a black-a nd-white p icture ( see page 148)

Cause· Light reAect1ng from the bl。。d-nch retina insid e t he eye Prevention: M。ve the flas h away fr，。m the le ns 。r have the subject l。。k

slightly m。ne sid e of the camera . Turning the subject's head slightly can a lso prevent bright re何配。。ns b。m 町eglasses. S。me cameras

have a red-eye reduction m。de: t he fl ash ligh臼 up briefly before t he main 凹p。sure so that t he su bject’sins c。ntracts, red ucing the am。unt of v1s1 ble red

218 TROUBLESHOOT I NG

SOLVING COLOR PROBLEMS

GREE NI S H LOOK TO SCE NE OVE RALL.

Cause: Scene shot ,n fluo rescent light, which e mits d目pr，。p。rtl。nate am。un臼。fgreenish light. See a lso Unexpec四d col。r cast, bel。w.

Prevention: With film , try an Fl filter 。n the le ns. Seε the w hite balance of a d igital camera to flu。rescent ( see pages 6 a nd 58)

BLUISH OR R E DDISH LOOK TO SCENE OVERALL.

Cause: C。l。r film or a d igita l camera’ s wh，因 balance semng n。E

matched to the type of hghtmg 。n t he scene Dayhght fi Im shot m incandescent hght will g ive a reddish l。。k

Prevention: F，。r a m。re realistic c。l。r balance, seε the white balance of a d igita l came阻m the type 。f lighting used (see pages 6 and 58) Use a # 80A filte r fo r a scene lit by incandescent ( ab。ut 3200K) light bulbs. Use daylight-balanced fi lm 1n daylight 。r with flas h

UNEX P E CTED COLOR CAST.

Cause: Light re由ected fr,。m a nearbyc。lored 。bJeCt can g ive a c。l。r cast to the scene. The shad e of a t ree can add a n unexpected l。。k to skin t。nes because t he lig ht was fi ltered th rough c。l。red leaves,

here，。range fall leaves. S1m1larly, light b。unc1ng 。百a str。ngly c。I 。red wal I can tint t he scene the c。l。r of t he wall. The e的Ct IS m。st n。口ceable 。n skin c。nes or ne utral t。nes like wh1目。r gray.

Prevention : T1叩to rec。gnize a nd, 1f you w,sh, av。1d the situation. In some cases, t he color balance 。fselected a reas can be adjusted separa四ly d uring image ed山ng

SOLVING OTHER DIGITAL PROBLEMS

P IX ELATION . Edges look stair-stepp ed. Details are indistinct

Cause: Image res。l ution m。 l。w fo r the intended use Prevention: 72 dp1 IS ideal fo r display 。n a m。nitor, but p ri n ting fr，。m

an in kjet o r dye-subl ,matl。n pnnter requires 180-360 dp,. If y。u scanned the 『mage, rescan 1t at a higher dp『 setti ng.

If the image came from a d 1g1tal camera, t叩Ph。toshop lmage> lmage Size to resamp le the image a t a h igher d p1. Next time y。u ph。tog阻ph, use a highe r resoluti。n

SOFT IMAGE. De阳Is 1n the image a re not sharp.

Cause: Possib ly p。。r 币ocus o r camera moveme nt ( see Picture not

sharp, page 2 15 ). Extreme fi le c。mpression UPEG, page 8 1) is sh。wn in the example ab。ve

With a digital camera, quality level IS too low. At low-quali ty

settings (a lso called basic or tpod队 the camera c。mpresses the image fi le. When the image IS reopened and u nc。mpressed, details can be Jost. The visible results may b e negl1g1ble when pnn臼 are very small, but w1II be n。”ceable ,f they are enlarged

Prevention: T1叩m a nticipate the fina l size and reproduction method for y。ur images. P1ctur自由 b e used only 。n the Web can be shot 前 low quality. Use the came阻’s h ighest quality setting 1f you m『ght ever want to make 8 x 10-1nch o rlarger prin臼

All digitally captu red pictures need some sha甲ening ( page 104) . lfy，。u a re JUSt starting 。ut, you may n。t be used to JUSt how u nsharp y。ur unsharpened ph。tographs w ill appear.

D IGITAL NOIS E. C。lored specks in dark a reas.

Cause: Often 。ccurs 1n shad。wareas, 1n ph。tos taken at night，。r in low light with a long 剧p。sure

Prevent，。”·Try shooti ng at a lower ISO; instead 。f ISO 800 。r 1600, try ISO 1 00 。r 200. Try Phot。sh。p FilteρN。，se>Despeckle. This reduces the n。ise, alth。ugh It S。仕ens the image somewhat

BANDING. Un剧pected bands in areas w ith n。 de阳I .

Cause: W ith a d 1g1ta l camera, scene may have been sh。t at t。。 high an ISO setting. S。me fine patterns, like a wind。wscreen, may create a pattern ( called moire) w he n 。verla1d with the p阳el gnd

Prevention: T1叩sh。。ting the scene with a lower ISO Y。u m ight need to use a tnp。d and a sl。wer shutter speed 。r add lig ht from a ff ash 。r 。ther lig ht s。urce

OVERS HARPE N I NG . De阻，i ls too c由pand c。ntrasty that may sh。wd igital n。，se; c。lored 而i-ingesal。ng ed ges

Couse: Ove陪harpening the pnnt while scan ning o r while w。rking 。n the image 1n an image-edit ing prog日m (see page 104)

Prevention: Rescan the pnnt, transparency，。r negative without sharp- e n ing 1t. With a d1g1ta l came阻 image, return to the 。rig1nal d 1g1tal 自le, if比 has n。t been sharpened. When y。u resharpen the image, d。 sowt引le v『ewing at 100% magni币Cati。n

LIN ES ACROSS A PRINT.

Cause: Misaligned 。r cl。gged pnnt heads Prevent，。”： U坦 the pnnter’s s。仕ware u tility t o check for a problem The ut1 I町will a lso align head s, pn nt a test pattern, and ru n cleaning cycles

TROUBL ES HOOTING 2 19

Photogrαphers ’ Web Sites

‘’、／ e b p ages a r e t o day’ s gallerie s ; many photographers use Y Y them to show a broader sampling of their work than they could in a gallery exhibit or a monographic b。。K Compared to those venues, a Web site is also available to be seen almost anywhere at any time and can always be updated to include new work. Use the links below to find out more about the photographers whose work appears in this b。ok.

Adams, Ansel Adams, Shelby Lee

Avedon, Richard

Barney, Tina Bateman, Edward

Brooks, Drex Burson, Nancy

Carey, Alison

Cartier-Bresson, Henri Chin, Christine

Comen,Sam

D’Amato, Paul De Keyzer, Carl

Divola,John

Dujarclin, Filip Eggleston，飞亨illiam

Ekberg, Adam

Envitt, Elliott Fink, Larry

Fontcuberta,J oan

Frank, Robert Galvan, Laurisa

Gilbertson, Ashley

Gilden, Bruce Gonzalez, Dionisio

Gossage,John Gould, Meggan

Harker, Santiago

Harvey, David Alan Hatal也yama,Naoya

Hocks, Teun

looss，飞亨alter

Joh nson, Keith

Jones, Lou

Jones, Peggy Ann Joyce, Kate

Karsh , Yousuf

k过lip, Chris

anseladams.com shelby-lee-adams.blogspot.com

richardavedon.com

tinabarney.com xmission.com;- capteddy

drexbrooks.com nancyburson.com

alisoncarey.com

magnumphotos.com christinechin.net

samcomen com

pauldamaro.com carldekeyzer.com divola.com

filipdujardin.be egglesrontrust.com

adamekberg.com ell1otterw1tt.com

billcharles.com

fontcuberta.com

pacemacgill.com laurisagalvan.com

ashleygilbertson.com

magnumphotos.com dionisiogonzalez.es

loosestrifebooks.com meggangould.net

santiagoharker.com

magnumphotos.com takaishiigalle1y.com

teunhocks.nl walteriooss com

keithjohnsonphorographs.com

fotoj。nes.com

pinhole.us kate-joyce.com

karsh.org

chriskillip.com

220 PH O T OGRAPHER S' WE B S ITE S

Klett, Mark Koo, Bohnch ang

Kost,Julieanne

Koudelka,Josef Leibovitz, Annie

Leventi, David

Liebling,Jerome Lopez, Martina

Mandel, Mike

Manzano,Javier McFarland, Lawrence

markklettphotography.com bck。。.com

jkost.com

magnumphoros.com contactpress1mages.com

davidleventi.com

jeromeliebling.com marrinalopezph。to. com

thecorner.net

Jav1ermanzano com lawrencemcfarland.com

Meiselas, Susan susanmeiselas.com

Miralle, Donald donaldmiralle.com Misrach, Richard fraenkelgallery.com

Moho！沪Nagy, Laszlo moholy-nagy.org

Oberschneider, Christoph oberschneider.com Owyoung, Todd toddowyoung.com

Padula, Warren wpadula.com Parr, Martin

Pinkh assov, Gueorgui

PoKempner, Marc Richfield, Robert

Richter, Christian

Robinson, Geoffrey Robledo, Maria

Rosier, Martha

Ro飞.vin, Stanley Schafer，如iichael

Sch erer,Jim

Shennan, Cindy Shore, Stephen

Siskind, Aaron

Smith，飞V Eugene Sohier, Sage

Sod飞 Alec

Stein,Amy Sternfeld,Joel

Stone,Jim

marttnparr com

magnumphoros.com

pokempner.net robert-richfield.com

r ichterchristian.com

geoffrobinsonphotography.co.L也

judycasey.com

marrharosler.net

stansrudio com mschaefer-srudio.de

jimscherer.com

metropicruresgallery.com stephenshore.net

aarnnsiskind.org

magnum photos.com sagesohier.com

alecsoth.com

amysteinphoto.com joelstemfeld.com

j1msrone com

？『..

Strembicki, Scan

Tarnowski, Tom T aylor, David

T urner, Pete

Ulrich, Brian Umbrico, Penelope

van Coller, Ian

scrembicki.com ccarnowskt n ee

dcaylorphoco.com

peteturner.com nocifbucwhen.com

penelopeumbrico.net

U川ancoller.com/

Brian Ulrich. Untitled (Thrifi 0509), 2005. Obsolescence comes quickly in the d也-ital world, as you can see 时 this photograph from Ulrich's坦·rieso，，伪rifi s.阳res. VI也know伪rough

Vanderwarker, Peter 飞;tiebb, Alex 飞;tleems, Carrie Mae

飞;tleifenbach, Terri

飞;t'haley,Jo

飞;t'illis, Deborah

xRezScudio

ad晤时ising伪at the equipment and如冉咽re for making photographs are cons阳ntI.r_evolvinι but 如are 阶e pictures附can view on/ine. Use the list on these two pages to check 巾。，，your favorites.

vanderwarker.co m

magnumphocos.com car riemaeweems.nec

scephendaicergallerγcom

jowhaley.com debwillisphoco.com

xrez com

PHOTOGRAPHER S' WEB S ITES 221

Glossαrγ

Aberrati。n Opcical defecc in a lens (sometimes unavoidable) cau sing d iscorcion or loss 。f sharpness in 由e final image

Adapter ring A ring used z。 attach one camera ’cem co anocher; for 四ample, co ac臼ch a lens co a camera 川 reverse p。si c i。n in 。rder co increase image sharpness when 岛cusing 四叩closeco che SU同ect.

Additive c。lor The chree pnma叩 colors (red, green, and b lue) chac can be mixed as lighc co macch any。cher c。lor. See Subcraccive c。lor.

Ambient li~ht See Av.由lable lighc Angle 。f view Theam。unc of a scene chac can be

recorded by a parcicular lens from a given posi· u。n; decermined by che focal lengch of the lens.

Aperture The lens 。pening formed by che iris dia· ph咱gm insid e che lens 节回 size is variable and adjusced by the apercure con tr。I.

Aperture control The ring 。n che camera lens {a push buccon on s。me models) chac, when turned, adjusts t he size 。f che 。pening 川 che ins diaphragm and c hanges che amounc of light cha, reaches che film

Aperture•pri。“ty m。de An aucomat1c exposure system in which che ph。cographer secs the ap· erture (f·scop) and the camera seleccs a shuccer speed for normal exposure

Application See s。fhvare Archi叫ng c。P归ng a nd storing d igica l files ,n a way

thac proceccs against I。ss ASA A film speed racing similar to an ISO rat1 ng Aspect ratio The raci。。f叫dth co heigh, , a mea·

sure 。f che shape of a rec国ngle. A came阻 chat uses a sen曲，wich 1’h t imes che p ixels measured h。rizoncally as vertically has a 3:2 aspect 阻cio.

Automatic exp。sure A mode 。f camera opera· ti。n in which che camera aut。macically adjusts eicher che apeπure, t he shuccer speed，。r both for normal exp。sure

Aut omatic Rash An ele口ronic flash unit chat us臼 ics I吵！·sensitive cell o r the came阻’s co deter· mine the duration of the flash for normal exp。－ sure by measuring the light reflec四d back from che su同ect.

Available light The hghc chat a lready ex眩目（as opposed co being a dded by t he photographer) where a ph。tograph is to be made

Averag ing meter An exp。sure meter with a wid e angle of view. The 川dicaced exposure is based on a n ave闯京。fall t he light val ues 川 che scene

B See Bulb. B缸kup An 四act duplicace 。f a digital fi le or set

。ffiles, made as prote口ion against loss Bell。ws An acc。，di。作like secti。n inserced be·

tw回n t he lens and che came阳 b。dy. In cl。坦·up photography, the bellows all。ws cl。ser·than· normal 自由usin品 resulcing 川 a larger image.

Binarγ number A n um ber consiscing only 。f。ne 。r m。re ls and Os

Bit The smallesc un oc 。f information usable by a computer，川d,caced by a 1 。r a 0, describing one oftw。 c。nditi。ns: on or off.

Bit dep由 The number 。f b its used to represent each pi胆l 川 an image, determining che number

22 2 GLO S SARY

。f possible divisi。ns 。r steps 。f color and cone betw四n black and 咐，时

Ble ed mount To mount a princ S。 there ,s n。 b。rder between the ed ges of che pnnc and the edges of the m。uncing surface.

Body The l,ght·c,ghc box t hac contains t he came阳 mechanisms and procects t he sensor or fi lm from lighc until you are ready to make an呻出ure

s。unce light Indirect light produced by p。，nco ng che light source a c a ceiling or ocher surface co refl ecc che hght back toward che subJecc. S。仕er a nd less harsh chan d irecc hght

Bracke ting Taking several ph。cographs 。f che same scene a c d ifferent exposure settings, some grea阻， chan and some less chan the secting indi· cated by the meter, to ensure at least one well· exp。sed frame

Built-in meter An exposure meter in t he camera chac takes a light read ing {usually chrough the came由 lens) and rela归exposure informacion to che ele口ronic c。ntrols 川 an automatic camera or to the phocog阻pher if t he came阻，s being operated manually.

Bulb A shuccer·speed se口ing {marked B) at which che shuccer stays 。pen as I。ng as che shuccer re- lease is held d。wn.

Bum in To darken a specific area 。f an image ,n a darkro。m, by giving ic additi。nal print ing ex· p。sure Hence t he name 。f Phocosh。p’s Burn E。。l

Byte A unic 。fdigital data. A n umber represen四d by 8 b ics. Used co measure s，扭。r capacity 。f a c。mputer fi le or device See a lso Kil。byte, Megabyte, Gigabyte

Cable release An encased wire thac accaches at one end to the shuccer release 。n che came阻 a nd has a pl unger 。n the other end t hat che ph。tog阻pher depresses to activate the shutter Used to av。id came阳 m。vemenc or co activate 由e shuccer fr。ma d iscance

Calibrate To adjust a device, for 四ampl e, a c。m· puter monitor, co match a pred efined standard

Camera Raw O ne 。f several proprietary fi le for· mats chat preserve a ll che data fr。m a d igital came阳 piccure 明白 ”。 after-capture incerpreta· CIOn .

CCD Cha rge-coupled device. One of cw。叩pes 。f lighc•sensing d evices {the 。cher is CMOS) placed in a grid E。 make the sensor 川 a digital came阳 Also used in scan ners.

CC filter {for c。l。r C。nversi。n or c。l。r C。rrec· cion). A E阳nsparent fi lcer placed in front 。f the came阻’s lens co a lcer che color 。fche lighc, usu· a ll y to adjust 、vhite balance

Center-weigh ted meter A through-the lens 四po sure mecer that measures hghc values from the entire scene but gives greacer emph缸，s to chose 川 che center。f the image area.

。。”·up A larger·cha n-normal image 。bcained by using a lens closer than norma l to che sub· jecc

Cl。se.•up lens A lens accached t。 the fronc 。f an ordinary le ns co allow focus ing at a sh。rcer distance in order to increase image size.

CMOS Complementary metal 。xide semiconduc· cor. O ne o f cw。叩pes of l ight·se阳ng devices (che o ther is CCD) placed in a grid to make the sens。r in a d ig1tal camera.

CMYK The bas,c sec 。f four col。rs used in most printing presses a nd deskt。p printers: cya风ma· genca, yellow, and black. Also t he color mode usually used in the profe臼山nal graphic am and print ing i ndusoγThe 。ther c。mm。n c。lor mode is RGB {red, green, b lue). Files can be scored and edited in e1ther mode and converted between chem. See Subtraccive c。lor.

c。lor balance 1 The prop。m。”。f di促renc c。1 . 。陌川 a whice light s。urce 2. A film’s resp。nse co t he colors in a scene c。l。r fi lms are bal· anced 岛ruse wich specific lighc S。urces 3. The repr。ducc i。n 。f colors in a p h otograph. See Whice balance.

Color management A means of coordi川ac ing the color 。utpuc 。fvari。us d evices s。 che c。l。rs you see o n a m。nitor, for example, will be t he ones chat will appear when you print t he image

Col。r s pace 1. A syscem for defining specific c。1 . 。阳， for example, RGB or CMYK. 2 A predefined gamuc, for example, sRGB, Adobe RGB (1998), or ProPh。z。

Color temperature Description of the col。r 。f a hghc source. Measured in degrees Kelvin (K)

c。mp。site A”’mage ma de from pam 。f队v。。， m。re othe们mages.

c。mp。und lens A lens made of several e lements c。mpression A means 。f reducing t h e size of

a digital image fi le in order co red uce st。r· age requirements 。r cransm1ss1on time across a necw。rk. "Lossy” cechniques permane ntly elimina ce some 川for『nacion m 。btain h ighly compressed, ve叩small fi les L。ssless techniques compress images 、响chouc losing any informa· cion in t he fi le. See JPEG.

c。ntrast The di何erence becween che ligh t and dark pam 。fa scene 。r ph。tograph

c。ntrasty Having greater·th an·n。rmal di仔er· ences between lighc a nd dark areas. The 。ppo· site offlat.

Crop To crim che edges of an image，。ften co im· prove t he c。mp。创汇，。n. Cropping can be d。ne by moving che came阳 posici。n while vie叫ng a scene, d uring image ed,cing，。r bycrimm川g the finished print

Darkr。。m A m。m where a nalog ｛阳m·based) phocographs are developed and pri nted.

Dep由。f field The discance be队veen che nearest and farchest p。，nts chac appear in accepcably sharp focus 川 a p hotograph Depch of fie ld var· ies with lens aperture, focal length, and came陆－ [O·SU均e口d眩目nce

。iaphragm {iris diaphragm) The mechanism controlling che size 。f che lens 。peni ng, there· fore the am。unt ofl唱ht tha c reaches the sens。r It consiscs 。f 。verlapping metal leaves inside che lens chat h ’m a circular opening of variable sizes. (You can see it as 归u look inco che front of the lens ) The size of the 。pening is referred co as theιstop or apeπure

Di仔used light Light t ha t has been sζattered by re由ecti。”。旷 by passing t hrough a translucent mat erial. An even，。ften shad。wless, I吵t

o;gital camera A camera tha t rec。rds an image di rectly in d igital form, i nstead 。f。n c。nven ’ u。nal silver film .

o;gi国I imaging A means by叶，ich a photO!j旧phis rec。rded as a d,gi国I image that can be read and mani p ulated by a c。mputer a nd, subsequently, reformed as a visible image.

o；。pter Uni t 。f measurement that ind icates the magnifying p。wer of a close-up lens

Direct light Light shining directly 。n t h e sub· ject and producing stro ng highlights a nd d eep shad。ws

Directional/di阪，sed light Light cha t is partly do · rect and paπly scattered . Softer a nd less harsh tha n d irect light.

D。dge To lighten a n area 。f a darkro。m-made print by shading it d u ri ng paπ 。f t h e p rint· ing exposure. Hence the name o f Phot。shop's Do dge to。I.

Dpi D。自 per inch; a meas ure o f the resol uti。n 。f a p hotomechanical halfo。ne 。r the res。lut i。n capacity 。f a d igital print er. Frequently (but 川accurately) used for t he final res。lucion of a n image, actually ppi. See Ppi .

D叩m。unt T。 attach a print to another surface, usually a heavier mat board , by placing a sheet。f adhesive dr沪m。unc tissue beiween the print and the m。unting surface. Generally, chis sandwich is placed 川 a hea四d mounting press to melt t he adhesive 川 the t1ssue Some tissues are p陀ssure sensitive a nd d。 not need to be heated

DSLR 。r 0 -SLR Digit a l single -lens reflex. See Single-lens re由ex.

Electr。”ic flash (strobe) A camera accesso叩that provides a brief but p。werful flash ofl协E A bat· te，γpowered unit requires 。ccasi。nal recharging o r battery re placement but, unlike a fl ashb ul b, can be used repeatedly.

Environ mental p。同rait A photograph in whic h the subject' s surroundi川gs are impoπant to the poπ阻，t

Exif Exchangeable image file format Information about the camera，始时，and 四p。sure that ,s au· tomatically stored 叫th each fi le by t he came阳 See Metadaca

Exposure 1. The act o f allowing light to strike a light•senmive s urface. 2. The amount 。f light reach川S tha t s urface, c。ncrolled by the c。mbi· nation of aperture a nd shutter speed

Exposure meter (light meter) An 川scrumem chat measur臼 the amount oflight and provides aper· ture a nd shutter-speed combinat1。ns for corr出E 创p。sure Exposure meters may be built into t he came阳M they may be separa四 in日rumen臼

Exp。sure m。de The cype 。fcamera 。peration (such as manua l, shu tte r-priority, aperture· pri。ricy) t hat determ川es whic h controls you set a nd which 。nes t he camera secs automati· cally. S。me cameras 。perate in only one m。de. O th ers may be used in a variety 。fm。des

Extension tubes Metal rings attached b etween the camera lens a nd the b ody to all。w closer· than-no rmal fo cusing in order to increase the image size

Fast 1 Describ es a sen sor when ,c ,s set t o a high ISO 2. Describes a lens that 。pens to a ve叩wide aperture. 3. Describes a short sh utter speed The 。pp。site of slow

File A quantity 。f d a ta st。rage on a compu ter. Each ph。tog阻phis saved as a single file .

File format One 。f several 日andard ways a p ho· E。graph can b e enc。ded d igitally. Se e JPEG, TIFF, and Camera Raw

Fill light A light S。urce or reflect。r used E。 lighte n shad。w areas s。 th at contrast is d e· creased.

Film A roll 。r sheet 。f a flexi ble materia l c。ated 。n one side wit h a I吵t•sensi t ive material and used in t he ca mera to rec。rd an image

Filter 1. An editing c。mmand t hat p erforms a specific adjustment to a file, like sharp凹，ng 2. In an image d at a base, a search E。。l for fin di ng a specifi c , mage 。r group 。f i mages，也r exam ’ pie, E。 find all pictures ta ken a t f/ 16 .

Fisheye lens An e班reme wide-angle le ns c。ver’ ing a 180° a ngle of view Straight li nes a ppear curved a t the edge 。f t he p hotograph, and che image itself may be circular.

Flare Noni mage•forming hght tha t reaches the image sens。r, resulting in a loss of contrast Caused by stray light reflecting be队veen the sur· faces of che lens or 川side t he camera

Flash 1. A sh。π burst 。f『，ght emitted by a n e lec· tronoc fl ash u nit or strob e to illuminat e the scene being photographed. 2. The eq ui p ment used to produce this hght.

Flat Having less-than-normal d，何erences beiween l吵E a nd da而 areas. The 。pp。site o f cont阻sty.

Focal length The d,scance rrom an incemal pa同。f a lens (the rear nodal p lane) t o che ,mage plane when the lens is focused 。n 川自阳ty. The focal length is usua lly expressed in millimeters (mm) and determines the a ngle of view (how much of the scene can be included in t he picture) a nd the size of。bjec臼川 the image. A 1 00mm lens, for 四ample, has a narrower a ngle of view a nd mag· nifies 。同eccs m。re tha n a lens of shorter f,田al length.

F。cal plane The surface insid e the camera 。n which che lens 岛rms a sharp image

F。cal-plane shutter A camera mecha nism t hat admits hght to expose an image by 。pening a s li t j ust in fr。nt of t he focal pla ne.

F。cus 1. The p。int at whic h the rays 。f light c。m川Z thro ugh t he len s c。nverge to fo rm a sharp image. Th e pictureι 气n focus”。r sh arpest when this poin t c。incides wit h t he foca l plane 2. To change t h e l ens·to·sens。， (or lens·to•fi lm) d ista nce (or the camera-to· subject d旧ance) until the image is sharp

F。cusing ring The band o n t he came阻 lens cha t, when turned, moves t he lens in rela tion to the foca l plane，而ocusing the camera for s pecific distances.

F。cusing screen See Viewing scr四n. Frame 1. A single exp。sure 。r image. 2. The edges

。fan image. F-stop (f·number) A numerical designati。n (f/2, 町2.8, e tc } indicating t he size 。f t he a perture (lens 。pening).

Gamma The 阳目。f brightness change, a measure 。f川sual c。ncrast The lo ne in a g阻phic d isplay 。f t h e tones 。f a n ima ge (like Ph。tosh。p’S Curves dialog b。x) has a higher gamma 、叶，en 1c has a steeper slope.

Gamut The range of c。lors t ha t can b e seen or t hat a particula r d evice can capture 。r re pro· d uce. For examp le , the ra nge of colors t ha t a digita l came阻 can record.

Gh。sting 1. A kind 。f flare caused by reflecco。ns between lens surfaces. It appears as bright spots the same shape as the apeπure (lens 。pen mg). 2. A c。mbined b lurred a nd sharp image t hat 。ccurs when 何ash is used wit h b right existing light The flash crea tes a sharp image; t he ex，目－ ing light adds a blurred image if the subject is moving

Gigabyte Approximately 。ne bill i。n bytes or 。ne tho usand megabytes (actuall~ 1,073,741 ,824). A measure 。f computer fi le size 。旷 device stor· age capacity. Abbreviated G or GB

Glossy Describes a printing paper with a great deal 。fsurface sheen. The 。pp。site 。f matte

Gray card A card t ha t re何ects a kn。wn percent · age 。f light falling 。nit. 0白en has a gray side reflecting 18 percent a nd a whit e side refle ct· ing 90 percent 。f the light Used E。 take ac· c urate exp。sure mete r read ings ( meters base their exp。sures o n a gray ton e 。f 18 p erc ent re fl ectance). Some gray cards are als。 c。l。p neutra l, to be used for坦tcing C。lor balance

Guide number A n umber rating for a flas h u nit t hat can b e used to calculat e t he correct ap erture for a particular ISO speed and fl ash -to· SU同ect d istance

Hand-held meter An exp。sure meter chat ,s sepa· rate from t he camera.

Han d h old To s upport the camera w it h y。ur ha nds rather t ha n wit h a trip。d or 。ther fi xed suppoπ

Hard ware The pr，出essor, monitor, printer, and 。ther ph庐ical devices cha t make u p a c。mputer system. See s。ftware

HOR H唱h Dynamic Range; a n image with a s pa n 。f brightness 咀lu臼 grea四r than t he range chat c an be captured 川 a single exp。sure. Several bracke ted exp。sures can be merged into o ne HOR image.

Highli供 A ve叩 l ight a rea in a scene 。r image. Als。 called a h吵刨出

Hist。罗志m A g阳ph that shows the distri bution of tones or c。lo陌 in a digital image

H。t sh。e A clip 。n the top o f the camera that attaches a fl ash u nit and pr。vides a n electrical link to synchro阳ze the fl ash with t he camera shutter, el im川ati ng t he need for a sync c。rd.

Hyperfocal distance The distance to t he nearest 。同e口，n focus when t he lens is focused 。n in· fin 11y. Setting t he lens t o focus 。n this dista nce instead 。f on 川finicy will kee p the farthest 。b· 户口S 川 focus as well as extend t he depth 。ffield 四川elude 。均旺臼 closer to the camera

Incid ent-light meter A ha nd-held exposure meter t hat measures t he amou nt of light falli ng o n t he SU协口 See also Refle口ed·I吵E me阳e

Infinity Designated oo. The farthest distanc e marked 。n t he focus ing ring of the le肘， gener· ally about 50 feet. When the camera is focus ed 。n infi nity, a ll 。同eccs a t tha t distance 。r fa rther away will be sharp

Infrared Wavelengths of electromagnetic rad oa· ti。n , like hght b ut slightly longer than th。se in t he visible sp旺crum. Ph。tog阻phs can be ma de fr.。m reflect ed infra red radia c,o n with special equipment 。r film .

Inkjet A d igital p rint er tha t s prays m,crosc。p,c droplets 。fink 。nto a recept ive surface (see Media) to create t he appearance 。f a concin u· OUS·t。ne ph。tograph

G LO SS ARY 223

Interchangeable I凹S A lens that can be removed from the came阻 and replaced by another lens

lnte币。lation Estima ting th e data between cw。 known points. Used to crea四 a finer grid of pix· els than what was captured

IPTC l nternati。nal Press Telecommunicat1。ns c。uncil A form of metadata chat can be added t。 an image file a白er capt ure

Iris diaphragm See Diaphragm. ISO A numerical rating that 川dicates t he sensitiv- 町（speed）。f a sensor o r film. 节，e rating dou· bles each time the sensitivity doubles

JPEG A 叫。ssy” format fo r saving d igital pho· E。graphs (see File) tha t C。m presses data E。 preserve space in t he c。mputer’s mem。叩. See c。mpresso。”

Key light See Main light. Kilobyte Approxi mately 。ne t housand bytes ( ac·

cually 1,024} A measure 。f c。mputer file size o r device storage capacity. Abbreviated Ko r KB

Latitude The am。unt 。f over· or underexp。sure p。ssible without a signifi cant change in the quality 。fche image.

LCD Liquid Crysta l Display. The ki nd of th in, fl at visual display screen 。丘en used for 。”’camera m。nitors and data displays, as well as com· puter m。nitors and televisions.

Leaf shutter A camera mechanism that adm,cs light to expose fi lm by 。pening a nd shutting a circle 。foverlapp川g metal leaves

LED See Light-emitti ng diode Lens O ne 。旷 more pieces 。f。ptical glass used to

gat her a nd f。cus light 阳庐m form an image. Lens cleaning flu id A liquid made for cleaning

lenses Lens c。ating A thin, transpa rent coat ing on the

surface 。f the lens that reduces light reflections L回s element A single p iece of optical glass t ha t

aces as a lens 。r as pare of a lens. Lens h。。d (lens shade) A shield chat fi臼 around

the lens to prevent unwanted hght from entering t he lens and causing flare.

Lens tissue A soft, li nt·rree t issue made specifi· call y for cleaning camera lenses. Not t he same as eyeglass cleani ng tissue

Light-emitting d iode (LED) A d isplay in the vie、vfinder。fs。me came阻S cha t gives you infor· mation ab。ut aperture and shut ter-speed set· tings or 。ther exposure da臼

Light meter S四 Exposure meter. L。ng·f.。cal-length lens A lens t ha t provides a

narrow a ngle of view of a scene, includi川Z less of a scene than a lens 。f normal focal length and therefore magnifyi ng o bjects in the image O仕en called telephoto lens.

Luminance A rela tive measure 。f brightness, re· fleccance，。r value, i ndependent 。f col。旷（hue) and saturati。n.

Macro lens A lens specifically d缸，gned for close· up ph。tography and capable 。fgood 。ptical pe斤。rmance when used very cl。se co a su帐目

Macro·ph。togr在phy Production ofimages 。n che sens。旷。旷日Im that are life size 。r larger.

Macro·z。。m lens A lens that has close-focusing capabil i町plus variable focal length

Magnificati。n The size 。f an obj旺E as it appea陌 ,n an image Magnification 。f an image taken by a camera is det ermined by the lens focal length. A lo ng-focal-length lens makes an 。bjecc a ppear larger {pr，。叭ides greater magnifi cation) than a sh。町，focal-length lens

224 GLO SSAR Y

Main light The pri ma叩 source of i l lum 1nat1。n , cast ing the d。minant shad。WS. s。meti mes called key light

Manual exp。sure A nonautomatic mode 。fcam· era 。peration in which the phot，。grapher secs b。th the apeπure and the shutter speed

Manual flash A nonautomatic m。de of fl ash op· eration in which che photographer c。ncrols t he exposure by adjusting the size of the camera性 lens aperture.

Mat A cardboard rectangle 、响th an 。peni ng cut in it that is p laced over a print to 骨ame it . Als。 called an 。vermac.

Mat cutter A short kn ife blade (usually replace』 able) set 川 a large, e臼Y E。·h。Id ha ndle Used for cutting cardb。ard moun臼for prin臼

Matte Describes a printing paper wit h a relatively d ull, nonrefleccive surface. The 。pposite 。f ~！。ssy.

Media A t。。回归，m for t he vanous papers, inks, and 。ther materials used in a d唱’tal printer，。r for the 以毡，i。us cards, tapes, disks, and other items used for scori ng digital da臼

Megabyte Appro州mately 。ne milli町、 bytes {ac· cuall y 1,048,576). A measure 。fc。mputer file size Abbreviated M or MB.

Mem。叩card An in-camera, removable, and reus· able storage device that rec。rds and saves 1m· ages captured by the camera u ntil y。U transfer the fi les to a c。mputer 。r 。cher sco阻ge device and erase (reformat) it.

Menu A l ist 。f choices, like c。mmands or a吗USC• mencs, th缸，s dis played by an application or operati ng s归回m 。n a c。mputer screen

Metadata I nformau。n ab。ut informatl。n In digital ph。tog，阳phy, the camer毡， exp。sure, and subject data scored in the image fi le

Meter 1 See Exp。sure meter. 2. To take a light read mg 、vith an exp。sure mecer

Middle gray A standard, a明白ge g阳Y cone 。f18 percent reflectance. See Gray card

Midtone An area 。f medium brightness, neither ave叩dark shadow n。r ave叩bright highlight

Mirror A pohshed, metall ic reflector set inside a n SLR camera body at a 45。 angle to the lens E。 reflect t he image up o nto the foc using screen When a picture is taken, the m川or moves 。Ut 。fth们咀y so t hat light can reach the sensor.

Negative 1 An image with col。rs 。r dark a nd light tones that are the 。pp。site 。f those in the 。而gi · nal scene. 2 Film that was四p。sed 川 the came阻 and processed to form a nega即e image

Neutral-density fi lter A p iece of dark glass or plastic placed in front of the came阳 lens to de- crease che i ntensity 。f light entering t he lens. It affec自由p。sure b ut not color.

N。is• Pixels 。f阳nd。mc。lors and brightnesses, mosco仕en appearing 川 che dark areas 。fadigi · ta l image.

N。rmal品cal-length lens (standard lens) A lens that pro呐ides ab。ut the same angle 。f帆ew 。fa scene as the human eye

Open up T。川crease the size 。fche lens a perture The 。pposite 。fstopdown.

Operating system 。r Disk Operating System (DOS). Management so仕ware, usually supplied with the computer, t hat stares when you b。。E up {turn 。n t he power to) the c。mpu四r and perfi。rms such 。peraci。ns as reading from and w时cing to hard drives, and 。pening and manag· 川g applicati。n s。fcware. Comm。n 。perating systems are Mac OS X, Wind。ws 8, and Unix.

Opti目I storage A daca storage mediur啊， such as a CD, DVD, or BD, t hat uses light (usually a la· ser) to read and 州白，nformacion

Overexp。se T。 make an 四p。sure with too much light , making a p icture that is t oo hght

Ovem咀E See Mat

Palette A data b。X that appea陌 on a compute♂s m。nit。r Palettes d isplayed by i mage-ed山ng s。仕ware o何er tool 。ptions, provide informa • ti。n, and so o n

Pan To move the camera during the exposure ,n the same dorecci。n as a m。vi ng sub』ect. The ef.二位口，S that the subject stays relatively sharp a nd the background bec。mes blurγed.

Parallax The d iffere nce in point of view that oc· curs when the le ns （。r other device) th ro ugh which the eye vi缸吗 a scene is separate from the lens that exp出自由e film

Pentaprism A five-sided 。ptical device used 川 t he eye-level viewfinder of a single-lens-reflex camera to correct t he image from the focusing screen 回 chat it appears right side up a nd cor· rect le阮E。而ght.

Perspective The optical i ll usi。n in a two d imen· SI。nal i mage 。f a three』dimensional space sug· gesced primarily by c。nverg川g lines and the decrease in size of。同ects 也rcher from the cam· era.

Ph。”flood A tungsten lamp designed especially for use in ph。tographic stu dios. It emits hght a t 3400 K color tempe阳cure

Ph。to-micrography Phot。graphing t hro ugh a microscope.

Ph。tom。ntag• A c。mp。Site image made by as· sembling pares of t wo or more ph。tographs

Pini、。le A small clear sp。t on a negative usually caused by dust 。n the fi lm duri ng exp。sure or development.

Pixel Sh。町 for picture e lement The smallest u nit , usually square，。f a d 1g1tal image t hat can be dosplayed 。旷 changed.

Plane 。f critical focus The pare of a scene that 陆 most sharply focused.

Plug-in An add·。n s。白白，are m。dule for a pro· gram 。r appl icati。n t hat extends its capab ih· t ies. Some applications (such as Photoshop) are made s。 that 由ird·阳rry developers can pro· duce and market plug-ins.

Polarizing screen {p。larizing filter) A fil ter placed in front 。f the camera lens to reduce reflecti。ns h。m n。nmetallic surfaces like gla且 orw.田er，。r to darken t he sky.

p。sitive An image wit h col。rs o r light and dark tones that are similar to t hose in the original scene. See Negative

Ppi Pixels per inch, a measure of the res。luti。n of an image that has a ph庐ical size, like 。ne t hat has been printed or is displa阳d 。n a monitor.

Prima叩 c。lors A set 。f basic colors t ha t can be mixed to match any ocher c。lor.

Print 1. A tw。 dimensional image, usually 。n an opaque surface like paper, made fro m a cap· tured, scanned, or drawn image fi le 2. T，。 pro· duce such a n image.

Pr。fi le The data for a digital device, such as a printer or monitor, that describ臼 its gamut，。旷 range 。fc。lors. Used to match the gamut from one device t o an。ther. See c。lor management , Gamut

Programmed aut。matic A mode 。f aut。matic exp。sure in which t he camera se臼 b。th t h e shutter speed a nd the aperture for a n。rma l exp。sure

胁。。f A test .print made for the pu币。se of evalu· ating dens,cy, c。ncrast, c。lor balance, subject c。mposition, and the like.

Quartz lamp An incandescent lamp chat has h咀h intensity, small size, I。ng life, and c。nscanc c。lor temperature

Raw fi le A digita l camera file 。r scan chat con· tains p ic tu re information exactly as 旺，s ac· quired. Most raw file formats used in cameras are proprieta叩， or specifi c to t he came目 manu’ facturer, and must be int erpreted before edit· 川g See Came阻 Raw.

Reflected-light meter An exposure meter (hand held or built into the camera) t hat reads the amount of light reflected fr。m the subject. See al四 Incident-light meter.

Reflect。r Any s urface-a ceiling, a card, an um· brella, for exampl• used to bounce light 。nto a SU同ecc.

Reflex camera A camera with a b uilt-in mirror that reflects the scene being photog，闯phed 。nto a gr。und·glass viewing screen. See Single-lens reflex

Resampling Changing a file E。 create the same image w1th more or fewe r pixels to achieve a dif· fe renc resol ut1on . Called u psampli ng for m。re pixels, downsampling for 告wer.

Resin-c。ated paper Printing paper 、呐th a water· resistant coating t hat a bsorbs less moisture than a fiber-base paper. Abbrevia四d RC paper

R<>s。luti。” 1. T he total n umber 。f pixel s 川 a camera sens。r, for example, a 2000 x 3000 pixel grid has a resoluti。n 。f 6 megapixels. 2. The number 。f pixels per u nit length, gener· ally a measure 。f maximum image quality. See Ppi.

Ret。uch To rem。ve small imperfe口i。ns in an im· age caused by d ust specks or fla、吗 in t he pro· cess. 剧姐， to re move perceived imper也ccions or fta、吗川the SU同ecc.

RGB A c。lor mode chat uses the additive pro ma叩 colors (red, green, and b lue) to match any ot her c。lor. See CMYK

Scanner A device chat 。ptically reads a c。oven’ ti。nal negati ve, slide，。r print , converting it to digital form for u辑用digital imaging.

Sharp Describes a n i mage 。r paπ 。f an image that shows crisp, precise 回回ure and detail. The 。pposite 。f blurred 。r so阮

Sharp凹ing A software manipulation 。fan ,mage that increases contrast in areas 。f cone cransi· n。n and creat自由e V1sual sensation of a mo陀 sharply focused image

Sh。e A clip 。n a camera for attaching a flash unit. See als。 Hot shoe.

Shoπ.f,。cal-length lens (wide-angle lens) A lens that pr，。呐des a wide angle·。f.响ew 。f a scene, includingm。，e of the subject a rea than a lens 。f n。rmal focal length

Shutter A device in the came甩出目。pens and closes E。由pose t he sensor or fi lm to light for a measured length of ti me

Shutter-pri。rity mode An automac,c exp。sure system 川which the ph。tographer sets the shut· ter s peed and the 臼mera selects the aperture （ι 目。p) for normal exposure.

Shutter release The mechanism, usuall y a but · ton on t he top of the came由a that acti咀tes the shutter to exp。se the sens。旷。r film.

Shutter-speed control The camera control that selects the length 。f time t he sensor 。旷日Im is exposed to light

Sid ecar file A file with the same name as a Camera Raw file (but having t h e excensi。n .xmp} that c。ncains added metadata Created by programs that cann。E write new 川岛，mation to a proprieta叩阳wfile

Silhouette A dark shape with l i ttle 。r n。 detail ap· pearing against a light background.

Single-lens re fl ex (SLR) A type of camera 叫th one lens that is used b。由岛r 川ewing an d for caking the picture A mirr，。r inside the camera re由ects the image up 川to the viewfinder. When the picru陀 is t aken, this mirror mov目。ut of the w町， allo叫ng the light entering the lens to era咽I directly to the 臼nsor or 币Im.

Slide A transparency made 川 the size 。f35mm film . See Transparency

Slow See Fast SLR See Single-lens reflex. s。ft 1 Describes an image that is blurred 。r 。Ut

。f focus. The 。pp。site 。f sharp. 2. Describes a sζene or print oflow c。nt阳St . The 。pposite 。f hard o r high cone阻St.

s。食ware Ac。mputer prog阻m designed to per· form a specific purp。se or ca沫， for example, image editing o r w。，d processing (applicati。n software) or an 。pe阻ting可seem.

S pectrum T he range of radiant energy fr。m ex· cremely short wavelengths z。 e班，emely long 。nes The visible spectrum includes only the wavelengths to which t he human 町e is sensitive

Speed 1 The relat ive abili ty 。fa lens to transmit light . Measured by t he largest aperture at 、叶，ich the lens can be used. A fast lens has a larger maximum aperture and can tra nsmit more light than a slow one 2 T he relative sensitivity to l吵t 。fa sensor o r fi lm. See ISO.

Sp。t meter An exposu re meter with a narrow angle of view, used t。 measure the am。u nt 。f light from a smal I p。πion 。f t he scene being ph。cog阻phed.

Stop 1. An apeπure setting tha t indicates the size 。f the lens 。pening 2. A change in expo· sure by a factor 。f 2. Changing t he apeπure from one setting to the ne目 doubles 。r halves the amoun t of light reaching the sens。r 。， fil m . Changing t he shutter speed from 。ne setting to the next does the same th ing. Either c ha nges the exposure one stop

Stop d。wn To decrease the size 。f the lens aper· cure. The 。pp。site of。pen up

Ser。be See Eleccr。nic flash . Substituti。n reading An exposure meter readi ng

taken from s。methi ng other than the subject, such as a gray card or the ph。tog阻pher's hand.

Subtractive c。l。r A set 。f primary colors (cyan, magenta, and yellow) that can be mixed as pig· ments to ma tch any 。ther color The CMYK c。lor mode adds black ( K} t o c。mpensate for imperfecti。ns in manufacturing the 。ther three c。I ors S四Additivec。lor.

Sync （。r synchr。nizati。”） cord A wire that li nks a flash unit t。 a camera’ s shu tter-release mechanism

Synchronize To cause a flash u nit to 自由、vhi le t he came阻 shut回r is 。pen.

Tacking iron A small, electrically heated to。l used to melt t he adhesive in d叩·m。unc t issue, a t · t aching it partially E。 the back 。f the pnnc and to t he mounting surface. T his keeps the print in place during t he mounting procedure.

Teleph。to effect A c ha nge 1n perspective caused by using a long-focal-lengt h lens ve叩 far fro m all parts of a scene. O bjects appear cl。ser co· gether t han they really are

Telephoto lens See Long·f.田al-length lens Terabyte Approximately 。ne t rillion bytes ( actu·

ally 1,099,5 11 ,627,776). Appr。ximately one thousand Gigabytes. A measure 。f computer file s,ze o r device st。rage capacity Abbrevia ted T。r TB.

Through·由e.• lens meter (TTL meter) An expo· sure me阳built into the came陆 that takes l吵z readi ngs thr。ugh the lens

T IFF An open·s。urce ( not pr。prieta叩） format f。r 且ving digital photographs (see File format) that is readable by m。st graphic s。仕ware run· ning on most computers.

Transpar凹cy (slide) A p。sitive ,mage 。n clear fi lm viewed by pass川Z light through from be· hind wit h a projector or 『，ght b。x

T巾。d A t hree-legged support for the came阳丁TL Abbreviation for t h rough the lens, as 1n

through-t he-lens viewing or metering.

Umbrella reflector An appa由tus c。nscructed like a paras。l 制th a refle ctive surface o n the inside Used E。 bounce d iffused light 。nco a subje口

Underexp。” To make an exp。sure w1th too little light, making a picture th缸，sm。 dark.

V,ew camera A camera in which the taking lens forms an image directly 。n a gro und-glass view- ing screen. A film holder or d igital adapter is inserted in front 。f t he viι呐ng screen before exp。sure The front a nd back of the camera can be set a t vari。us angles to change the plane of f。cus and the pe陌pective

V帽wfinder eyepiece An 。peni ng in t he camera through which the photographer can see the sζene to be photographed.

Viewing scree” T he surface on which the image 川 the camera appears for viewing T his image appears upside d。wn and reversed left to right un less the camera c。ntains a pencaprism to correct it

Vignette To s hade the edges 。f a n image s。 they are underexp。sed A lens ho。d t hat is to。 long for t he lens will cut into t he angle 。f view and cause 响gneccing.

Visib le spectrum See Speccrum

W hite balance 1. The c。lor balance of a wh1te light source. 2. A setti ng 。r adjustment 。n a camera or in an image editor that adjusts the overall image colors for the light sou rce in which it was captured

W ide-angle dist。而。” An unusual p erspecti ve caused by using a wide-angle (sh。π－focal· length) lens 四叩close to a su均ecr. O均配臼 ap· pear stretched o ut or farthe r apaπ than they rea ll y are.

Wide-angle lens See Shoπ－focal-length lens w。由日。w A re pea t able series 。f steps leadi ng to

a desired result or product. A digital p hotogra· phy w。rkfl。w includes, a t mi nimum, t he steps between image capture and o utput

z。”“cusing Presetting the focus to ph。to· graph acti。n so tha t t he entire area on whid、 the action may take place w,11 be sharp

z。。m lens A 『ens 、叭th several moving elements that can be used to produce a continu。us 阳nge of focal lengths.

G LO SSARY 225

BibliQg！：＿α~lyy_ A vast n u mber of books on pho吨raphy are avail• able, whecl,er ）＇咽ur interest is in ,rs techn iq ue or its histOI')＇飞 its use for aπ。r for commerce Look for t hem online, or in your local librarγ， booksto町，or camer在score

If you want a broader selection of books th四you can 日，叫 Jo臼Uy, C巧， Phoco E）＇飞376 Garcia St reet, Sama Fe, NM 87501 (505-988-5 152). This ph oto• only bookstore has an immense selection of new and used photo books sold by mail and through its onhne booksto陀，photoeye.com. O ther online ph otobook specialis臼are vincent如何它Iii.com 四d 血sh,uoodbooks.cm”

Lighclmpre据，ons, 2340 Brigh ron Henrietta Town Line R时， Rochescer，附 14623 (800-975响29) is an excellent sou rce of photographic storage, pres• ervation，剧、d display ma四rials. Catalogs are free You臼n buy onhne or requ出E a printed caralogat lighrimpressionsdi时ct.com

Technical Reference s

Ang, Tom. Digital Photograp.加亏H刷品ook. 6th ed New York: DK Publishing, 2016.

Ashe, Tom pα•／or Ma,wgement & Q.嗣lity 011tp11t: Working iuith Color卢棚Camera to Displdy阳h切t Boston, MA: Focal Press, 2014.

Evening, Marr川 TJ,e Adobe Pho阳•shop Lig，加。om CC/ h护troom6阳k Berkeley, CA: Adobe Pre白，2015. A complete gu ide to che Adobe workflow application -.A血he Pho.阳hop CC for Pho问fTaphers: 2016 Edition. Boston, MA: F配al Press, 20 16.

Faulkner, Andrew and Conrad C havez. Adobe P阳阳sh-Op CCC阳sroom in a Book. Berkeley, CA: Adobe Press, 20 17 Includes acc出s co che interactive Web edition A good way to learn the b四cs ofche mostpopul盯 image吃dicing sofrware

Hirsch , RobeπL也，，，，and Lens: Pho问?T•P·纱巾脚 D做阳l Age. 2nd ed Boston, MA: Focal Press, 2012. Profusel)'’ ,illustrated, deεa’iled compend c出ses 削d tech、mqu臼

Jones, Lou, Bob Keenan, and Steve Osrrowsk, Speed/ii妙ts&Sp时•d/i.阳C附,arive Flash P加E结raphyas Lightspeed. 2nd ed. Boston, MA: Focal Press, 2013. Use small，川剧pensive, por四ble fl剖h units to ach ieve professional results

Koh时， Kenned、 Phorojour,w/ism: 71加Pr~卢ssionals' App，旧ch. 7th ed Boston, MA· Focal Press, 20 16 Complete coverage of equi.pmen飞 techniques，阳、d approach四used by p hocoJournahsts

Krogh, Peter. The DAM Book: Digi，阳／ Asset Man鸣ementfor Pho问?T•P·加五 2nd ed. Cambridge: 0’R白lly Media, 2009. H。wtoorg剧、ize, keep, ar- ch，咽， and find digital photographs

London, Barba阻，John Upton,Jrn、 Stone P阳tograpl岁 1 2th ed. Hoboken, NJ: P国rson Education, 20 16. Complete infom,anon about both fi lm•b.臼ed and digital p ho tography, widely used as a cexr Ve巧’ comprehensive

226 B I B LIOG R A P ”Y

Long, Ben. Complete D也italP阳•tograpl岁 8th ed. lndependence, KY· Cou rse Technology, 20 14. Excensive rnfom,anon, clearly 啊，rten “－呻， Gettings，阳rted iuith Camera Raw: Hoiu阳Make Better阿α11res UsingP加＆OS，加，pandPho阳•shop Elements. 2nd ed. Berkeley: Peachpit Pre盟，2009.

McKenz吨JO）＇刊nd D阻，el Overturf. Artifi，巾i Lightingfor阶otograpl,y. Clifro n Park，阳· Delmar Cengage Learning, 2009. Clear四pl削anon ofhght• ing techniqu臼w1th visual examples

S副cha, Erni. Cap阳时One Pro JO. Mastering Raw Development, Image h白白ssing, and Asset Ma,wll归”ent. S甜 Rafael , CA: Rocky Nook, 2017. A complete guide co the Ph甜e One workflow appl i，臼口。n

R时，呵， Andrew. α／orMa旧rgement如P加啼·aphm:

Hands on Teclmiques如P加＆OS，加，p Users. Boston, MA: Focal Press, 2005.

Russot口， Patricia, and Rich ard Anderson. D总归I Pho吨’·ap.抄Best Practices and Worliflow Handbook. Bosto n , MA: Fo臼I Pre妇， 2009

Wilhelm, Henry. The Permanence andα附ofα，for Pho吨rap.加· 1子-adit阳,w/andD，饭’dα•lorP,切龟α，for Negatives, Slid，旺， and Motion 阿·ctt1res. A comprehensive conse阿ation guide. The entire book may be down- loaded free a t wilhelnwesearch.com/ book_toc html

Business Practices

Ameri臼n Sociel)•，。fMedia Photographers. ASMP h电fessio,wl Business Practices in Pho吨rap.抄 7thed New York Allworrl、 Pre蹈，2008

Bostic,Ma巧’ Burzlaff. 2018 P加tographe内Ma呻et: Hoiu and \Vhere to Sell Yo"r P加tography. 41 st ed New York: Noπh Ligh t Books, 20 17.

Crawford, Tad. Business and l.Rgal Forms户r Pho问fTaphers 4th ed. New York· Allw咱πh Press, 2009

Du Bo仔， Leonard D. The Latu (in Plain English）户T Pho吨fTaphers 3rd ed. New York· Allwoπh Press, 2010

Himes, Darius D., and Mary Virg川，a Swanson Publish Your P阳tograpl岁Book. Revised, updated ed New York Princeton Architectural Press, 20 14.

Kieffer.John. TJ,e Photograpl,e的Assistant: Learn t加 Inside Sec,咄ofPr~卢ssional P加E锣-aphy and Get Paid j』r It. New York: Allworcl、 Press, 200 1.

Oberrech t, Kenn. How to S阳rta Home-Bared Pho咐•p.抄B，.，；时ss. 6th ed. Old Sa·卢刚k,CT: Globe P叫uot Press, 2010.

Swanson, Ma叩Virginia. Finding Yo"r A11dience: An I’”’叫11ction to Ma呻四”，gYo11rPho问fTaphs m四wan• son com· Selιpublished, 20 17. How to market yourself挝a photographer in che Internet age

Essays, Collections, and Hist。对自

Adams, Robert. Beauty in P加鸣’·aphy: Essays in D~卢nseofTradirional Values. New York: Apertu时， 2005. New edition of 1981 edition

Barrete, Ter巧’ 。听ricizing P加•tographs: An Introd11ction 阳Unde向阳ndinglmages. 5th ed. New York- McGraw- Hill, 20 11. Widely used as a text to help develop 四chniqu臼 for discu臼rng photographs.

Barches, Roland. Camera Lllcida. New York· Hill and 咀:lang, Reprint edition, 2010

Benson, Richard The h切，·edPi，αure. New York: Museum of Modern Ar飞2008 Eloquent d臼crip• t ions of che way m四川ng ,s affected by printing technologies

Berger,John. \flays of Seeing. New York: Pengu in Modern C lassics, Reprint, 2009

Burgin, Victor. TJ,inking Photograpl岁 London Macmillan, 1982 and 1990

Colem拙，A D. T11eD也ital Evolution: Pl,ot，伊，phyin the Elem恻ic Age. Portland, OR: Nazraeli, 1998

Corton, Chari。rce 1加Pho问fTaphasc。”的＇II户>rary Art. 3rd ed. New York: Tham自由 Hudson, 2014

Frizoc, Michael, ed. A Neiu Hi.刷•ryof p阳锣'ttp妙 Koln, Gem,a呵’ Konemann, 1999 M拙s,ve, bea‘Jt’ifully pr，叫uced, th、。r。ugh,a’、d rεlat’飞•e

'e m四pens,v,

Grundberg, Andy. C时is of the Real: \Vrirings on Photograpl,y Since 1974. 2nd ed. New York: Apeπu时， R白ssue 2010. Readable, stimulating e坦ayson con• temporary a臼U臼川 photog阳phy

Gustavson, Todd 臼，，,era: A History of Pho咐·apl,y J>:om Dag11en吨严阳盹'ital New York: Sterli川g Signatu陀，20 1 2 From theCuratorofTechnology at the George Eastman House

H白ferman, Marvin, ed. Photography a,anges Eve吵thing. New York- Apeπure, 2012.

Hirsch , RobertJ. Seizingt.加L也'111: A Social & Aesthetic History of P加E喀raphy. 3rd ed. Boston, MA: Focal Press, 20 17. Thorough (608 pag臼，） and conrempo• m巧’survey of the medium’s histo叩

Moms, Errol Believing is Seeing: Observations on 阶e Mysteries of Photograpl,y. New York: Pengu in Press, 20 11 Es且.ys on t he nature of truth 川 photography.

Papageorge, Tod. Co时Cs1rricul1m,: Writings on Photograp炒 New York: Aperru时， 2011

Rosenblum, Naomi. A World History of Phot＜＞；罗·ap.抄 4th ed New York: Abbeville, 2008. Comprehe时，ve and profusely illustrated.

Shore, Stephen. The Na阳附ofPhotographs: A阳mer. 2nd ed. London· Phaidon Press, 20 IO.

So川ag, Susan. On P加均~aphy. New York Farrar, Straus 胡d Giroux, 1977

S回rkowski,John. TJ,e Pho问?T•PI肝3号’e New York Museum of Modern Ar飞2007 Landmark 四川b,- t ion catalog with 出says from the mediu m’s mosc mfluennal curator

Wells , Liz. Phot＜＞；罗·ap.抄ACritic.ti Int时，，ction. 5 th ed New York: Routledge, 20 15

Print and Online Magazin臼

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American P加叫 2 Park A田， New York, NY 10016. Onl i川、e o nly Phorography in all forms , in cluding che fashionable and che f:注m。因（ameri臼np.加阳”agcom)

A户，τ＇＂飞 20 Ease 23rd Srreec, New York, NY 1001 1 A super也ly primed mag拙med国hng wich ph ocog• raphy as an art 岛m、 Pubhshed ac irregular 川回p vals. (a阳切，时’扮

Black & \Vhite, PO Box 1529, Ro蹈，CA 94957. Bimon chly princ mag血’M chacmdud臼 porrfohos and comescs (bandtum司g.rom)

Digital Pho阳，Madavor Media, Madavor Medi且， 25 Brame陀e Hill Office Park, Smee 404, Braincree, MA 02 184. Onhne胡d quaπerl）•’ pr川、c magazine ” for passionace phocographers.” （dpmag,rm吵一… Digi归I Photo Pro. In cludes busmes川e隅， ar• rid白，and ocher con阳、c a,med ar professional ph o- 吨raphers. (digitalpbotopro.r，刷｝

Fraction Magazine, publishes monch马’ porrfol i，的朋d book reviews online，剧、d prm臼books, all by livmg ph。cographers worldwide. 伊-actionmagavne.rom)

Lens\Vor.鸟 1 004 Commercial , Anacorces, WA 9822 1 High•qualicy, b imon chly b lack-a,,d -wlme prim and online publi臼non abouc p horographs, n oc cam• eras, wich asricles and inrer"iews (/enswork.rom)

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ThePbo阳Review, 340 Ease Maple Avenue, Suice 200, Langhorne, PA 19047. Fine-aπph。rography 四hibinon四d book revie明wirh porrfohos, on line ＠加阳刚时咱

Pop11Jarf响。tograp.伽 2 Park Ave., New York, NY 100 16 Online mag缸”、e for hobbyiscs 由ac mixes informacion abouc equipmenc飞呐rh porrfohos a,, d h ow-co articles. (popp.加阳com)

Professional Pbo何时p阳， 229 Peachtree Sr NE, Suice 2200, lncernaci。nal Tower, Aclanca, GA 30303 Monchly prim and o nhne mag四ine for commercial a,,d induscrial ph。rographers. (ppm,ig.r。”。

Rant,φ时间 P.O. Box 360 1 Northbrook, IL 60065. For professionals in che 日eldsofw，时dmgand poπr臼E ph ocography Prine magazine free co US ad• dresses. （阳nt,φ阳如ronline.com)

Shutt，凹ψu』L TEN, 83 1 S. Douglas Sc, El Segundo, CA 90245 Monch ly prmr magazine, moscly produces reviews and how-co articles. （班时时rbt嘻com)

Ph。togr在phic 。rganizari。”s

Mose of ch ese non pro自Em白nbership orga,uza• 口。ns publish magazin臼臼，d news）盯rers and have mformac附Web sices If you hve near o肘，you may also wish co join for rheir sponso时d轨。rkshops, lecrures，。r exhibicions

Ame,咀an Sociecy of Media Phorograph ers, 150 Noπh Second Screec, Philadelphia, PA 19106 Pubhsl、自ASMPB11l』elin, a guide for che 轨咽rkmg professional (d町ribuced only ro ASMP members (asmp.org)

Cencer for Phocography ac Woodscock, 59 Ti川、k时 Sere凹，Woodscock, NY I 2498. Publishes P/10鸣阳p抄 Q11arterly, cur阿ncly on hiams. 在p阻。，x)

CENTER, P.O. Box 2483, Sama Fe, NM 87504. Orgamzes poπfoli萨阿v,ew evencs (Revieu, San阳 Fe) an d sponsors j u ried awasds for phocographers. ( visitcenter.mx)

CEPAGallerγ， 6 17M副n Screec, Buffalo, NY 14202 Exhi binons, lecmres,and an arcisc project progmn (cepagallery.mx)

George Eascman Museu m, 900 Ease Avenue, Roch escer, NY 14607. A museum of phocc啄raphy and臼m盯as, as well 臼rhe rescored ma,,sion and gardens of Kodak’s fo山、der. 民1bhshes a newslecrer and occ缸，onal exh ibicion cacalogs. (eastm刷刷x)

Houscon Cen四r for Phocography, 1441 Wes, Alabama, Housron , TX 77006 Publis hes Spot maga• zme, cwice a year (brponline.o’x) The Lighc Facco巧’， 18 I 7 Cencral Avenue,Su,ce C200, Chaslocce, NC 28205. A museum of phocog• raphy an d fil m, offers d剧目。但l收回吻。，x)

Lighc Work, 316 Waverly Aven ue, Syracuse, NY 13244 A communicy咱自由s lab, several galleries, and 由、 amsc's residency program, pubhsh四Contaa Sheet and exhibit ion ca，划。gs. （／.也•htu,ork.mx)

Nacional Press Ph orograph ers Associa口。n, 120 Hooper Screec, Achens, GA 30602 An org臼uzacion of working and scudenc p horojournahscs; publishes che monthly N阳胁。问grapher. (nppa.o’x) Phorog阳phic Resource Cencer, 4 I lA High land Ave. #3 17, Some＂＇吨lle, MA02 144 A g刻lei)’， library, lecrure series, and porcfoho reviews. Pubhshes Lottpe occ拙。nal马’ (btt.e血，；pre)

Sa,, Francisco Camera work, 10 1 I M盯kec Screec, Sa,, Francisco, CA 94 I 03. Publishesα，•1U>ratvor，ιA Jo,mwl of P/10问graphic Arts. 饷merawork.org)

S0C1et) '’ for Phocographic Educacion, 2530 Superior Avenue, #403, Cleveland, OH 44 114 An organiza• cio n cenrered around ch e c国ct, ing and practice 。f phocography臼a 白ne art Pubhshes Expo，，.γc (spenationaimx)

Visual Smdies Workshop, 3 1 Prmce Screec, Roches四r, NY 14607. lnco币。races a degree-gram• mg school wich workshops, gall呵， and a rtist's book s rudio. Publi

Spa曲 constrains 由is list of organizacion s and periodicals ro chose 川 rhe United S臼ces. Many ocher councries have organizations and publica• cions devo四d co phocography, which can be fo und onhne, chrough a pubhc libra巧飞。r by con cacring che nonprofics lisced h ere

。”line Video Tutorials and M。”

阳adobe.com Adobe Web sice wich free rucorials for each of cheir apphcacions

phaseone.com Follow Produccs>Sofrware co fi nd a link co Capmre O ne Pro mcorials

dpreview com T escs and r缸’，ews of dig,cal 臼mer缸， lenses, primers, and software, plus forums , ph。m sharing, and conr白白

j阳且com Adobe Phocoshop “E咀ngelisc" J uhea,,ne Kosc provid四 free h incs and rucorials on Phocoshop and Lighcroom

1.>'nd.a com Software crainmg me, some conrenc ,s fr时，some by subscription

pho阳netOnhne p时Mo-peer foru ms, ph oco shar• ing, and criuqu臼

strobist. com All abou c location lighcing wich porca• ble equipmenc, wich cips 岛r inexpensive solutions

visitcen配时’宫See enc叩under Phocographic Organizacions, le阮； rheir Web S1Ce has a Resour四s page wich links ro ocher useful sic出

BIBLIOGRAPHY 227

Photo Credits

p ii Teun Hocks, C。uπesy 。f the artist and T。rch Galle叩a Amsterdam, NL; p 2 Annie Leib。vitz/C。n臼ctPress Images, pp. 9 (bottom right), 73, 159 (b。ttom}©RKM Archrve; p 10 0。p) Panas。nic Corp。ration 。fNoπh America; p . 10 (bott。m le丘） Pentax Imaging c。mpany; pp. 10 (right}, 11 (right), 12 (b。口。m right ), 59 (top right), 62 (top right), 84 (bottom) c。urresyofMACGroup; p. 12 (top) FUJ IFILM Noπh America c。币。由口。风 2017; p . 12 (cen· ter) C。urtesy 。f Panasonic N。而h America; p 13 (top) Used bypermiss,on 。fSony Ele口ronics Inc. All R咀h臼 Reserved; pp. 14 (bottom), 85 (b。ttom left), 146 C。urresy of Nikon Inc., Melvi lle, NewY，。rk; pp. 14 (top), 112 (top) C。urtesy of Can。nυSA; p . 21 (top)Josef Koudelka, Magnum Photos; p. 21 (bottom) C。urtesy of Na。ya Hatakeyama and Taka lsh” Gallery, T。ky。； p. 24J。el Sternfeld, c。urresy。fthe artist and Luhring Augustine, New y。rk; p 30 Geoffrey Robi川son／剧amySt。ck Ph。to; pp. 33, 118 Courtesy xRez Srudi。s, Inc.; p 35 Henri Carrier-Bresson, Magnum Ph。tos; p 36 Ed Jones/ Cercy I mag臼； p. 37 Andreas Feminger/ Geery Images; p 38 © David Levenci/C。urresy Rick Wester Fine Arc; p. 4 1 (b。ttom) Donald Mi阻lie/Getty Images; p. 46 Christoph Oberschneide旷AlamyScock Photo; p. 47 (t。p) Nati。nal Archives and Rec。rds Adm川i日raci。”， Rec。rds of the Nati。nal Park Service; p 52 Javier Manzan。，fAFP/Get叩Images; p. 53 Reprod uced wit h permissi。n 。fthe Minor White Arch，咽， Pnncec。n Universicy AπMuseum. © Trustees of Princecon Un rversi ty, p 59 Gue。rgui Pinkhass。v, Magnum Photos; p . 65 Library 。fC。ngress LC-D1G-fsa·8d2490 1; p. 7 1 C。urtesy of the Liebling Family Trust ; pp 86, 89 (top), 116 C。u阿esy。fEps。n America, Inc., p . 89 ( bottom righ。 Hasselblad Bron , Inc.; p. 112 (b。ttom} Libra叩。fC。ngress LC-DIG-cwpbh 03225; p. 114 Teun H田ks, Courtesy of the artist and P·P·O·W Gallery, New York; p 门5 ( le仕｝ ©The Museum of Modern Art/ Licensed by SCALA/ Art Res。urce, NY; p. ’3 1 Alex Webb, Magnum Photos; p. 135 ©The Estate of Gar叩W川。grand, C。urtesy Fraenkel Gallery, San Francisco; p. 136 Libra叩。f C。ngress LC-D1G-fsa·8b32434; p. 137 (left) C。urtesyJanet B。rden, Inc.; p. 137 (right ) c。urtesy F。leyGalle叩a New Yo巾， p. 138 Lib阳叩。fCongress; p. 139 (b。口。m) David Alan Harvey, Magnum Ph。tos; p 1 SO Bruce Gilden, Magnum Photos; p . 15 1 Carl De Keyzer, Magnum Ph。tos; p . 155 Lib阳叩。f Congress, American Folklife Center, p . 157 © Lee Friedlander, Courtesy Fraenkel Galle叩a San Francisco; p 159 (top) Elliott Erwitt, Magnum Photos; p. 159 (bottom} Courtesy Laurence Miller Galle叩， p. 16 1 (top) Libra叩。f Congress LC· D1G·fsa·8b37302; p. 162 (b。ttom) Courtesy 。f Minneapolis Insti tute 。fAπs, C币。fthe William R. Hibbs Family; p. 164 (top) ©The Lane Collection. Photograph Museum 。fFine Arcs, Bost。n, pp. 164-5 (b。ttom) Ha ll mark Ph。tog阻phic Collecti町、， Hallmark Cards, Inc., Kansas Ci町， MO© 20 13 Katherine Anne Sinsabaugh and Elisabeth Sinsabaugh de la Cova; p 166 Alec S。巾， Magnum Photos; p . 168 © Y，。usufKarsh, Courtesy Julie Grahame; p . 169 Arnold Newman/ Getty Images; p 170 © Richard Misrach, c。urtesy Fraenkel Gallery, San F阳ncisco; pp. 173 Lib阳叩。fC。ngre臼 LC-USF342·001 1 67-A; p . 171 Je何Wall , Transparency ,n lightbox 174.0 x 250.5 cm, C。urtesy of the aπist; p . 180 Library 。fC。ngress LC·USW36-950; pp. 181, 185, 188, 200 (bottom} Ha叫Ransom Humanities Research Center, The υn阴阳cy of Texas at Aus ti肉， p. 182 Bayerisches Nat1onalm useum Munchen; p . 183 C。urresy Amherst College Archives and Special Collecti。ns; p . 184 Me町。pol i曰” Museum 。fAπGilman c。llecti。，，， Gift ofThe H。ward Gilman F。undati。n, 2005; p. 186 C。urtesy of Ge。rge Eastman House, Internat ional Museum 。fPh。tog阳phy and Film, p . 187 Library 。fCongress LC· USW36-950; p . 188 Mecrop。l i tan Museum of Aπ Harris Brisbane Dick Fund, 194 1, p. 190 Lib阻叩。fC。ngress LC·D1G·ppmsca· 100 17; p. 19 1 Library 。fC。ngress LC-DIG·ppmsca-12557; p. 192 (top) Lib阳叩。fC。ngress LC-USZC4·477; p . 192 (bott。m) Lib阳叩。fCongress LC· USZ62- 103037; p 193 (top) Mecrop。I i国内 Museum 。fAπGil man Collection ，帆，rchase, W川剧”Tal b。a Hill man Fou ndati。n G泊， 2005; p . 193 (bottom) Mecrop。lκan Museum of Arc Warner Commu nications Purchase Fund, 1978; p. 194 (t。p) Museum of the City of New York; p. 194 (b。ttom} Libra叩。fC。ngress LC-DIG-nclc-01455; p. 195 (top) Li brary of C。ngress LC· D1G·fsa·8b29S16; p. 195 (b。ttom) Lib阳叩。fCongre臼 LC-USZ62·1 1 49 1 ; p. 196 (top) Mecrop。l ican Museum 。fAπFord M。由，c。mpany c。llection, Ci丘。fFord Motor c。mpany and John C. Waddell , 1987; p . 197 W. Eugene Smit h/ Geccy Images; p . 198 Ashley Gilberrs。n/ VII Ph。mAgency; p . 199 (top) Alfred Eisenstaed矿Geccy Images; p . 199 (bott。m) Susan Meiselas, Magnum Photos; p. 200 (bottom} Meer。politan Museum 。fAπGilman Collecti。n, Purchase, Mrs Walter Annenberg and The Annen berg Foundation G陡， 2005, p 20 1 (top) Mecrop。“四” Museum 。fArt. Alfred Stieglitz Collecti。n, 1933; p. 201 (b。ttom}, 202 (top) c。urresy Andrew Smith Galle叩， Santa Fe, NM; p 203 (top) C。Urt臼y。fthe Kepes Estate; p 203 (bottom) C。urtesy ofHattula M巾。ly-Nagy; p. 204 (top) ©The Estate of HanγCallahan, c。urresy 。f Pace/ MacGill Galle叩； p. 204 ( bottom) Courtesy the Aaron Siskind F。undation; p. 205 © R。bert Fr毡，由a from 7百eAmeri，臼，，，， c。Urt臼Y Pace/ MacGill Gallery, New y。rk;p 206(top) c。urresy of Cindy Sherman and Metro Pictures Gallery, New Y，。由； p. 207 © 1980 The Richard Aved。，， Foundation; p. 208 (right )© Arcforum, Janua叩 1 979 [c。verJ; p. 208 (b。ttom) © Egglest。n Artistic Trust C。urtesyCheim & Read, New York; p. 2 10 Science & S。ciecy Picture Lib阻叩， p 214(b。目。m le丘｝ l nno吨 Art Ltd .; p . 214 (bottom center) Smithsonian American Aπ Museum; p . 214 (boa。m right) Light W。巾，Syran』se, New York

22 8 P H OTO C R E D I TS

Jam臼 Henkel. Volume 1-7, 2004

229

lndeχ

Abbott, Beren,co, 162 aberration<, 31 ac峙free ,n均et pnnting paper, 133 Adams, An5"1, 47, 202, 204, 206, 208 Adams, Shelby Lee,’74 add山ve prima,i凹， 56, 83 Adobe see also Bndge so仕W在re,

Light<•。。m softwa«, Ph。t。shop s。ftwa陀

Bridg•, 85 ONG con晴rtcr, 88 RGB (1998), 82, 118

Adobe Camera Raw (ACR), 85 American So白etyofM时，a

Photog，甩phtts (ASMP), 168 angl• 。fview, 32, 33, 156, 162, 170 apertu陀

bracketing and, 74 c。ntr，。I, 15 C陀at,ve uso of, 24- 25 depth 。f field and, 23, 44 exposure and, 53, 62, 64 f-st，。ps, 23 h,gh c。ntrast and, 73 and l协t, 22 maximum, 3 1 ring/button, 17 四ttings, 23 shutm speed and, 26- 27

Aperture so仕ware, 118 editing and, 108

apertu吨〈。”trol rin且， 31 ape陀U吨－priority m。de, 16, 69 Apple, 78 appl icati。”而1 ., 92 a ppr叩riat.,on 。fcopyrighted mate·

,ial, 113 Arbus, Diane, 205, 206 archival mounting materia ls, 120, 121 archiving, 86, 133 拙， photography as, 200- 207 A陀forum magazine, 208 artifoc,a l lighting, 146-147 As扭。aced Press 队的，”S Atget, Eug占ne, 193 autochrome process, 187 autofocus,”,40,43 automatic electronic Aash, 146 automatic focus, 43 A四don, Richa<d, 206, 207 ave陆g,ng meter, 63 A叫叩，J。如ph, 192

Babbag•, Charles, 210 Babbitt, Pia忧 D, 192 background, 156- 157 backl协E butt。叫“ backlighting, 72, 141, 142 backup st阳•gy, 86, 130, 133 balance, 179 banner m。d•, 119 Barney, T,na, 137 Barrett, El国beth, 188 batt肘’时， 28 Bauhaus, 203 Bayer array, 85 Bayer folter m。saic, 85 Becher, Bernd, 193 Becher, Hilla, 193

230 I ND EX

b•II。ws,50 Be咆叽 Paul , 212 bot, 80 bot depth, 80, 81, 89 black and whito images, 108 black p。m阻， 94, 97 bleed mounting, 126- 127 Bloom, Suzan时， 212 Bio自由ldt, Karl, 193 Blu-,ay ( BO) disks, 78, 130, 133 blumng, 19 came陆m时，。n and, 28 "'· depth 。f自eld, 26- 27 for emphas，队’60 shutter sp•ed and, 15,’9

b。忧。m loghting, 141 b。unce flash, 147, 149 b阳cketing, 64- 65 Brady, Mathew B., 112,”’ Brezhnev, Le出n,d, 213 Briand, Aristide, 196 Bridge so仕ware, 85, 88, 132 bnghtne盟．。f pap•rS,’17 Bubl•y, Esther,’80 built in meters, 63, 69 burning, 98 Burson, Nan句， 213 bytes, 80

cable connecti。ns, 17, 88 cable relea5", 28 Callahan, Harry, 204, 208 calotypes, 184 camera( s) see also d’gotal cameras

apertu<e, 4, 15, 22- 27 (seeal,o aperture)

automatic exposure, 65-67 woth automatic features, 3 battery p。wcr, 28 came目 control s, 14- 17 clean lens surface, 29 e甲。Sures, 6-8 ( see a/so e甲。sure) features, 17 film in,4 focusing of, 6 ( see also focus,ng) func,,。用， 4

getting started w，巾， 4-9 hand h。ld,ng, 28 lens 。f, 4, 28- 29 (see also lens（四）｝ and m•m。叩ca,ds, 4, 29 protection, 28, 29 四旧时， 4, 29 （隅also sen捕，s) shutter 。f, 4 shutter speed, 18- 21, 26- 27 tripod and cable 陀lc.ase, 28 叩pes of, 10- 13 v,ewfonder, 4

camera obscura, 181 Cam..-a Raw 自les, 58, 70, 81, 86, 130

black and whi胆，mages, 108 sharpening and, 104 w。rking with, 85, 133

Camera Work (mag甜n•), 201, 202 Cam..-on, Julia Ma咆•arc笆， 188 Capon唱，。， Paul, 202 Capture One Pro, 132 capturing an ,mage, 78, 83, 86 Carey, Alison, 34 cartes-de峭site, 188, 189

Cartitt·B陀S曲”， Henri, 35 回巾，dges, ,nk, 117 回国log,ng applications, 132 CCD, 54 CDs, 133 cell ph。时 cameras, 13 C•nter for Advanced Visual Studoes

( CAIIS), 203 C•nter for C陀at附Photography, 206 center ....晴ighted meter, 63 CF (C。mpact Rash) card, 88 channels, 83, 94, 97, 108 chaos and 。，·der in ph。E。graphy, 163 出，aroscuro, 157 Chicago st川.. 204 Chin, Chrisεin•, 60 chrome 自Im, 109 Church, Fredrick,’86 citys西pe ph。四$阳phy, 172- 173 cl,pp,ng, 61, 73 close-ups, 50 Cloud St•。目ge, 78 CMOS, 54 CMYK m。de, 56, 82, 83, 87 cold-mount tissues,’22 c。llier,J。hn, 138 collod,on wet-plate pr，。cess, 185 color

additive process, 56 balance, 57- 59 characteristics, 57 convers.，。n folter, 58 d，且’tal, 82-84 as elem•nt 。『des,gn, 178 management, 84 modes, 56, 82 ph。tog陆phy, 187, 208- 209 subt甩出晴 p,oce臼， 56

whe•I, 56 c。l。r R•nderong Index ( CRI), 59 color tempcratu陀， 58, 59 c。lo.Checker Passport, 59 coloromcte,, 84 c。men, Sam, 145 command dial, 17 compact cameras, 5, 12 compositing, 106-107 compound lens, 31 comp陀盟•d perspective, 48 computer, 8, 78 conservat1。n board, 121 continuous-ton• photograph, 54 contrast, 57, 73- 75, 96, 136, 179 control d,a l, 14 controls, camera, 14- 17 copyright laws, 113 c。陀I A仕肘Shot Pro, 87 corrupted storage devices, 130 cover sheet, 122 craquelure folter, 109 crop f坦白。r, 32 cropping, 110, 154 c，。s, Cha州es, 187 Cummong, Robe町， 206 Cunningham, Imogen, 202 Curv时， 96－”，”。，”。

Daguer陀， Lou略Jacques Mandi, 182 daguor陀时ype, 182- 183

damaged photographs，用painng 。t 102

D’Amato, Paul, 134 dark n。，se,75 da曰“.. 92 da国 panel s, 14, 17 De Keyzer, Carl, 151 Delano, Jack, 65 Dcmachy, Rob..－飞 201 demo臼i口ng, 85 depth, ,n photog由phs, 48- 49,

162- 163 depth of foeld, 179

and aperture, 23 盹 blumng, 26- 27 close-ups and, 50 focus ,ng and, 42, 46, 47 preview川g, 46- 47 宦ables, 47

depth•。ιfoeld seal•, 31 dcrovat，暗自les, 86, 130 design, elem•nts of, 178 deskt，。pin均配 prin四飞 1 1 6

d』al。s boxes, 78 d,aphragm, 17 diffused light, 68, 137, 166 d,gital cameras,’2- 13, 77, 78

color temperature and, 58 histograms and，肘 ’旧是mal data block of, 131 IS0s町ting, 66 light•sensit,v呵。f, 53 n。ise,75 pan。ramie mode i”, 119 sales 。f, 210

d,gital col。，可stems, 56 d,gital photography,’98, 210- 213 Dir)阳I Photography exh,b巾。”’ 212 d,gital songle-lens reflex (DSLR) cam·

eras, 10, 12, 17, 29, 40, 75 digital workplace see workplace, d,gital d,gital z。om,40 dorect flash, 149 dorect ima候，，n art, 202 dorect loght, 136, 140 dorectional/d，而U坦d light,’37 dorection/m。晴me时，as elem•nt of

design, 178 Disdero,And叶 Adolph•, 189 d,splay, pnnting and,’14 - 127 distance mark肘， 31 distance seal•, 31 dost om。n, wid•·angle, 39 Di咽la,John, 20 .dng ( Digital Negati叫自l凹， 81,88 docum•ntary s可le, 193 docum•nts, ph。四$陆phs as, 193 dodging, 98 dots per inch ( dpi ), 116 d。wnloadong images, 8, 86, 88 d。wnsampl ,ng, 55 dnv喧目， printe目 and, 116 dri晴， 130 d叩mounting, 121, 124-125 Dujardin, Filip, 90 dust, 29, 89, 102 DVDs, 78, 130, 133 dy•· based ,nks, 117 dy..subl,mation printers, 116

dynamk rang•, 73, 89 high dynam,c 由ng• (HOR), 74. 75

Ea«man, Geo咆.. 186 Eastman k。dak c。mpany, 186 edges, 154-155 ed比ing, 86, 90- 11 3

back up／臼ving files, 92 black and wh,ce images, 108 compositing in, 106-107 Cunt四in, 96- 97 •qu,pment, 78 <th，白， 112-113

filters, 109 g«ting started, 9 2 - 93 histograms us. during, 60 ,mag• adJu筑ment, 94- 99 Laye时 in, 100- 101 Levtls in, 94- 95 nondestructovc, 87 r<solution and, 55 陀touching in, 102- 103 selections in, 98- 99 sharpening in, 104-105 workA。w, 110- 111

E且glest剧， Will，阳， 208,209 日l er, Teny E.,’55 Eosens四cdt,AI岳噎d. 199 Ekb•rg, Adam, 67 Ektachrom<, 187 t lectron,c Aash, 146 clectron,c viewfinder ( EVF), 13 Elemen四（Photoshop), 78 Ell,son, Ralph, 177 Emerson, Peter Hen叩， 200 吨u,pment

dig，国I , 78 for mounting, 122

Erwi町， Ell，。眩， 159

cth,cs, 112- 113 Ethridge, Roe,’78 Evans, Walker, 173, 195 阻hibitions, 115,206,209,212

see also galltti时， photographs in Exif ( Exchangeable image file 自由ma吟，

131 四pandtd perspective, 48 臼p。sure, 52- 75 。fan a崎rage SC<ne, 68- 69 automatic, 6, 7, 16 autom剖比臼p。sure camera,

的crriding, 66-67 backlight,ng and, 72 dose-ups and, 50 color photography, 56- 57 com pen目的。n d ial, 66 for contrasty seen凹， 70 filters and, 5 1 focusing and setting, 6 high dynam眩目nge and, 74. 75 。f high咽nt咱st scene, 72, 73 histograms, 60- 61 imag肘， S latitud<, 54 。f lighter/darkcr seen四， 70- 71 1。ck, 66 manual, 16, 64- 65 m<tcrs, 61 · 65 pixels and ,.solution, 55 pro且目mmed （岛附 automatic), 16 r<adout, 7 sens。rs and pixels, 54 wh,te balance and, 57. 59

external hard dri晴s, 78, 130 eyed，，。ppers, 94, 97

fair use, 113 Farm Socurity Adm, nistr剖ion photogra•

phers, 195 f画军tshuαer spttd , 27

fault-tole，在nt systems, 133 Fe,ninger, Andreas, 37 Fent。”， R。g<r, 191 fiber•bascd pap<rs, 117, 124 而且ur</gr•。und 陀lati。nship，’56 自les

derivat，睛， 86，’30 flatt<n ing, 100 forma阻， 81 用w (see Camera Raw 自les) renaming, 88 saving, 130 S眩目， 80

fi ll l，价飞 142-143, 151 fi lm, 4, 133, 186, 187 fi lm cameras,’0- 1 1 fi lm scann<rs, 89 币leer size, 3 1 刷te目， 51,85,’00, 104, 109 日础， Lar叩， 1 63 fisheye lenses, 40, 41 flash

as art，自c,al light, 146- 147 aut。mat, c, 146 bounce, 147, 149 dor，础， 140, 147, 149 clectronoc, 146 fill light and, 142- 143, 15 1 m。的。” and, 161 portrait loghting and, 144, 148 positioning, 148- 149

flatbed scanners, 89 自由al Ieng，巾，巧， 18, 31 - 39

depth and, 162 depth 。Ffie ld and, 42, 44-45 1。ng, 36- 37 normal, 34- 35 short, 38- 39

focal -plane shutter, 18 focus peaking,’3 白白using, 15

automatic, 6, 43 depth 。f fie ld and, 42, 158, 1 59,’79 manual, 6 ring, 14, 17 scanners and, 89 zone, 46

focusing ri吨， 31 F。ntcuberta, J。an, 1 13 6白白d perspective, 177 的raming, 120, 154- 155, 179 Frank, R。bcrt, 204- 206 Friedlander, Lee,’57, 205, 206 Frith, Franc,s, 106 自rontl,ghtong, 140, 142, 166 ι钱。ps, 23, 26, 64 FuJ” 209 的ull li-ame, 13 的ull-fram< S<n臼凹， 32

gallero es, photographs in, 201,204, 206,208

Ga’van, Lauri白， 50 gamma, cal ib由ting, 84 gamu阻， 82 Gardner, Al回ander, 190, 191 gelaton emuls，。”’ 186 gelatin-s, I睛， emulsi。叽 192

gi~ab严、 80 G, lber白。”’ Ashl町， 1 98 G,lden, Bruce, 150 glass filter, 109 glazing, 120 God阳S忡， Leopold, 187 Gonzal缸， D，剧’拙， 1 1 1 Go坦age,J。hn, 121 Gould, M•ggan, 77 S甩y card，饨， 73 S甩ys四le, 56，缸， 83, 108 Grayscale Mix, 108

Gr。over, Jan, 208 ground gla挡坦时en, 6 Grundbcr且， Andy, 208 guid• numb肘， 147 gum bichromate and platinum pront,ng

process, 204

halftone pr•。cess, 196 halogen lamps, 146 hand-held meters, 62, 64, 69, 72 hard disk, 78 hard dri烟， 78, 130, 133 hardware res。lution, 89 Harker, Santia串。， 153 Harv町， David Alan, 139 Ha四keyama, Nao归， 2 1 Hauron, Louis Ducos du, 187 He.artfield, John, 210 hel,og，甩phy，’81 Herschel, Sir John, 210 H,gh Art ph。to且陆phy, 200 h,gh dynamic range (HOR), 74- 75, 142 high lighting, 140 high-key loght,ng, 70 High•Pa娼自l eer, 1但

high-spttd sync, 146 H,11, Ed, 212 H,ne, Lewis W, 193, 194 hinges, 127 hist，。grams, 7, 60- 61, 68, 95 hist•。叩。『photography, 180- 213

art, ph。tography as, 200- 207 calotypes, 184 collodi，。n wet-plate process, 185 col0< photography and, 187,

208- 209 dagucrre。即pe, 182- 183 digital ph出ography, 210- 213 early p。rtraits and, 188- 189 early travel photog，甩phs，叩o early war imag<s, 191 gelatin •muls，。”，／roll-film base and,

186 photograph 描 document in,”3 photojourn剖，sm, 196- 199 social change and,’94- 195 t ime and motion, 192

Hoch, Hannah, 2 10 Hocks, Teu『事， 1 1 4 Holmes, O lover Wendell, 191 h。E ligh凹， 146 hot sh前，’7 hue, 57,’78

,c。ns, 92 illumination see also lighting

compos,ting and,’06 ,llustratcd ne、.spapers, 196 imageda国base, 132 ,magequ时，町， 6 ,mag•矶时，tings。ftwa陀， 78, 83, 89, 92 ,mp。rting ,mage, 86, 88-89 incand目cent lamps, 146 incident-light mmrs, 63, 69 indirect loght, 144, 145 Info palette, 92 Infrared black and white, 108 ,nfrared blocking 自l tcrs, <ff«tiven回S

of, 108 ,ng<sting image, 86 in均et pnn四晤， 1 1 6，刊7, 1 19 inks, for pnnting, 1 17 input valu时， 96 interchangeable lens, 14, 32 International Center 自由 Ph。在ography,

206 Internet, 78, 153 intcrp。lated resolution, 89 inve同• sq uare law, 147 invertong, 98

looss, Walter, 48 l阿C ( lnt<rnational Pross

Telcc。mmunications C。unc, I )

fi<lds,’31 ISO, 4, 64, 66, 75, 138, 139, 158 陆的国cy, 107 临时国tic 吨uil,brium, 107

Jackson, Wi ll,am Hen叩， 190 Jones, Ed, 36 Jones, Lou, 72, 161 Jones, Peggy Ann, 116 Josephson, Kenneth, 139 Jo严e, Kate, 175 .jp•gUPEG）币les, 81, 85, 88, 104, 108 Jude, R。n, 115

Ka..sh, Yousuf, 168 Kep凹， Gyorgy, 203 Kerouac, Jack, 205 key light, 144 Killip, Chris, 167 kilobyte, 80 Kie民 Mark, 101 Kodachrome, 187 Kodac。lor, 187 Kodak b。X camera, 186 Koo, B。hnchan且， 61 Kost, Juloe.ann<, 107 Koudelka, Josef, 21 Kruger, Barbara, 206

landscape photography, 51 ,’70- 171 Lange, Doroth曲， 136, 195 Lasso tool, 98, 99 latitude, 54

La严目， 100-10’ Layers palette, 92 LCD m。”it。’， 8, 13, 154 leaf shutter, 19 Le<,Russell, 161,195 Leib。＇＂＂• Annie, 2 lens( os), 4,’2, 17, 30- 51 s«a/so depth

of fi<ld, foca l length; focus,ng attachments for, 50- 51 barrol, 3 1 basic difference between, 32- 33 deaning, 29 c。mpound, 31 elem<nts, 17 币sh町e, 40 foca l length, 3 1 －刃而unction of, 31 intcrchangeabl• l•ns, 14, 32 Macro, 40 range ofιstops, 23 speed, 31 telephoto, 36- 37 w,de•angle, 38- 39 zoom, 40

lens foca l Ieng由， 15 lens-to su同ect distane<, 44, 49 Levels, 94- 95, 100，”。 Lev喧nto, David, 38 Lev，忧， Hel<n, 208 L,eblong, J erome, 71 l,ght, 52- 75, 179

aperture and, 22 and <xposur< ( see exp。如re) shutter speed and, 18 sources, 57, 58

lightin’ 134-151 artifocial, 146- 147 dOS<•ups and, 50 e灿st,ng, 138- 139 自H light, 142- 143 flash (s« flash) indo0<, 142, 144, 174- 175 outdoor, 142, 144 port目’t, 144- 145

I NDEX 231

light,ng, (Continued) qual iti回 of, 136- 137 sou阳e 。f, 140- 141

loghtn•监／luminance, 57 Lightr，。。m so~warc, 78, 87, 88, 91,

118,132 c。l。r and, 85 edit,ng and, 108

Ion<, as v,sual •l•m•nt, 178, 179 1,ve view, 12 1。ad,ng, 98 1。cal contra町， 57 Lond。”， Barbara, 171 L。ng Exposure Noise R•duction, 75 L。p缸， Martina, 212 Lorant, Stefan, 196 1。w loght exposures, 67 l。w•key 1,ghting, 70 Lum，量吨， Antoine, 187 Lum，量吨， Louis, 187 luminance, 82, 83, 85

macro lens, 40, SO ma ere叩hotog目phy, so magazines, 196 Ma且’c Wand, 99 main 1,ghting, 140 Mand•I, M』ke, 160 Mann•s, Leopold, 187 MANUAL, 212 manual oxp。如陀， 16, 64- 65 manual 自由usong, 6 manual mod<, 66 Man国n。， Ja.；肘， 52 Mapplcthorp•, R，。bcrt, 206 Marquee T。。I, 99 masks, 83 mat b。ard, 122 mat cutter,’22 mattonga p同时， 121 maximum apcrtu陀， 31 M拙w•II, James Clerk, 187 McC。y, Dan, 162 McFarland, Lawrence, 97 med,um •fa筑 shu民er spttd, 27 med,um •format d唱’tal SLR came，蹈， 12 med,um •wod• apeπu陀， 27 megabyte, 80 Meisel蹈， Susan, 199 mem。可card 陀adcr, 78, 88 mem。可cards, 4-6, 8 ,’7, 29, 88,’30 menus, 78, 92, 93 metadata, 131 metal ruler, 1 22 metamensm, 117 metering cell, 17 meters, 61 - 65

manual CJCposures and, 64- 65 w•ight,ng 。f, 63

Metzker, Ray K., 73, 159 m,croSD,88 middle gray, 62, 70, 73, 96, 97 Morall<, D。nald, 41 morror ( camera), 17 morr。而n且，’ 33 mirrorl•盟 came，在s, 12- 13 Misrach, Richard, 170 M,ttcrand, Fran~ois, 213 35mm 叫ui四lent 白ocal lengths, 32, 33 mod• d，剖， 17 mod•I rel•aso, 168 mod•m, 78 modes, c。l。，， 56 Moholy Nagy, La且16, 203, 210 monitor profole, 82 mon忧。rs, 78, 84, 87, 92, 118 M。”。chrome Moxer, 108 motoon, 18- 19, 160- 161, 179,192 mount board, 122, 124- 127 mounting a p而nt, 122- 127

232 I NDEX

mounting pross, 122 mul tis臼nn,ng, 89 mulb· S•gment meter, 63 mus.um board, 121 museums, photog，甩phy and, 206, 208,

209 Muybridg•, Eadw•a叶， 192

Nadar ( photographer), 188 Nat,onal Daguorrian Galle叩，，88 natural,sm, 200 naturalist,c ph。to且陆phy, 200 n<utral-densi可（ND) filters, 51 N•w Objectivity movem•nt, 193 N•wYork, s。αal d。cumentation and,

204 N•wman, Arnold, 169 阳晒 photog，闯phy, 199 newspapers, ph。to且陆phy in, 196 N,ip«,J。soph N,dpho凹， 181

Nox, L。r’·’ 76 noise, 54

di且’tal, 75 nonnal oxp。sod picture, 61

Oberschneider, Chrostoph, 46 。均md四an«, 42 OEM ( O ro ginal Equ,pment

Manufacturer) b陆nd，。f pap•rs and onks, 117

On Photogr甲妙（S。ntag) , 206 。pen shade, loghting and, 144 。pbcal brightening agents (OBAs), 117 。ptocal d,sk storag•, 130, 133 。pocal res。lution, 89 。pcical 纹。rag• m<d,um, 78 。pb。”s menu, S, 6 。咆•anizong and stori吨， 128-133 。咆•anizing of fol•s, 86 0 ’Sullivan, Tom。由y H, 190,191 。utput, 78, 86, 104

pro自1 •• 82 valu时， 96

。晴rail (gl。bal ) contra町， 57 。暗时xp。s•d picture, 6, 61, 73 。回nnattong, 121, 126- 127

Padula, Warr<n, 165 palm•s, 92, 93 Palmor, Alfred T., 187 panning, 19, 161 pan。由mic came阻s, 11 pan。由m,c ph。回graphs, 119, 164, 165 pap<时， for pnnting, 117, 133 Pa用da, Esthor, 212 parallax .，，.，。只 10

Parks, Gordon, 195 patch tool, 102 Pen Tool, 99 Penn, Irving, 206 pen田prism, 17 p•rspect阳， 179

Peters。”’ R。If, 1 1 S Phase On• Capture One Pro, 87 photo come目， 127 photo •s国民’96,197 Photo L•ague, 204 Photo M•咆eso~e. 74 photod,odes, 54, 85 photoflood light, 142- 144 photog，甩ms, 203 photog，甩phic conccptualosm, 206 photog，甩phic lasor printers, 116 photog，甩phy

assembl•d t。， 176- 177 background in,’56-157 c,tyscap<S in,’72- 173 depth on, 162- 163 depth 。ffoeld in,’58, 159 edg.s/fram回叽 154-155

focus in, 158- 159 hist。可。f, 180- 213 ind。。时，’74-175 landscap<S in, 170- 171 mean,ng and, 164- 165 portrai四 and, 166- 169 responding to, 178- 179 t,me and m。”。n in, 160- 161

ph剧。，journalosm, 196-199 photolamp, 146- 147 photo micrography, 50 photomontage, 203 photo•quality d•sktop printers, 116 photo•secession, 201 Photosh。p 臼仕wa陀， 78, 86, 87, 89,

100, 118, 119, 132 , ... ，.且 Bro dge so仕waro, Lightr。om software

Adob• Camera Raw and, 85 color and, 83, 85 ed此，ng and, 92, 98, 100,’02, 108,

110, 111 日cmcn臼,78

fi l凹， menu, 109 introduction of, 212 Me’-g• to HOR Pro feature, 74

photosites, 54, 75, 85 pict。rial ph。t。graphy, 201 pict。rialist ph。t。graphy, 201 p,cture mag.缸，nos, 196, 197 p,gm•nt onks, 117 P,nkhassov, Gueo咆山， 59 pixels, 54, 55, 80, 83, 85, 116 soe also

valu• 。『 poxels poxcls per inch ( ppi), 116 plug ins, 93 Plumbe's Nau。，，al Daguerrian Gallery,

188 p。ck<t drives, 130 point, as • lement of design,’78 PoK•mpner, Marc, 44, 152, 153 polarozing 阳回昭， 51 Polaroid camera, 210 Polar，。，d ,ns国nt positive/n•gati暗自Im,

211 p。，四ble hard dri回民 8, 130 阳市ai阻， 213

early, 188- 189 formal, 168 - 169 ,nfonnal, 166- 167 l,ghting for, 144-145, 166 med,um•long lens for, 37

p。st•pr，。cessing process, 86 p。wer brick, 130 pnme lens, 32 pnn«rs, 56, 78, 116, 119 pnnting and d,splay, 11 4- 127 份在ming in, 120 matting on, 121 mount,ng and, 122- 127 pan。ramic photographs and, 119 papers and inks in, 117 pronto目 and drivers in, 116 臼n proofing'"· 118

prints, st。而n且， 133 pr，。而l<S, 82, 84, 118 pro且陆mmed (fully automatic) e甲。．

sure, 16 Pro Ph。to RGB, 82 psd fol凹， 81 pubhc domain, 113 puck (spectrophotomoter/col。nmeter),

quartz lamps, 146 Quick M吕k, 99

RAID ( rodundant array ofinexpensiv• d略ks), 133

RAM ( memoey), 78

rangefinder camoras,’0- 11 raster image processo陌（ RIPs), 116 同w-form挝、v。tkflow programs, 92 Ray, Man, 210 Reagan, R。nald, 213 ,efleeted-hght meters, 62, 63, 68, 69,

72 ,efleet,on,control gla目， 120 roflections, polanzation and, 51 roflectors, 143 R叮landor, Oscar G令， 210 r•l•ase paper, 122 ，但臼mphng process, 55 吨M coated (RC) pape目， 117, 124 ，.到zong, 110 rosolution,’3, 55, 89, 116 rotouching, 102- 103, 110 RGB mode, 56, 83 Richt<r, Christia”, 75 Ri is,Jacob,’94 RI Ps ( rastor ,mag• processors), 116 Rob,ns。n, Hen叩 Peach, 200,210 Rob ledo, Mana，刃，。11 - folm base, 186 Rom•, Stuart, 171 Rosier, Martha, 76, 212 Rothstein, Arthur, 195 Row’”, Stan I町， 41 ，。因l ties, 113

Sabattier effcc飞 203 Salomon, E民ch, 196 Sander, Augu纹， 193 saturat,on, 57 saving, d唱itally <d,ted phot。， 91 scanners/ scanning, 78, 86, 89 Sch巍fer, M,chael, 103 Scherer, Jim, 1 OS SD (Secure Di唱，tal) card, 88 select，。ns, on d’且’国l ed,ting, 98- 99 sensors, 4, 17, 18, 22, 32, 45

cle.an,ng, 29 color and, 85 d,gital, 53 CJCposu陀and, 54 in叶arcd block,ng fi lter of, 108 1,m,t, 74 size, 13

shadows HDR aηd, 74 hghtong and, 140, 142- 143, 151

Shahn, Ben, 195 shape，剖 el•ment of dos唱”’ 178 sharpening, 89, 104-105, 110 Sheeler, Charl•s, 164 Sherman, Cindy, 206 Shoro, Stephen, 209 shutter

release, 17 « lease button, 14

shutter spe•d and aperture, 26- 27 bracketing and, 64-65 c。ntrol，’ 5 croativ• use of, 20- 21 oxposu陀and, 53, 54, 62, 64 flash and, 146 and light, 18 and motion, 18 p。同raits and, 166 mungs, 18

shuttcr•pn。”可 m。de, 7, 16, 69 sid< lighting, 141,166 到lhoumes,72

S, lverF描飞 89

single-lens reflex (SLR) cameras, 10,’2 .... ，.且 d’gotal s,ngl•• lens 陀Aex (DSLR) cameras

Sinsabaugh, A町，’ 65 Siskind, Aaron, 204

sozc/scalc，剖 el•ment of des,gn,

’78 剑，dcsh。wdispla庐， 132 sliders, 94 slow shutter speed, 27 SLR cameras, 75 small aperture, 27 smatt 自l ters, 100 Sm,th, W. Eugene, 197, 206 白白剖 chang•, ph。tography and,

194- 195 so仕 pr0ofong, 110, 118 software see also Adobe; Bro dge soft•

、.vare; Lightr0。m so仕ware, Ph。toshop soft，晴re

,mage •d•tong, 78, 86, 92 。咆•anizong and storo ng, 132 pro串阳ms, fo。r ed，的ngph。tographs,

77 scann,ng, 89

s。h, er, Sage, 137 皿larizat,on, 203 四l ,d state droves (SSD), 78 s。ntag, Susan, 206 Soth, Alec, 166 space

positive and n•gat睛， 1 56 work,ng, 82

spectr0photomc<ers, 84 spot meter, 63 S国，ned Gia坦白lter, 109 <tamp 自lter, 109 Stein, An、y, 144 筑ere。cameras, 11 sttte。S目phic photographs, 192 S四mf•ld,J。el , 24 Sti•gl血， Alfr•d, 172, 201, 202 stitchong, 119 S阳时，Jim,2 1 1

倪。rag• 多..。咆•an,zing and storing 筑目’ght photo串咱phy, 201, 202 Strand, Paul, 202 Strombicki, S田，，， 128, 129 军tr0be H目h, 146 St叩ker, R。y, 195 <tyl叫吟， 163, 204, 205 subcompact dψ国l cameras, 12 subJe吐s, photog，甩phic

expos,ng main, 73 of portraits, 166

substitut，。内，eading, 72, 73 subtractive primari•s, 56, 83 Sun Drawn Miniatun,s, 181, 182 sun, lighting and, 136, 144 句nc sp•ed, 146

tack,ng iron, 122 taggin岛’31, 133 Talbot, Will,am Hen叩 Fox, 184, 210 tape, 122 Tarnowski, Tom, 95 Tayl。，， David, 80 telephoto lens, 36-37 tempe由ture

color 四mperature, 58, 59 m。unting p陀盟 and, 124

<crab严.. 80 tex立U吨， 178, 179 Thatch肘， Ma咆•am,213 3· 0 camer蹈， 11 由rough the-l•ns （廿L) me毗62 thumbna,ls, 92 .tif凹的自l凹，剖， 85，”， 1 04,108 time and mot,on，川 ph。tog目phy,

160-161, 192 time o『day, l,ght and, 172 tones, 70, 81, 179

Cu,v四 and, 96

dynam,c 由ng• and, 73 histograms, 60 Levels and, 94 warn,, 164

tool 。ptions bar, 93 toolbox, 93 t。p lighting, 141 transmiss,on equipme时， 78 transparencies, scanning, 89 tra晴l photog，甩phs, 190 tripods, 8, 28, 161 Tugwtll, Rexf。rd G., 195 Turn er, Pet<, 163 阳川•lens reAex (TLR) cameras, 11

underexposed p,ctu陀皂剧， 70, 73 underwater camer蹈，’ 1 Unsharp Mask fo lter, 104 unsharp masking (USM), 104 upsampl,ng, 55

value of pixels, 54, 60, 82, 85 value/ 1,ghtness, as element of des唱”’

178 values, input and 。utput, 96 Vanderwarker, Peter, 100 v,ew cam•ras, 11 v,ewfonder, 4, 7, 15- 17, 22,’54 viewing screen, 17 v,ewpo,nt, 179 V陆ual elem•nts, 179 volume, as el•ment of design, 178 VueScan, 89

Wall,Jeff, 177 W在r photographs, 191 辆，在rm z。ne, 164 W在te目。1。， filter,’09 Watkins, Carlet。n Eugene, 190

W•b site, 78,’13,210 sRGB printing for, 82

W<bb,AI凹， 131 W•ems, Carrie Ma•, 79 W•if•nbach, Terri, 25 W•oss, John, 145 West C。据t style, 204 W目ton, Edward, 202, 206, 208 Whal町，帅， 123 white balance, 6, 57- 59, 85 White, M,n。，， 53, 202, 204 white poin阻， 84, 94, 97 wide apertu时， 27 w,de•angle lenses, 174 w,de-format ,n均ct pnntcr, 116 W illis, Debor拙， 68 wondow l唱阳， 144 Winog，甩时， Ga町， 135, 205, 206 Wolco吨 Mari。n Po虫， 195 w。rd c。mmands, 92 w。rkAow

applications, 78, 85, 87, 111, 132 ed山ng, 110- 111 programs, 83, 87, 92, 98, 102 for 目W自los,aπhiving, 133 setting up, 86

w。rkplace, di’且’时， 76-89 Camera Raw 币1目，w。rk ing with, 85 d,gital C。l。r and, 82- 84 equipment and materoals for, 78- 79 pictu陀s as fo les ,n, 80- 81 workAow （，..晒rkflow)

Wu,J川gbo, 108

Xiaopong, Deng, 213 xRez Stud,os, Inc., 119

zone 白白using, 46 z。。m lens, 32, 40,’54

INDEX 233

A Short Course in PHOTOGRAPHY
Contents
Cαmerα 1
Lens 2
Light αnd Exposure 3
Digital Workplace Basics 4
Image Editing 5
Printing and Display 6
Organizing and Storing 7
Using Light 8
Seeing Like a Camera 9
History of Photography 10
Index