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A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

A ROAD TO SCIENTIFIC WRITING

IN ENGINEERING & SCIENCE

Preface

We present this book as a guideline to help the researchers and

graduate students in the science and engineering write research

papers. The guideline provides advice on how to develop and

organize a research paper. Also, it is intended to help students

realize that vigorous writing in concise, a sentence should contain

no unnecessary word, a paragraph no unnecessary sentence, for

the same reason that a drawing should have no unnecessary

lines, and a machine no unnecessary parts.

From our view as researchers in engineering field, this book

emerges like a song that must reach the mind and touch the

strings of the heart before it can be felt and heard.

However,writing a research paper has its own mechanisms and

guidelines unlike writing a novel or short story where you leave

your imagination sup and curl to reach out to a written drama.

Finally, we want students to be patient and not expect to get their

work done from the first draft.

The Authors

III

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

CONTENTS

1 ARAPHRASINGP: 1Chapter

 Paraphrasing 1

 Correct Techniques of Paraphrasing 2

 Change Word Form: 2

 Change the Word Order: 2

 Use Synonyms of Phrases and Words 3

 Recommended Methods of Paraphrasing 3

 Paraphrasing Long Passages 5

 Paraphrase vs. Indirect Quotation 6

 Paraphrase vs. Summery 6

 Examples of Paraphrasing Methods 7

 Change Sentence Structure 7

10 LAGIARISMP :Chapter 2

 What is Plagiarism 11

 How to Avoid Plagiarism 11

 What Plagiarism Means 12

 Forms of Plagiarism 13

 (Word for Word) Quotation without Clear Acknowledgement 13

 Specifically, Using Internet Downloaded Material without Clear

Acknowledgement 13

 Paraphrasing 13

 Collusion 13

 Inaccurate Citation 14

 Failure to Acknowledge Assistance 14

 Use of Professional Agencies Literature 14

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

 Auto-Plagiarism 14

 Why Does Plagiarism Matter 14

 Why Should You Avoid Plagiarism 15

 Preventing Plagiarism 15

 Intentional vs Unintentional Plagiarism 16

 Guidelines for Plagiarism Prevention 16

 Avoiding Plagiarism 17

 Copyright Laws 17

 Academic Punishment for Plagiarism 17

 Recommendations for Writing 18

19 UOTATIONQ :3 Chapter

 Quotation 20

 Literal Quotation 20

 Paraphrasing 20

 Shifting Between Literal Quotation and Paraphrasing 21

 Choosing which One to Use 21

 Quotation and Quote 23

 Quoting Word for Word (wfw) 23

 Block Quotation 23

 Direct Quotation in the Sciences 24

 Methods for Introducing a Quotation 25

 Losing Control of Quotes 26

 Examples of Quotations 27

 Common Errors in Using Quotations 28

 Summarizing 28

 Example of Paraphrasing and Summarizing: A Comparison 29

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

 Summary 29

 Paraphrase 29

 Plagiarism 30

 Discussion 30

 Integrating Quotes In Research Papers 30

Chapter 4: HOW TO WRITE A RESEARCH PAPER IN ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE 34

 Title 35

 Acknowledgments 35

 Abstract 35

 Introduction 36

 Methods 37

 Results 38

 Discussion 39

 Conclusion 39

 Tables and Figures 40

Chapter 5: WRITING AN EFFECTIVE E-MAIL 42

 Write a Meaningful Subject Line 42

 Always Use a Greeting 42

 Identify Yourself Clearly 43

 State the Reason why You are Emailing in a Brief and Polite

Way 43

 Keep the Message Focused 43

 As Possible, Avoid Attachments 43

 Proofread 44

 Distinguish Between Formal and Informal 44

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

 Make Sure the Email is Ready to Hit 'Send' 44

 Respond Promptly 44

Chapter 6: HOW TO WRITE A RESEARCH PROPOSAL 46

 Research Proposal Elements 47

 Introduction 47

 The Research Question 48

 Purpose of the Research 48

 Preliminary Literature Review 49

 Theoretical Framework 49

 Statement of Research Contribution 49

 Proposed Research Methodology 50

 Research Plan 50

 Research Time Table 51

 List of References 51

Chapter 7: VERBS USED IN SCIENTIFIC WRITING 53

 Colloquial vs Formal Words 54

 Words Confused 55

Chapter 8: STYLE FORMAT IN WRITING ENGINEERING & SCIENCE RESEARCH PAPERS 59

 Handling Numbers 60

Chapter 9: SUBMISSION GUIDELINE 62

 Final Revision 62

 Manuscript Submission 62

 Cover Letters 63

REFERENCES 68

Chapter 1

Paraphrasing

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

Chapter 1

PARAPHRASING

 Paraphrasing

 Correct Techniques of Paraphrasing

 Change Word Form:

 Change the Word Order:

 Use Synonyms of Phrases and Words

 Recommended Methods of Paraphrasing

 Paraphrasing Long Passages

 Paraphrase vs Indirect Quotation

 Paraphrase vs Summery

 Examples on Paraphrasing Methods

Paraphrasing

The prefix "para-" means similar or helping to do a similar thing.

Paraphrasing means expressing an idea using new different

words. That is to redefine some of the words in a sentence or use

their synonyms. The techniques used in paraphrasing do not

usually require changing the structure of the sentences, but they

do require full understanding and comprehensive grasp of the

meaning. Paraphrasing is to keep the original meaning of the text

with new rewording.

When we hear stories and want to tell them to our friends, we use

our own words to recount the storyline, the events, the characters

and the main points. This is "paraphrasing" using our own words to

Chapter 1

Paraphrasing

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

express others' ideas or messages. In paraphrasing, the main

ideas of the text need to come through, but the wording has to be

our own.

Correct Techniques of Paraphrasing

Correct paraphrasing is to focus on the meaning of the text and

not on the words. Paraphrase in your own words to shed traces of

your intellectual personality on them. Some of the following

techniques are used to paraphrase correctly:

Change word form:

Ex. Iraqi news coverage is …… paraphrased to when Iraqi media

covers……

Change the word order:

Ex. Students are admitted to colleges before they graduated from

high school, under the early admission system. paraphrased to

Under the early admission System, universities accept students

before their high school graduation.

Use reversals or negatives that do not change the meaning:

Ex. This unusual species is only found underwater. Paraphrased

to This species is not found on land.

Substitute a word or phrase that conveys similar meaning and

use contrast, cause or effect:

Ex: Lack of money in the state budget resulted in higher university

tuition costs. Paraphrased to Higher tuition costs at universities

are due to budget shortfalls at the state level.

Chapter 1

Paraphrasing

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

Keep concept words, special terms or proper names without

charge:

Ex: Higher-energy photons that do not have mass or charge form

Gamma rays. Paraphrased to Gamma rays consists of high

energy photons that have neither mass nor charge.

When it is appropriate change passive voice to active and

move phrases and modifiers:

Ex: The entrance exam was failed by over one-fourth of the

students. Paraphrased to Over one-fourth of the students failed

the entrance exam.

Use synonyms of phrases and words

Ex: Original version: At the beginning of the 1970's the incidence

tuberculosis increased.

Paraphrase version: There was a resurgence of tuberculosis at the

start of the decade.

Recommended Methods of Paraphrasing

The following are some recommended methods of paraphrasing:

1- Use synonyms

Try to make difficult words easier to understand, by using words or

phrases of the same meaning. However, do not change concept

words, technical terms and proper nouns.

Ex: original sentence: Hidden-video cameras are becoming

increasingly popular.

Paraphrasing sentence 1: Hidden-video cameras are becoming

more popular.

Chapter 1

Paraphrasing

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

Paraphrasing sentence 2: Hidden-video cameras are becoming

more frequently used.

2- Change ideas order

Rearrange ideas in a new different order, still keep them making

sense.

Ex: original sentence: Baghdad is the Capital of Iraq.

Paraphrasing sentence 1: The Capital City of Iraq is Baghdad .

Paraphrasing sentence 2: Iraq's capital city is Baghdad.

3- Combine and simplify the structure of two sentences

Ex: original sentence: when playing soccer, you can talk to people

you are playing with. Also, you can make friends with them.

Paraphrasing sentence: You can talk and make friends with

people you are playing soccer with.

4. Change word forms

You may change the word forms to vary the sentence structure

a: change the main verb into a noun such as (Improve ---------

Improvement)

Ex: original version: One result of playing word puzzle and trivia

games is that, they can improve children's speech.

Paraphrase version : The improvement of children's speech is

one result of playing word puzzle and trivia games.

b: change a noun into a verb such as (restriction -------restrict)

Original version: Parents should put restriction on their children's

use of computer games.

Chapter 1

Paraphrasing

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

Paraphrased version: Parents should restrict their children's use

of computer games.

5- Change transitions

Paraphrase by changing transition tools such as : however,

because, although……..

Ex: Original version: Hidden-video cameras are becoming

increasingly popular because they are effective in recording abuse

by babysitters.

praphrased version: Hidden-video cameras are becoming

increasingly popular due to their effectiveness in monitoring

abusive by babysitters.

6- Change from passive voice to active voice and vice-versa

Ex: original version: The college of engineering adopted new

regulations on the entrance exam.

Paraphrasing version: New regulations were adopted (by the

college of engineering) on the entrance exam.

Paraphrasing Long Passages

To paraphrase a long passage, outline the passage first, then take

notes and finally write your paraphrase from your notes and go

back to the original passage.

The following guidelines can be helpful:

 Read the passage as many times until you are sure you

understand it.

 Write the main ideas in your own words and write what the

source says, no more.

Chapter 1

Paraphrasing

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

 Observe how the writer uses the words in their exact sense.

 Synchronize the main ideas in your work and the original, but

change any word or phrase that match the original.

 Use quotation marks to identify any unique term you have

borrowed from the source.

 Cite the source accurately by including a citation for the source

of the information.

Using the above guideline, pay attention to the following:

 Change the words, not the meaning

 Use a good dictionary to find synonyms

 Do not change the tone

 Do not leave anything out

 Do not add information

 Put your own voice in the paraphrasing and try to sound "You"

 Include all the citation information

Paraphrase vs Indirect Quotation

As a matter of fact, paraphrasing is a form of indirect Quotation. It

restates the thoughts you have borrowed from another person in

your own words and style.

Paraphrases are more flexible than quotations and they fit more

smoothly into your text.

Paraphrase vs Summery

The difference between paraphrase and summary is that summary

is a shortened version of the original text while paraphrase is

Chapter 1

Paraphrasing

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

approximately the same length as the original and involves a text

in your own words.

Examples on Paraphrasing Methods

Use of Synonyms

Ex1: Original: My car needs gasoline

Synonyms: My automobile needs fuel.

Ex2: Original: The Iraqi government has an enormous debt.

Synonyms: The federal government has a huge debt.

Ex3: Original: Overuse of ground water would lead to pervasive

drought.

Synonyms: Overuse of ground water would cause widespread

dryness.

Change Sentence Structure

1- Use: There+verb to be+noun phrase

Ex: Original: The number of hungry people has increased in the

last decade.

Synonyms: There has been a growing number of starving

population in the last decade.

Note: "has" in the original becomes "There has been " in the

Synonyms

2- Use: It is+adjective +to+infinitive

Ex: original: You need the most up to date antivirus programs to

ensure your hard drive and e-mail are not infected

Synonyms: It is important that you must have the most modern

antivirus programs to protect your hard drive and e-mail.

Chapter 1

Paraphrasing

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

Note: After "it is" choose an adjective from "important, essential,

necessary, difficult, easy, common, usual, possible, likely….."as

appropriately fit into the meaning.

3- Reduce a clause to a phrase with appropriate changes

Ex: Original: Technology is now so potent and pervasive that it

seems to be the main driver of social change.

Synonyms: At present, powerful and widely used technology

appears to be the main driving force of social change.

4- Use a participle phrase to combine two clauses(sentences)

that have the same subject

a- The Verb must be put in the correct participial form. Delete the

relative pronoun (who,which, that…..) and change the verb to a

participle form.

Ex: Original: Police held back protesters who attempted to

break through the barricades.

Synonyms: Police held back demonstrators trying to break

through the barriers.

b- If two clauses (sentences) has a relationship in time, the one

which happens before could be changed into a practical

phrase.

Ex: Original: After Tom bought the famous painting, he

discovered it was a fake.

Synonyms: After paying for the well-known painting Tom

found out it was a reproduction.

c- If sentences imply the cause-result relationship, the one which

indicates the cause could be changed into a participial phrase.

Chapter 1

Paraphrasing

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

Ex: Original: The owner of a petrol station could not verify the

sources of petrol. As a result, he was alleged to illegally stock

up an oil.

Synonyms: failing to verify the petrol sources, the petrol

station owner was charged with illegal stockpile of oil.

5. Use active or passive verb forms

Paraphrasing can be enriched by changing between active and

passive sentences. Although there is a subject shift, the overall

meaning of the sentence remains the same.

Ex1:

Active : I did not kill a snake.

Passive : A snake was not killed by me.

Ex2:

Active : I am not writing a letter.

Passive : A letter is not being written by me.

Ex3:

Active : Has she finished her work?

Passive: Has her work been finished ?

Ex4:

Active: was he driving a car?

Passive: Was a car being driven by him?

Chapter 2 Plagiarism

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

Chapter 2

PLAGIARISM

 What is Plagiarism

 How to Avoid Plagiarism

 What Plagiarism Means

 Forms of Plagiarism

 (Word For Word) Quotation Without Clear Acknowledgement

 Specifically, Using Internet Downloaded Material without Clear

Acknowledgements

 Paraphrasing

 Collusion

 Inaccurate Citation

 Failure to Acknowledge Assistance

 Use of Professional Agencies Literature.

 Auto-Plagiarism

 Why Does Plagiarism Matter?

 Why Should You Avoid Plagiarism?

 Preventing Plagiarism

 Intentional vs Unintentional Plagiarism

 Guidelines for Plagiarism Prevention

 Avoiding Plagiarism

 Copyright Laws

 Academic Punishment for Plagiarism

 Recommendations for Writing

Chapter 2 Plagiarism

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

What is Plagiarism

Plagiarism is using other peoples' works and incorporating it as

your own without full Acknowledgement. This definition includes all

published and unpublished printed or electronic materials.

Acknowledgement of others' works must apply not only to text, but

also to computer codes, graphs, illustrations and data drawn from

books and journals or any academic work downloaded from

websites.

Plagiarism may be intentional, unintentional or reckless. Under the

regulations, all these cases are disciplinary offence.

Nevertheless, plagiarism is also defined as :

 Borrowing facts, statistics, or illustrative works.

 Offering materials collected by others without acknowledgement.

 Adopting or reproducing theories,ideas or graphics of another

person without acknowledgment.

 Not giving credit to the originality of others when directly

quoting,using or paraphrasing another person’s ideas, opinions

or theories.

How to Avoid Plagiarism

● Paraphrase appropriately

● Learn how to write good notes

● Summarize effectively

● Organize your sources

● Use direct quotation appropriately

● Reference your sources correctly

● Use “ common knowledge “

Chapter 2 Plagiarism

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

What Plagiarism Means

According to Merriam-Webster dictionary to “plagiarize” is to :

 steal and pass off the ideas or words of others as one’s own,

 use other’s production without crediting the source

 commit literary theft

 present as new and original an idea or product derived from an

existing source.

It is clear from the above meaning that plagiarism involves stealing

others' works and lying about it .

Thus, plagiarism is an act of fraud.

Based on the above meaning all of the following cases are

considered plagiarism:

● Submitting other people’s work as your own.

● Copying someone else’s ideas or words without

acknowledgement.

● Failing to do quotation properly.

● Failing to report the source of quotation correctly.

● Copying the sentence structure of a source but changing only

the words without acknowledgement.

● Using others' works unfairly and overwhelmingly

● Not citing the essential idea of an original source

However, most cases of plagiarism can be avoided by simply

citing, acknowledging the borrowed material and providing

readers with the necessary information to find that source.

Chapter 2 Plagiarism

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

Forms of Plagiarism

There are many cases that can be classified as possible

Plagiarism:

1- Word for word (wfw) quotation without clear

acknowledgement.

It must be always clear to the reader concerning the borrowed part

of one’s work.Thus quotations must be identified by quotation

marks or parenthesis with full referencing to the original source.

2- Specifically using internet downloaded material without

clear acknowledgement.

It is important to evaluate carefully , reference adequately and

include in a bibliography information derived from the internet.

3- Paraphrasing

Paraphrasing is not just altering few words and changing their

order to prevent plagiarism. Mere Mentioning of the original author

is not enough to accept the work.You should write a brief

summary of the original argument in your own words to ensure

your firm grasp of the argument.

4- Collusion

Failure to attribute assistance received when working in groups is

plagiarism. It is your responsibility to ensure that you are entirely

clear about which parts of the work is your own and the extent of

collaboration permitted within the group.

Chapter 2 Plagiarism

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

5- Inaccurate citation

It is important to cite sources accurately by using footnotes or in-

text references. Sources must be Indicated and traced to the

primary one.

6- Failure to acknowledge assistance

All assistances received must be acknowledged clearly. This

assistance could come from a fellow student or a lab. Assistant.

Supervisor’s assistance or proofreading are excluded.

7- Use of professional agencies literature

It is vital to the quality and integrity of your academic training and

intellectual development that you should undertake the research

process on your own without any external help.

8- Auto-plagiarism

Making use of a previous work as a fulfillment of new research or

degree course is prohibited. Previous published work must be

referenced clearly.

Why does Plagiarism Matter

Plagiarism is a breach of intellectual honesty. It is unethical and

can have serious consequences on your future career. It means

poor scholarship and failure to complete the learning process.

All members of the academic community should acknowledge the

work they borrow.Passing of other people’s work as yours will

undermine the standards of your own institution and it places a

stigma on the degrees it conferred.

Chapter 2 Plagiarism

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

Why should You Avoid Plagiarism

There are many reasons to avoid plagiarism or stealing someone

else’s work and submit a genuine and honest work. To mention a

few :

 You come to school not to reproduce other peoples' works and

bury yourself in shame.

 You come to university to speak out your own ideas and

thoughts with pride and dignity.

 Expressing your work in your own ideas will help you develop a

distinguished academic road for your own future.

 No matter how difficult it may sound to develop your own ideas,

putting your hands in the hot academic waters will shape-up your

future academic personality.

 Plagiarism will always make you inferior from standing

academically tall and achieving high quality work.

 Steering away from plagiarism will help you demonstrate the

commitment to the principle of Intellectual honesty in

scholarship.

Preventing Plagiarism

Addressing plagiarism is considered an important step to prevent it

among students. As a guideline light must be shed on the

following:

 Rreasons behind plagiarism

 Identifying the different forms of plagiarism

 Educating students about plagiarism and its prevention

techniques.

Chapter 2 Plagiarism

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

Intentional vs Unintentional Plagiarism

Intentional plagiarism: There are many reasons why a student

commits plagiarism intentionally. To mention a few:

 Their words are better.

 Searching is easier than researching.

 Making a better grade.

 Everyone else is doing it.

 Poor planning on the side of the student.

 Thrill of deception.

Unitentional plagiarism : unintentional plagiarism can occur and

sometimes even the most well-intentioned writer organizes the

work of others without proper authority. Among the reasons:

 Confusion on how to cite

 Paraphrasing, but actually it is plagiarism

 Copying old notes and research

 Couldn't find the source

 Ignorance on how to cite facts

Guidelines for Plagiarism Prevention

 Define and explain "plagiarism”.

 Explain the wrong doing behind plagiarism.

 Make the punishment and consequences clear.

 Assign specific question or topics.

 Require students to submit drafts with introductions, themes

and thesis statements.

 Assign oral presentations.

Chapter 2 Plagiarism

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

 Require a list of all references.

 Assign a paragraph on the composition process.

 Encourage concision.

Avoiding Plagiarism

To avoid plagiarism, you must give credit when:

 Using another person's theory or ideas.

 Using facts, statistics, graphics or drawings.

 Using quotations of written or spoken words of others.

 Paraphrasing another person's spoken or written words.

research or information without permission in order to protect

intellectual property. According to these laws, the copyright is

protected. Thus, anyone who reproduces copyrighted material

improperly can be prosecuted in a court of law. Any borrowed

material that is shown to be substantially similar to the original

one, may be considered a violation of the copyright act.

Academic Punishment for Plagiarism

Academic punishment could mean expulsion from school or at

least failure of the course.

All Iraqi universities have zero tolerance for plagiarism. In fact

academic standards of intellectual dignity are often more serious

than even governmental copyright laws.

Student resources: preventing plagiarism, student must come up

with his/her own genuine work and at the same time make

Chapter 2 Plagiarism

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

reference to the works of others. To prevent plagiarism, we

recommend the following:

 Take effective and comprehensive notes.

 Plan your paper in an orderly manner

 Seek your instructor's advice

 When necessary, cite sources clearly

 Learn how to paraphrase properly

 Evaluate your references.

Recommedations for Writing

 State your ideas first; then go back to the author's original work.

 Credit the authors and use quotation marks when you copy exact

wording.

 Paraphrase your own words instead of copying directly.

 Give credit to the author even when you paraphrase.

 Make sure to use citation and references properly, improper use

of style can result in plagiarism.

Chapter 3 Quotation

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

Chapter 3

QUOTATION

 Quotation

 Direct Quotation

 Indirect Quotation

 Shifting Between Direct and Indirect Quotation

 Choosing which One to Use.

 Quotation and Quote

 Block Quotation

 Direct Quotation in the Scieneces

 Methods for Introducing a Quotation

 Examples on Quotations

 Common Errors in Using Quotations

 Summarizing

 Example of Paraphrasing and Summarizing: A comparison

 Summary

 Paraphrase

 Plagiarism

 Discussion

 Do's and don'ts of Research Writing

 References

Chapter 3 Quotation

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

Quotation

Quotation is using or restating the exact words of someone else

when those words are powerful or well-said. In general, any time

you use three or more words from an original source, you should

treat it as a quote. A quotation from someone famous or smart can

help make your own point sound better. Just remember, when you

use a quotation put it in quotation marks and give power credit.

There are two types of quotations, direct and indirect.

Literal Quotation

Literal quotes are a borrowed text or passage without any

alteration or change. It is using the exact words of someone else

and weaving them into your writing. Literal quotations can provide

examples that strengthen a thought or idea. It can also, spice up

your written content and tie in what you are writing about for

something specific in your research. Literal quotes are always

offset with quotation marks.

Paraphrasing

Paraphrasing, in fact, is paraphrase or summary of the word of

someone else included and worked into the text of your writing.

paraphrasing can add information that strengthens your content in

many of the same ways as literal quotations. Basically,

paraphrasing carry the meaning of a writers original words without

using the exact words. Paraphrasing are not offset by quotation

marks.

Chapter 3 Quotation

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

Ex:

Literal quotation: In the words of George Washington, "when you

do the common things in life in an uncommon way, you will

command the attention of the world".

Paraphrasing: George Washington believed that the world takes

notes when your everyday actions are done extraordinarily.9

Shifting Between Literal Quotation and Paraphrasing

It is advisable to use a mix both of literal quotation and

paraphrasing when incorporating quotations. Using all literal

quotations or all paraphrasing can create boredom and replition.

With repeated use of both types, you develop a feeling for when it

is better to use one type over the other and makes your content

more enging. Literal quotations are useful for incorporating coined

phrases or flavorful words of someone else.

Paraphrasing are useful when you simply need to summarize

events, processes or details from a source. Without overusing

them, a good mix of both is an effective way to strengthen your

words.

Choosing which One to Use

While both types of quotations are useful to strengthen your words

and adding a colorful flavor in your writing, you might sometimes

struggle which one to use. Sometimes an original author's words

are so powerful that using a paraphrase quite reduces the

effectiveness or loses conviction or strength. In these cases, stick

to the literal quote to have the maximum effect on your readers.

Similarly, if you are trying to paraphrase or summarizing

Chapter 3 Quotation

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

something that is confusing or that you do not fully understand,

use the literal quote instead, so that the meaning is not lost in your

translation of the words. Also, if you are writing about literature,

literal quotes are often preferred because the exact words are

what you are discussing.

On the other hand, if you are writing something scientific, the

general rule is to use indirect paraphrase quotation through

paraphrasing. Paraphrasing is an excellent way to say what

someone said and avoid the matter of word for word quoting

altogether. Finally, focus on the reason behind your choice to

incorporate certain quotations, that can help you decide which to

use.

In general, you must quote when:

 Citing mathematical, scientific, and other formulas.

 The exact words of a writer seem to be absolutely essential and

important for the point you are trying to make.

 You want to highlight your agreement with the author's words

and those words lend credibility to your paper

 You want to highlight your disagreement with the author's words

and indicate exactly what it is you disagree about.

 The statement is hypothetical and subject to confirmation

 Giving the exact wording of laws and official rules.

 You want to illuminate the meaning and support the argument of

your work

Chapter 3 Quotation

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

Quotation and Quote

In formal English, quotation is a noun and quote is a verb and a

noun.

Ex: * "a quotation from Hemingway"

*"she likes to quote Hemingway"

Quoting Word for Word (wfw)

Never alter quotations, even when there exists a minor

grammatical errors or word usage in them. Casual minor errors or

tongue slips may be removed by using ellipses. Ellipsis is a set of

three spaced dots… that is used when you omit words from a

quote, in which case you must replace the omitted words with an

ellipsis.

Block Quotation

A block quotation-in general-is any direct quote that is four or more

lines-is any direct quotation when you wish to directly quote a long

passage that when shortened loses its meaning or effectiveness.

When block quoting, the following is a good guideline to use:

 When a block quotation is introduced by a word or phrase like

thus or the following, that word or phrase should be followed by

a colon (:).

 When a verb of saying introduces the block quotations a comma

(,) is used.

 When it is introduced by a complete a period should be used (.).

 When a reference is included, it is added as the last line of the

block quotation

Chapter 3 Quotation

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

Consider the following example:

Ex: one of the most famous speeches in history is Martin Luther

King's" I have a Dream " speech. Below is an excerpt from that

speech that is full of passion and prose power in asking for

peaceful approaches in the struggle for quality.

"The whirlwinds of the revolt will continue to shake the foundations

of our nation until the bright day of justice emerges. But there is

something that I must say to my people who stand on the warm

threshold which leads into the palace of justice. In the process of

gaining our rightful place we must not to be quilty of wrongful

deeds. Let us not seek to satisfy our thirst for freedom by drinking

from the cup of bitterness and hatred." (Martin Luther King. "I have

Dream" speech,1963)

Direct Quotation in the Scieneces

The general convention in the sciences is that we use indirect

quotation, that is, to paraphrase your sources and to use direct

quotation as little as possible. When you do quote directly, you still

need to discuss the quotation and not ask it to stand on its own.

Also, when you direct quote, pay attention to the following:

 Direct quotes are often offset by commas following that last

word that precedes the quotation mark. Likewise, a comma

follows when the sentence continues after the direct quotation

has ended.

Ex: Sun-Tze said long ago,"keep your friends close and your

enemies closer," which means that staying aware of your enemies

can give you a distinct advantage during time of war.

Chapter 3 Quotation

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

 When a direct quote is a complete sentence,the first word of the

quote is always CAPITALIZED.

Ex: Winston Churchill stated, " A lie gets halfway around the world

before the truth has a chance to get its pants on".

 When a direct quote is a portion of a sentence, a comma is not

necessary to offset the quote and the first word of the quotation

is not capitalized.

Ex: Anyone who has recently fallen in love probably agrees with

Dr. Suess that "reality is better that your dreams" when sleeping

proves difficult.

 When a direct quote has a grammatical error, you should use

the quote exactly as is. Use the Latin expression [Sic] within

brackets to show your reader that the mistake is part of the

original text and not your own.

Ex: According to Emmitt Smith, "the Packers don't has [Sic] a

running game."

Note: "has" should be "have" in the quote

Methods for Introducing a Quotation

Although each method for introducing quotation can be modified

and altered infinitely, there are basically three methods to use:

1- Method one

 Introducing a phrase + comma

In this method use an introductory phrase through signal words

plus a comma to introduce a quotation. You need to signal the

reader that a quote is to be used. The following are some signal

verbs you could use to integrate quotes into your text.

Chapter 3 Quotation

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

Say, reply, state, declare, agree, describe, remark, conclude,

claim, emphasize, suggest, think, argue, maintain.

Ex: Brett says," He wanted to grow my hair out. Me, with long

hair. I'd look so like hell"Hemingway246)

2- Method two

 Complete sentence+colon

In this method use a complete sentence plus a colon to introduce

a quotation. With this method, the quotation is usually a complete

sentence so retain the capitalization of the first word.

Ex: Brett reveals to Jake that she rejected the bullfighter because

she could predict his controlling tendencies:"He really wanted to

marry me. So I couldn't go away from him."(Hemingway 246)

3- Method three

 Make a short part of the quotation a part of your own

sentence.

In this method integrate a sentence fragment or just a portion of a

complete sentence into your own sentence. There is no special

punctuation required. Sometimes, the word"that" will help the

sentence sound smoother.

Ex: Anyone who has recently fallen in love probably agrees with

Dr. Suess that "reality is better than your dreams" when sleeping

proves difficult.

Losing Control of Quotes

Quotes should be a vital part of the text and an integral part of the

discussion. The following are examples of a writer losing control of

quotes:

Chapter 3 Quotation

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

 If the reader can remove the quotes from the paper and still

understand the essay, then the quotes are not an integral part

of the essay

 If the reader sees only traces of a writer's voice in long

quotations from others, he/she will assume the writer has lost

control over the text.

 If each quotation is introduced using the same sentence

structure and the same verb, readers will quickly become bored

with the presentation and turn out the writer's message.

Examples of Quotations

Example Method used

According to James Banks,"cheese is the most stolen food in the world

Method one: introductory phrase, comma

Jane Smith states, in her article about the sun, that "only 55% of all Americans know that the sun is a star."

Method three: A short part of the quotation is part of your own sentence.

Gary Wade suggests that there are many good reasons for consuming dark chocolate: "dark chocolate contains antioxidants, lower blood pressure, and high in vitamins."

Method two: Complete sentence+colon

As professor Stone explains, "A duck's quack doesn't echo."

Method one

In his book about animals, Dr Rose emphasizes the benefits of having a cat: "Cat owners are less likely to suffer from depression."

Method two

In the interest of animal sleeping aims habits,Jane Smith claims that "Dolphins sleep with one eye open."

Method three

Chapter 3 Quotation

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

Common Errors in Using Quotations

When using quotations, be sure to avoid the following common

errors.

 Make sure that the name of the author is part of the subject and

avoid putting it in an introductory phrase.

Ex:

Correct: in his book about animals, Dr. Rose claims that "cat

owners are less likely to suffer from depression".

Incorrect: In Dr. Rose's book about animals, he claims that "cat

owners are less likely to suffer from depression".

 There should be no sentences composed entirely of a quotation,

or the reader might not be able to follow the paragraph more

easily.

Ex:

Correct: Gary Wade suggests that there are many good reasons

to eat dark chocolate, including that "dark chocolate contains

many antioxidants."

Incorrect: Gary Wade suggests that there are many good

reasons to eat dark chocolate. "dark chocolate contains many

antioxidants."

Summarizing

Summarizing is explaining the main idea of material briefly by

considering that material. The length of a summary depends on

your topic and purpose, but summaries are usually short because

they include only the main points of the passage. Although the

Chapter 3 Quotation

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

words in a summary are yours, the ideas are not and thus the

source must be cited to avoid plagiarizing.

In general, to summarize is to:

 Avoid unnecessary details when the main point of a passage is

all you need.

 Show that you understand what the source is saying.

 Give the reader a general introduction to the source.

Example of Paraphrasing and Summarizing: A

Comparison

Original text:

"Students frequently overuse direct quotation in taking notes, and

as a result, they overuse quotations in the final paper. Probably

only about 10% of your final manuscript should appear as directly

quoted matter. Therefore, you should strive to limit the amount of

exact transcribing of source materials while taking notes." Lester,

James D. Writing Research Papers. 2 nd

Ed. (1962):46-49

Summary

Students should take just a few notes in direct quotations from

sources to help minimize the amount of quoted material in a

research paper (Lester, 46-47).

Paraphrase

In research papers, students often quote excessively, failing to

keep quoted material down to the desirable level of 10% of the

final draft. Since the problem usually originates during note taking,

Chapter 3 Quotation

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

it is essential to minimize the material recorded word for word

(Lester, 46-47).

Plagiarism

Students often use too many direct quotations when they take

notes, resulting in too many of them in the final research paper. In

fact, probably only about 10% of the final copy should consist of

directly quoted material. So it is important to limit the amount of

source material copied while taking notes.

Discussion

In the summary above, just the main idea was covered, that is the

need to reduce direct quotations in notes. Everything else was

dropped including the 10% level. While in the paraphrase more

than just the main idea was covered, including the desired level.

Also, the length of the summary is shorter that that of the

paraphrase. Looking at the plagiarized version, we notice no

citation is given for this restatement of the original passage and

that the structure and vocabulary choice of this passage is very

similar to the original. This version is plagiarized.

Integrating Quotes In Research Papers

Effective writers blend or integrate quotations of a source with their

own writing so readers can see how the same information

connects with the writer's thesis.

The following is a useful guideline to ensure smooth integration of

quotes in your own writing:

 Read the source many times until you understand it before you

start quoting.

Chapter 3 Quotation

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

 Copy passage word for word with quotation marks in direct

quotation.

 Make long quotes shorter by cutting out everything you don't

absolutely need. Put ellipses (…) where you took out the words.

 Partial quotes must fit the grammar of the sentence into which it

is integrated.

 Give credit to the original source if you quote a source from

another source give credit to the original source and then add

qtd ["quoted] to the writing.

 provide the content in which a quote appears and explain how

the quote ties in with your point.

 Mark the beginning of each paraphrase by mentioning the

author's name and/or provide the context for the information you

borrow.

 When you mention an author for the first time, give his/her full

name and his/her credentials.

 Mix paraphrase and short quotations to show your readers that

you have done your research without long quotes.

 Document summaries the same way you would with

paraphrases.

Do's and don't's of Research Writing

There is no universal template that can solve every research

trouble. However, the following rules of writing are standard and

applicable to all types of academic research.

The Title

 Do include the keywords that describe the work.

Chapter 3 Quotation

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

 Do make the title appropriate for the intended readers.

 Do not use long title that is more than 12 words.

 Do not use abbreviations.

The Abstaract

 Do shorten background information.

 Do not abbreviate vague or confusing terms.

 Do not show illustrations or figures.

The Introduction

 Do include a thesis statement that reveals the main idea of the

text in a concise format.

 Do use prose instead of a list of points.

 Do make it easy to read.

 Do not cite unpublished reports.

 Do not explain what can be found in any textbook.

 Do not include data or conclusions from the work being

reported.

The Methods

 Do cite examples that you have read and reference the source

of the information.

 Do use simple sentences. Complicated sentences could be

confusing and increase the risk of grammatical errors.

 Do not use ambiguous terms.

 Do not use non-technical usages of technical terms such as

"random" "significant"…..

 Do not put results in this section. You may include preliminary

results.

Chapter 3 Quotation

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

The Results

 Do present some data either in a table or a figure

 Do summarize raw data values as a means, percents, etc.

 Do not support the hypothesis for all results.

 Do not discuss the results. That goes in the discussion

 Do not necessarily have to include all the data you 've gotten

 Do not try to mainupulate the data to make it looks like you did

more than you actually did.

The Discussion

 Do correlate between the results and the discussion.

 Do use the right language to indicate your ability to research

and analyze the topic.

 Do explain your points clearly and vividly.

 Do not introduce new results in the discussion.

 Do not repeat detailed descriptions of the results.

 Do not leave the reader without conclusion. End the discussion

with a short summary regarding the significance of the work.

The Tables and Figures

 Do include a table only if it is presents new information.

 Do write captions when you organize your results section.

 Do not use sentences that give no information other than

directing the reader to the figure or table.

 Do not use any format other than EPS,PDF,TIFF or JPES in

electronic artwork.

Chapter 4 How to Write a Research Paper in

Engineering and Science

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

Chapter 4

HOW TO WRITE A RESEARCH PAPER IN ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE

Writing a research paper is not an easy job, however, dividing it

into a smaller, workable minijobs makes that job easier and more

manageable. These manageable tasks are the essential elements

that when put together produce the desired result: a research

paper.

Your work should begin with writing ideas to create a general

outline for the paper. Then, arrange these thoughts into a

summary of points that will at the end become complete

paragraphs. Organize these thoughts into a structure that logically

make sense and forward them in a mold of main sentences. Many

science or engineering papers are formatted in a well –accepted

way which contains the sections that follow:

 Title

 Abstract

 Introduction

 Methods

 Results

 Discussion

 Summery and Conclusion

 Acknowledgment

 Tables and Figures

Understanding how each section functions together with the whole

will help the writer minimize overlap and repetition.

Chapter 4 How to Write a Research Paper in

Engineering and Science

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

Title

Titles should not be too general, nor should they be too detailed. A

poor title may result in immediate prejudice against the author. A

title can be descriptive and tell only what the article is about or

declarative that suggests the outcome of the paper. Still avoid the

following:

 Do not use along title that is more than 12 words.

 Do not use abbreviations.

Acknowledgments

Place this section as a final note of the paper to thank the people

who supported and contributed to your work or any data appears

in the article. An acknowledgement is a formal printed statement

that recognizes individuals who contributed to your work. Those

individuals are usually persons who gave scientific guidance,

participate in a discussion or who provided sample or equipment.

In writing this section avoid the following:

 Do not use titles, positions. Acknowledge people by name only.

 Do not acknowledge non-science contributions.

Abstract

The abstract should tell the reader in a clearly expressed manner

as to what the paper is about and what the necessary or major

contributions that are discussed. In general, it is one paragraph

that goes before the article and summarize the content. Thus, it is

a critical element of the research paper. In writing abstract, avoid

the following:

Chapter 4 How to Write a Research Paper in

Engineering and Science

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

 Do not lengthen background information, just summarize the

important contribution.

 Do not give detailed quantitative results.

 Do not abbreviate terms that may be vague or confusing to

readers.

 Do not show figures, tables, or references to them.

Introduction

The introduction is an extremely important section in a research

paper. The first paragraph should start with a sentence that is

clear and wide in its scope and catches the reader's attention and

then flow into details until ultimately identify the problem of the

research specifically. The goal and aim of the first paragraph is to

make the reader consider and know what the research is going to

address in a clear fashion.

Here are four examples of opening sentences:

 "Breaking waves at the sea surface promote vigorous mixing of

mountain, energy, and scalars, and thus are a key process in

upper ocean dynamics and air-sea integration."(Sullivan et.al

2004).

 There is a long-standing interest in flow over isolated

topography, such as sea mounts, with regards to both theoretical

and practical issues." (Nycarder&Lacase 2004).

 "Shallow flows are ubiquitous in nature." (Jirka 2001).

 "The convection currents which rise from heated bodies have

been discussed previously, but in most cases attention has been

Chapter 4 How to Write a Research Paper in

Engineering and Science

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

directed towards finding the distribution of field velocity and

temperature near such bodies." (Morton et. al.1956).

Then come the middle paragraphs which follow the introductory

paragraph. They should cite the most important historical

contributions that build the foundation to the topic of the paper.

Also, they should focus on the knowledge base and the significant

difference between what has already been published and the new

contribution that your paper is presenting.

And at last comes the final paragraph which outlines the remaining

sections of the paper. The purpose of this paragraph is to fulfill two

important steps. The first is to mold the entire contribution of the

paper in line with earlier contributions, thus putting strongly

forward the extent of the current contributions. The second is to

pave the road to the reader to the section that interests him/her.

This paragraph should be clear so as to help organize your logic

and build the rest of the paper on a strong foundation.

In writing the introduction avoid the following:

 Do not mention actual techniques used in your study.

 Do not use a list of points; use prose.

 Do not explain what can be found in any textbook in the field.

 Do not include data or conclusions from the work being done.

 Do not cite unpublished reports.

Methods

The methods: this section should declare the mechanism in

obtaining the results. That is to explain in vivid details the methods

used with adequate comparison. Also, that explanation should

Chapter 4 How to Write a Research Paper in

Engineering and Science

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

include a description of techniques used in an independent

section. In addition, the reader should be able to comprehend and

digest the results quality. In the methods sections pay attention to

the following:

 Do cite examples that you have read and reference the source of

the information.

 Do use simple sentences. Complicated sentences could be

confusing and increasing the risk of grammatical errors.

 Do not use vague and ambiguous terms to identify study

parameters.

 Do not imitate procedures you might see in your lab manual.

 Do not use non-technical usages of technical terms such as

"random" "significant"…..

 Do not put results in this section.

 Do not report the data and locations of the study.

Results

The results should show the statistical significance of your

findings. The obtained results must show the original data after

applying the techniques outlined in the methods section. An ideal

section of results can be shown through clear-cat figures with

powerful text. In writing the results, avoid the following:

 Do not present the same data in both a table and figure.

 Do not support the hypothesis for all results.

 Do not discuss the results.

 Do not necessarily have to include all the data you have gotten.

Chapter 4 How to Write a Research Paper in

Engineering and Science

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

 Do not try to manipulate the data to make it looks like you did

more than you actually did.

 Do not report raw data when they can summarized as means or

a percent.

Discussion

In this section, the author's opinion enters the pictures through the

interpretation of the results to eventually reach their intended

purpose and conclusions. The discussion is where the arguments

over the results are made.

A discussion section feature that is common is to compare the

results with earlier works to see what is new and significant that

the paper comes up with. Also, the discussion uses the obtained

results to give an appropriate solution to an engineering problem

or to a specific science one. In writing the discussion avoid the

following:

 Do not introduce new results.

 Do not leave the discussion open. End it with a short summary

regarding the significance of the work.

 Do not amplify between the discussion and the results.

 Do not present extensive discussion of published work.

 Do not use a hard to understand language to indicate your ability

to research and analyze the topic.

Conclusion

The conclusion's job is to summarize the paper for a reader who

had read the introduction and the body of the paper already. Your

Chapter 4 How to Write a Research Paper in

Engineering and Science

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

conclusion, then, should look quite different than the introduction.

However, this section usually includes many specific outcomes

and also larger and longer than the section of the abstract.

Most researchers write this section in two paragraphs. In the first

one concludes the various sections of the paper focusing on the

important results. While the second paragraph draws the important

conclusions. In writing the conclusion, avoid the following

 Do not present new information.

 Do not present information that is hard to find from the other

sections.

 Do not write or list equations or citations.

Tables and Figures

In preparing tables and figures, it is recommended to use only

EPS, PDF or JPG formats for electronic artwork. Also, use a

telegraphic title style without verbs or articles. Use tall and narrow

tables instead of wide and flat. Number all figures and tables in the

order of their appearance in the text. Most readers study tables

and figure first. Thus, explain each term and abbreviation in a

footnote to save readers from searching through the text to

understand each term or abbreviation. In writing this section, avoid

the following:

 Do not repeat information in a table that you depict already in a

figure.

 Do not use sentences that, just direct reader to use figures or

table.

 Do not use vertical lines to separate tables.

Chapter 4 How to Write a Research Paper in

Engineering and Science

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

 Do not use a table for fewer than eight figures. Few data need no

table.

Chpter 5 Writing an Effective E-mail

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

Chapter 5

WRITING AN EFFECTIVE E-MAIL

 Write a Meaningful Subject Line

 Always Use a Greeting

 Identify Yourself Clearly

 State the Reason why You are Emailing in a Brief and Polite

Way

 Keep the Message Focused

 As Possible, Avoid Attachments

 Proofread

 Distinguish Between Formal and Informal

 Make Sure Email is Ready to Hit 'Send'

 Respond Promptly

The way you communicate with professors or other executive

people is extremely as a student (or person). Professors, usually

have an impression on what kind of message they receive from

their students or any other student. Thus, when writing an email,

use a professional tone and be very respectful in every detail in

your letter.

Write a Meaningful Subject Line

Write a subject line that accurately describes the content, giving

your reader a concrete reason to open your message.

Always Use a Greeting

Generally speaking, if you are addressing a professor, use "Dr.

Last name" or "Professor. Last name". Taking a chance with Mr,

Chpter 5 Writing an Effective E-mail

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

Mrs and not Dr. or Professor may result in a feeling of insult by

the professor.

Ex: Dear Dr. Fayadh

Dear Professor Fayadh

Identify Yourself Clearly

When contacting someone new, always include your name,

occupation, and any other important identification information in

the first few sentences.

State the Reason why You are Emailing in a Brief and Polite Way

Don't flood your letter with irrelevant information to your situation.

Provide only what is likely to matter to the professor.

Keep the Message Focused

Write short paragraphs separated by blank lines. Most people find

unbroken blocks of text boring. Take the time to format your

message to help your reader focus on it.

As Possible, Avoid Attachments

Rather than focusing your reader to download an attachment and

open it in a separate program, you will probably get faster results if

you just copy-paste the most important part of the document into

the body of your message.

Chpter 5 Writing an Effective E-mail

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

Proofread

When writing a text, take your time to make your message look

professional. Check spelling and look for typos. Before you hit

"send". Make sure the message makes sense.

Distinguish Between Formal and Informal

Don't use informal language when your reader expects a more

formal approach. Informal language may be used between friends,

but not with a dignitary or a professor far away.

Make Sure Email is Ready to Hit 'Send'

Don't send an email and soon you realize that you need to add

more information and send a follow-up. Make sure the message

covers it all.

Respond Promptly

After receiving a reply, answer it to acknowledge it. A simple

saying "I am grateful" is quite enough. If you see it necessary, you

may extend your thank you note to achieve a professional effect.

EX:

Mechanical Drawing [email protected]

Mechanical Drawing Question

Dear Professor Fayadh,

This is Ali Jasim from your Mechanical Drawing class 101. I'm

sorry for missing class last Monday, I had a family emergency that

I needed to attend to. I'm hoping that you might be able to give me

the notes for the material that I missed.

Sincerely,

mailto:[email protected]

Chpter 5 Writing an Effective E-mail

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

Ali Jasim

Mechanical Drawing 101

Section 3

EX:

Mechanical Drawing [email protected]

Mechanical Drawing Question

Dear Professor Fayadh,

Thank you for your help, I greatly appreciate it.

Sincerely,

Ali Jasim

Mechanical Drawing 101

Section 3

mailto:[email protected]

Chapter 6 How to Write a Research Proposal

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

Chapter 6

HOW TO WRITE A RESEARCH PROPOSAL

The elements of the research proposal

 Introduction

 The Research Question

 Purpose of the Research

 Preliminary Literature Review

 Theoretical Framework

 Statement of Research Contribution

 Proposed Research Methodology

 Research Plan

 Research Time Table

 List of References

Usually, a research proposal in science or engineering is a written

text four to ten pages long. A proposal gives a description of the

problem, its purpose, the importance of the research question and

hypothesis.

It must show that the candidate is prepared and armed with the

reading required in his discipline. And that he/she has the grasp

on the issues that formed the study and is capable to give more

beyond the scope of the topic which he/she is planning to

research.

Writing a good research proposal can help the research in later

times. If well written and organized, the proposal can serve as a

guideline of the thesis to follow and can be depicted onto different

sections of the thesis.

Chapter 6 How to Write a Research Proposal

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

Research Proposal Elements

In most cases, your research will need to include the following:

 Introduction to the research problem to identify the gap in the

current research.

 Research Questions that ask what relationships exist between

different variables in the study and the hypothesis that predicts

the relationship between variables.

 The Purpose of the research to address the need for the

research and justify the proposal.

 Preliminary literature review that covers what other researchers

have already done in the area.

 Theoretical framework that details the theory that is guiding the

proposed study.

 Statements of the contribution of the research that makes a

change to the general area.

 Research methodology that explains each step you will take in

order to conduct the research.

 Research plan to cover the contents of each paper.

 Research timetable to cover how time is divided over the various

sections of the work.

 List of references used.

Introduction

The introduction should be as brief as possible (a paragraph or

two). You need to make this part clear and focused. You should be

able to characterize what research has already been done in this

Chapter 6 How to Write a Research Proposal

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

area, explaining how and in what respects the research would

contribute to it and why it would be important to do.

This should lead logically to the gap in the research that you intend

to fill. When the gap is identified, a research question can then be

raised. The answer to this question is called "the thesis

statement".

The thesis statement is your tentative or proposed answer to this

question. But, it is not expected that, at this stage-you have an

answer to your research question. This is what the thesis provides.

A hypothesis is useful for this purpose.

The introduction must narrow down, not get wider. You must

demonstrate that you have command of the issues in the area and

that you are focusing on a particular issue.

The Research Question

Research question may be a question as such, but rather a

statement of a problem to be investigated. However, it could be

also phrased in the form of a question or formal hypothesis. The

question asks what relationships exist between different variables

in the study while the hypothesis predicts the relationship between

variables.

Purpose of the Research

In this section clearly identify the goal of the study in one precise

sentence. Then you need to tell the reader that the research can

justify along the size of the area involved, the gap in the literature

that demands attention, the improved methodology used and the

benefits in terms of practice.

Chapter 6 How to Write a Research Proposal

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

Preliminary Literature Review

Provide a summary of previous related researches on the research

problem and their strength and weakness and a justification of

your research. Also, it addresses what is known, what have been

done, and, why your research is still necessary. You need to write

a short and precise overview to cover the following:

 The most important contributions of other scientists.

 Logical discussion of the theoretical scope of the framework of

ideas to back the research.

 Show that you are fully conversant with the ideas you are dealing

with and that you grasp the methodological implications.

 Indicate an open problem which then will be the motive for your

project.

Theoretical Framework

This section usually formed the last part of the literature review.

The main aim of a theoretical framework is to define the

dependent variable and independent variable and the possible

relationship between the variables for the purpose of research.

Thus, the framework represents the beliefs on how certain

variables (components) are related to one another and an

explanation of why we believe that these variables are associated

with one another.

Statement of Research Contribution

The contribution of your research should be addressed clearly in

this section. You should explain the change your research will

Chapter 6 How to Write a Research Proposal

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

make in the field of your study. The statement should explain

how/what you will do will lead to certain outcomes. The statement

is an extremely important part of the proposal. You must notice

and address a problem in the existing literature that has not been

previously addressed in order to conduct the research.

In this section, outline the following points:

 The fruits of the research and its importance.

 Nature of the research outcome, practical or theoretical.

Proposed Research Methodology

This part of research outline should consist of a detailed

description of your intention to address and answer all the

questions that arise in the research. Remember that the following

points should be explained to your readers:

 What information you will be collecting and how.

 The sources and quality of the evidence you will consult.

 The analytical technique you will employ.

 The timetable you will follow.

You should indicate why you think that data collection and

analysis methods are appropriate for your research. Also, all other

issues that hinder gathering data and pose difficulties in the way of

collecting other material could be discussed.

Research Plan

This is where you list material x covered in each chapter or section

of the thesis. For this reason, the plan together with the research

Chapter 6 How to Write a Research Proposal

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

timetable can be discussed, although the research plan has a

different function than research time tables.

 Gives you through the direction you planned for your thesis.

 Gives the impression that the thesis is so well-prepared that it

will be achieved in time.

 Shows that the project is well-organized and achievable in the

time available.

Research Time Table

This section explains in an orderly manner the sequence of

research phases and the weighing in percentage terms of parts or

section of the thesis, the approximate limit of words, the covered

topic and the time approximately they take. Note that the timetable

in approximate, it can help if followed, but doesn't commit you to

anything.

Ex:

Chapter Topic % Words Months

1 Introduction 5 3000 3

2 Literature Review 30 20000 6

3 Methodology 20 15000 4

4 Data Analysis 25 18000 5

5 Conclusion 20 15000 6

Total 100 71000 24

List of References

References must be scholarly acceptable, such as using APA

(American Psychological Association) format. List the academic

Chapter 6 How to Write a Research Proposal

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

works which you have mentioned in your research outline. At least

some of them should be recent publications. List only publications

which you have actually used for the preparation of the research

outline.

Chapter 7

Verbs Used in Scientific Writing

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

Chapter 7

VERBS USED IN SCIENTIFIC WRITING

In scientific writing you need a greater stock of verbs than the

verbs available in your own research field. Since verbs move ideas

along, they must be chosen carefully to suit and express ideas

accurately. The following are lists of verbs used by professional

writers.

To look at To find out To balance To show

abserve learn evaluate indicate perceive search consider suggest approach survey speculate define study inquire decide approximate regard investigate conclude display identify demonstrate detect reveal assess affirm analyze derermine

To decrease To Increase

reduce raise degrade amplify lessen arouse weaken elevate restrict enhance limit enlarge curtail enrich minimize heighten diminish improve

magnify strength promote

Chapter 7

Verbs Used in Scientific Writing

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

Colloquial vs Formal Words

In writing a research paper colloquial (spoken) words should be

avoided; use formal words instead. Below are examples of such

situations:

Avoid Choose

So Thus, therefore

A couple Two, a pair,

Though Even though, although

Try to Attempt to

Turnout Prove, prove to be

Way Means, methods, procedure

Work out Resolve, determine, devise

A lot, a lot of Several, many

Anyhow In any case, nevertheless

Anyway Although, however

Fix Arrange, manage

Enough Sufficient (insufficient)

Besides, too Also, likewise, moreover

Give Supply, furnish, provide

Gone, none Lacking, absent, missing

Hard Difficult, demanding

Let Allow, permit

Little Few, insufficient, rare, scarce

Chapter 7

Verbs Used in Scientific Writing

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

Words Confused

English has a lot of commonly confused words. They either look

alike, sound like, but have completely different meanings. The

Following are commonly confused words.

 Accept x Except

Accept (v) : to receive

Except (n) : apart from

 Affect x Effect

Affect (v) : influence

Effect (n) : result

 All intensive purpose x all purposes and intents

(All intensive purposes) is incorrect to use

All purposes and intent : for all practical purposes

 Allusion x illusion

Allusion (n) : an indirect reference

Illusion (n) : a false idea

 Borrow x lend

Borrow (v) : to take or accept something for a short time

Lend (v) : to give something for a short time

 Complement x compliment

Complement (n) : that which complete

Complement (v) : to make complete

Compliment (n) : something said in praise

Compliment (v) : to congratulate

 Comprise x compose

Comprise (v) : to include; to consist of

Chapter 7

Verbs Used in Scientific Writing

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

Compose(v): make up

 Elicit x illicit

Ellicit (v) : evoke

Illicit (v) : illegal

 Imitated x intimated

Imitated (v) : past tense of imitate which means to seek to follow

the example of

Intimated (v ): to hint

 In a sense x in Essence

In a sense (idiom ): in a way

In essence (idiom) : essentially

 Its x it's

Its (possessive (pronoun) : of

It's : it + is

 I should of x I should have

I should of : incorrect to use

I should have : the past perfect of (shall)

 Lose x loose

Lose (v) : to fail to gain

Loose (adj ): not tight

 Passed x past

Passed (v) : past tense of pass

Past (adj) : the time that has gone by

 Precede x proceed

Precede (v) : to come before

Proceed (v) : to advance

Chapter 7

Verbs Used in Scientific Writing

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

 Principal x principle

Principal (n ): presiding officer

Principle (n ): a fundamental truth

 Than x Then

Than (conjunction) : used to introduce the second element in

comparison

Then (adverb ): at that time

 Their x There

Their (adj ): of. Belong to

There (n) that place

 Advice x Advise

Advice (n) : recommendation

Advise (v ): to recommend

 Already x all ready

Already (adv) : by this time

All ready (adj) : fully prepared

 Altogether x all together

Altogether (adv ): thoroughly

All together (n ): everything in one place

 Beside x Besides

Beside (adv) : next to

Besides (adv) : in addition

 Device x devise

Device (n ): a plan

Devise (v) : to create

 Dominant x dominate

Dominant (adj ): controlling

Chapter 7

Verbs Used in Scientific Writing

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

Dominate (v) : to control

 Farther x further

Farther (adj ): at a greater distance

Further more (adv) : in greater depth

Chapter 8 Style Format in Writing Engineering &

Science Research Papers

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

Chapter 8

STYLE FORMAT IN WRITING ENGINEERING &

SCIENCE RESEARCH PAPERS

Engineering and the sciences disciplines do not all follow one

citation nor one writing style format. There are many different ways

of citing resources for your research. The citation style depends on

the academic discipline involved. Among these formats are:

 APA (American psychological Association): Used by Education,

psychology and the sciences.

 MLA (Modern language Association): Used by Humanities.

 Chicago/Turabian: Used by Business and Fine Arts.

The following is a comparison between the major two styles APA

and MLA

Item APA MLA

Author Lists all authors. Uses last name and first initial

Writes available names. If more than 3 list first name and "et al"

Title Capitalizes first word Capitalizes every important word

Publisher Uses full name Shortens name

Dates Follows author's name Placed at end of citation

Indentions First line entry is intended, second and subsequent lines are flush with the left margin

First line is flush with left margin, second and subsequent lines are indented

Paranthetical citation in text

Uses author name, date of publication and page number

Uses author name and page

Book Smith, J. (2003) MLA handbook for writers of research papers. 6th ed New York:MLA

Smith, Joseph. MLA handbook for writers of research papers. 6th ed. New York:MLA 2003

Chapter 8 Style Format in Writing Engineering &

Science Research Papers

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

Journal article

Jackson, S. (1996). Producing a new generation of computers. The Science Review,15, 87-93

Jackson, Scott. "Producing a new generation of computers." The science review 15 (1996): 87-93

Quotes You must cite the author and date properly within the text or at the end of the sentence. e.g. Jefferson (1978) urges rivals to settle differences. e.g. In his letter to urge rivals to settle differences (Jefferson, 1976)

You must cite the author in parantheses with the author's last name and page number of the source at the end of the page."you will gain skills that will prepare you to do research in your career within the business." (Gibaldis)

Citation list This page must be titled references

This page must be titled works cited.

Handling Numbers

Following is a guideline on how to handle numbers and use

numerals

 Never add a space between number and percentage sign.

6% never 6 %

 Never add an article with figures or tables

Figure 3 is attached never use the (a) figure 3 is attached

 As dates write 14 May 2004 or 5/14/2004

In Germany use 14.05.2004

 Never start a sentence with a numeral; Of the 45 students, 32

passed the exam.

 Never say 32 of the 45 students passed the exam.

 Group large numbers in trios (3's) with spaces and no period.

12 345 000 or 12,345,000

 Never use plural percent, use percentages (percentages never

use percents).

 Write ratios as 3:1 or 3 to 1

Chapter 8 Style Format in Writing Engineering &

Science Research Papers

A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

 Never separate a percentage from its figure; Of the 60/45(75%)

died never; 45 of the 60(75%) died.

 Prepositions before the numerical figure require (and); between

two and ten men

References A Road to Scientific Writing

in Engineering and Science

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