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Marketing: An Introduction

Thirteenth Edition

Chapter 5

Understanding Consumer and Business Buyer Behavior

Learning Objectives (1 of 4)

5-1. Understand the consumer market and the major factors that influence consumer buyer behavior.

5-2. Identify and discuss the stages in the buyer decision process.

5-3. Describe the adoption and diffusion process for new products.

This chapter helps you understand the consumer market and the major factors that influence consumer buyer behavior. It also identifies and discusses the stages in the buyer decision process and describes the adoption and diffusion process for new products.

Learning Objectives (2 of 4)

5-4. Define the business market and identify the major factors that influence business buyer behavior.

5-5. List and define the steps in the business buying decision process.

This chapter defines the business market and identifies the major factors that influence business buyer behavior and lists and defines the steps in the business buying decision process.

First Stop: Harley-Davidson Selling Freedom, Independence, Power, and Authenticity

For Harley-Davidson enthusiasts, it’s all about the experience.

Harley-Davidson’s market dominance comes from a deep understanding of the emotions and motivations that underlie consumer behavior. Harley doesn’t just sell motorcycles; it sells freedom, independence, power, and authenticity.

Learning Objective 5-1

Understand the consumer market and the major factors that influence consumer buyer behavior.

Consumer Buyer Behavior and Consumer Markets

Consumer buyer behavior

Buying behavior of final consumers

Consumer market

All the individuals and households that buy or acquire goods and services for personal consumption

Consumer buyer behavior refers to the buying behavior of final consumers who are the individuals and households that buy goods and services for personal consumption. All of these final consumers combine to make up the consumer market.

Figure 5.1 - Model of Buyer Behavior

This figure shows that marketing and other stimuli enter the consumer’s “black box” and produce certain responses. Marketers must figure out what is in the buyer’s black box. The whats, wheres, and whens of consumer buying behavior can be measured. But it’s very difficult to figure out the whys of buying behavior (that’s why it’s called the black box). Marketers spend a lot of time and money trying to figure out what makes customers tick.

Figure 5.2 - Factors Influencing Consumer Behavior

Consumer purchases are influenced strongly by cultural, social, personal, and psychological characteristics, as shown in this figure. For the most part, marketers cannot control such factors, but they must take them into account. The following slides will discuss these characteristics in more detail.

Cultural Factors (1 of 2)

Culture

Set of basic values, perceptions, wants, and behaviors learned by an individual from family and other important institutions

Subculture

Group of people with shared value systems based on common life experiences and situations

Total market strategy integrates ethnic themes and cross-cultural perspectives within a brand’s mainstream marketing

Social class

Relatively permanent and ordered divisions in a society whose members share similar values, interests, and behaviors

Culture is the most basic cause of a person’s wants and behavior. Culture is the set of basic values, perceptions, wants, and behaviors learned by a member of society from family and other important institutions.

A subculture is a group of people with shared value systems based on common life experiences and situations.

A total market strategy integrates ethnic themes and cross-cultural perspectives within a brand’s mainstream marketing, appealing to consumer similarities across subcultures rather than differences.

A social class is the relatively permanent and ordered divisions in a society whose members share similar values, interests, and behaviors. It is measured as a combination of occupation, income, education, wealth, and other variables.

Cultural Factors (2 of 2)

To improve perceptions among young Asian Americans, AT & T created a Web series called “Away We Happened.”

To raise perceptions of AT&T as an innovative and preferred brand among Asian-American youth, key influencers in its tech markets, AT&T created an engaging crowd-sourced, boy-meets-girl Web series called “Away We Happened.”

Social Factors

Groups

Word-of-mouth influence

Opinion leaders

Online social networks

Family

Roles and status

A consumer’s behavior is also influenced by social factors.

Groups that have a direct influence and to which a person belongs are called membership groups. Reference groups serve as direct or indirect points of comparison or reference in forming a person’s attitudes or behavior. An aspirational group is one to which the individual wishes to belong.

Word-of-mouth influence refers to the impact of the personal words and recommendations of trusted friends, associates, and other consumers on buying behavior. Rather than leaving it to chance, marketers can help to create positive conversations about their brands.

An opinion leader is a person within a reference group who, because of special skills, knowledge, personality, or other characteristics, exerts social influence on others. Opinion leaders are also referred to as influentials or leading adopters. Buzz marketing involves enlisting or even creating opinion leaders to serve as brand ambassadors who spread the word about a company’s products.

Online social networks are online communities where people socialize or exchange information and opinions.

Family members can strongly influence buyer behavior. Marketers are interested in the roles and influence of the husband, wife, and children on the purchase of different products and services.

A person’s position in each group can be defined in terms of both role and status. People usually choose products appropriate to their roles and status.

Personal Factors (1 of 2)

Occupation

Age and family life-cycle

Economic situation

Lifestyle

Personality and self-concept

A buyer’s decisions also are influenced by personal characteristics of the buyer. A person’s occupation affects the goods and services bought. Marketers try to identify the occupational groups that have an above-average interest in their products and services. A company can specialize in making products needed by a given occupational group.

Tastes in food, clothes, furniture, and recreation are often age related. Buying is also shaped by the stage of the family life cycle. One of the leading life-stage segmentation systems is the Nielsen PRIZM Lifestage Groups system. PRIZM classifies every American household into one of 66 distinct life-stage segments, which are organized into 11 major life-stage groups.

A person’s economic situation will affect his or her store and product choices. Marketers watch trends in spending, personal income, savings, and interest rates.

Lifestyle is a person’s pattern of living as expressed in his or her psychographics. It involves measuring consumers’ major AIO dimensions - activities, interests, and opinions. The lifestyle concept can help marketers understand changing consumer values and how they affect buyer behavior.

Personality refers to the unique psychological characteristics that distinguish a person or group. It can be useful in analyzing consumer behavior for certain product or brand choices. A person’s self-concept is also made use of by marketers. The idea is that people’s possessions contribute to and reflect their identities.

Personal Factors (2 of 2)

KitchenAid sells an entire cooking and entertainment lifestyle to “Kitchenthusiasts.”

KitchenAid sells much more than just high performance kitchen appliances. It sells an entire cooking and entertainment lifestyle to “Kitchenthusiasts.”

KitchenAid cultivates “Kitchenthusiasts”—a lifestyle community of “hosts with the most” who thrive on cooking and entertainment challenges. Its Kitchenthusiast blog, Facebook pages, and 11 Pinterest boards are brimming with recipes, cooking challenges, tips and techniques, and coverage of the latest cooking lifestyle news and events by key contributors. KitchenAid’s “There’s So Much More to Make” marketing campaign highlights how the brand’s appliances contribute to the lifestyles of passionate Kitchenthusiasts.

Psychological Factors

Motivation

Perception

Learning

Beliefs and Attitudes

A motive (or drive) is a need that is sufficiently pressing to direct a person to seek satisfaction. Many companies employ teams of psychologists, anthropologists, and other social scientists to carry out motivation research.

Perception is the process by which people select, organize, and interpret information to form a meaningful picture of the world. Selective distortion describes the tendency of people to interpret information in a way that will support what they already believe. Selective retention means that consumers are likely to remember good points made about a brand they favor and forget good points made about competing brands. Some consumers worry that they will be affected by marketing messages without even knowing it—through subliminal advertising.

Learning describes changes in an individual’s behavior arising from experience. The practical significance of learning theory for marketers is that they can build up demand for a product by associating it with strong drives by using motivating cues and providing positive reinforcement.

A belief is a descriptive thought that a person holds about something. Marketers are interested in the beliefs that people formulate about specific products and services because these beliefs make up product and brand images that affect buying behavior. Attitudes put people into a frame of mind of liking or disliking things, of moving toward or away from them.

Figure 5.3 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Abraham Maslow sought to explain why people are driven by particular needs at particular times. Why does one person spend a lot of time and energy on personal safety and another on gaining the esteem of others? Maslow’s answer is that human needs are arranged in a hierarchy, from the most pressing at the bottom to the least pressing at the top. They include physiological needs, safety needs, social needs, esteem needs, and self-actualization needs.

Learning Objective 5-1 Summary

Consumer market and consumer buyer behavior

Model of buyer behavior

The environment, buyer’s black box, and buyer responses

Factors influencing consumer behavior

Cultural

Social

Personal characteristics

Psychological factors

The consumer market consists of all the individuals and households that buy or acquire goods and services for personal consumption. A simple model of consumer behavior suggests that marketing stimuli and other major forces enter the consumer’s “black box.” This black box has two parts: buyer characteristics and the buyer’s decision process. Once in the black box, the inputs result in buyer responses, such as buying attitudes, preferences, and purchase behavior.

Consumer buyer behavior is influenced by four key sets of buyer characteristics: cultural, social, personal, and psychological. Understanding these factors can help marketers to identify interested buyers and to shape products and appeals to serve consumer needs better. Culture is the most basic determinant of a person’s wants and behavior. People in different cultural, subcultural, and social class groups have different product and brand preferences. Social factors, such as small groups, social networks, and family influences, strongly affect product and brand choices, as do personal characteristics, such as age, life stage, occupation, economic circumstances, lifestyle, and personality. Finally, consumer buying behavior is influenced by four major sets of psychological factors—motivation, perception, learning, and beliefs and attitudes. Each of these factors provides a different perspective for understanding the workings of the buyer’s black box.

Learning Objective 5-2

Identify and discuss the stages in the buyer decision process.

Figure 5.4 - Buyer Decision Process

This figure shows that the buyer decision process consists of five stages.

The first stage is need recognition. The need can be triggered by internal stimuli when one of the person’s normal needs rises to a level high enough to become a drive. A need can also be triggered by external stimuli.

The second stage is information search. Consumers can obtain information from several sources like personal, commercial, public, and experiential sources.

The third stage is the evaluation of alternatives, that is, how consumers process information to choose among alternative brands.

The fourth stage is the purchase decision. Two factors can come between the purchase intention and the purchase decision: the attitudes of others and unexpected situational factors.

The last stage is postpurchase behavior. Determining if the consumer is satisfied or dissatisfied with the purchase lies in the relationship between the consumer’s expectations and the product’s perceived performance. However, all major purchases result in cognitive dissonance, or discomfort caused by postpurchase conflict.

Postpurchase Behavior

Postpurchase customer satisfaction is a key to building profitable customer relationships.

Postpurchase customer satisfaction is a key to building profitable customer relationships. Most marketers go beyond merely meeting the customer expectations—they aim to delight customers.

Learning Objective 5-2 Summary

Stages in the buyer decision process

Need recognition

Information search

Alternative evaluation

Purchase decision

Postpurchase behavior

When making a purchase, the buyer goes through a decision process consisting of need recognition, information search, evaluation of alternatives, purchase decision, and postpurchase behavior. During need recognition, the consumer recognizes a problem or need that could be satisfied by a product or service. Once the need is recognized, the consumer moves into the information search stage. With information in hand, the consumer proceeds to alternative evaluation and assesses brands in the choice set. From there, the consumer makes a purchase decision and actually buys the product. In the final stage of the buyer decision process, postpurchase behavior, the consumer takes action based on satisfaction or dissatisfaction. The marketer’s job is to understand the buyer’s behavior at each stage and the influences that are operating.

Learning Objective 5-3

Describe the adoption and diffusion process for new products.

Stages in the Adoption Process

Awareness

Interest

Evaluation

Trial

Adoption

The adoption process is the mental process through which an individual passes from first learning about an innovation to final adoption. Consumers go through five stages in the process of adopting a new product, which is a good, service, or idea that is perceived by some potential customers as new.

The first stage is awareness. In this stage the consumer becomes aware of the new product but lacks information about it.

The second stage is interest, which involves the consumer seeking information about the new product.

The third stage is evaluation, where the consumer considers whether trying the new product makes sense.

The fourth stage is trial. In this stage, the consumer tries the new product on a small scale to improve his or her estimate of its value.

The final stage is adoption where the consumer decides to make full and regular use of the new product.

Figure 5.5 - Adopter Categories Based on Relative Time of Adoption of Innovations

People can be classified into the adopter categories shown in Figure 5.5. The curve illustrates that after a slow start, an increasing number of people adopt the new product.

The five adopter groups have differing values. Innovators try new ideas at some risk. Early adopters are opinion leaders in their communities and adopt new ideas early but carefully. Early mainstream adopters adopt new ideas before the average person. Late mainstream adopters adopt an innovation only after a majority of people have tried it. Finally, lagging adopters adopt the innovation only when it has become something of a tradition itself.

Characteristics Influencing an Innovation’s Rate of Adoption

Relative advantage

Compatibility

Complexity

Divisibility

Communicability

The characteristics of the new product affect its rate of adoption.

Relative advantage is the degree to which the innovation appears superior to existing products.

The second characteristic is compatibility, which is the degree to which the innovation fits the values and experiences of potential consumers.

The third characteristic is complexity, which refers to the degree to which the innovation is difficult to understand or use.

The fourth characteristic is divisibility, which is the degree to which the innovation may be tried on a limited basis.

The fifth characteristic is communicability. This refers to the degree to which the results of using the innovation can be observed or described to others.

Other characteristics that influence the rate of adoption include initial and ongoing costs, risk and uncertainty, and social approval.

Learning Objective 5-3 Summary

Five stages of the adoption process

Awareness

Interest

Evaluation

Trial

Adoption

The diffusion process for new products

Innovators, early adopters, early mainstream, late mainstream, or lagging adopters

The product adoption process is made up of five stages: awareness, interest, evaluation, trial, and adoption. New product marketers must think about how to help consumers move through these stages.

With regard to the diffusion process for new products, consumers respond at different rates, depending on consumer and product characteristics. Consumers may be innovators, early adopters, early mainstream, late mainstream, or lagging adopters. Each group may require different marketing approaches. Marketers often try to bring their new products to the attention of potential early adopters, especially those who are opinion leaders.

Learning Objective 5-4

Define the business market and identify the major factors that influence business buyer behavior.

Business Buyer Behavior

Business buyer behavior

Purchasing goods and services are used in the production of other products and services

Business-to-business (B-to-B) marketers must understand business markets and business buyer behavior

Business buying process: Determining which products and services to purchase

Finding, evaluating, and choosing among alternative suppliers and brands

Business buyer behavior refers to the buying behavior of the organizations that buy goods and services for use in the production of other products and services that are sold, rented, or supplied to others.

Business-to-business (B-to-B) marketers must do their best to understand business markets and business buyer behavior. Then, like businesses that sell to final buyers, they must engage business customers and build profitable relationships with them by creating superior customer value.

The business buying process is the decision process by which business buyers determine which products and services their organizations need to purchase and then find, evaluate, and choose among alternative suppliers and brands.

Business Markets

Business markets are huge and involve more money and items than consumer markets.

Differ from consumer markets in terms of

Market structure and demand

Nature of the buying unit

Types of decisions and the decision process

The business market is huge and involves more dollars and items than do consumer markets. Business markets differ from consumer markets in terms of market structure and demand, the nature of the buying unit, and the types of decisions and the decision process involved.

Market Structure and Demand

Business market structure and demand

Fewer but larger buyers

Derived demand: Business demand that comes from the demand for consumer goods

Inelastic and fluctuating demand

The business marketer normally deals with far fewer but far larger buyers than the consumer marketer does. Even in large business markets, a few buyers often account for most of the purchasing. Further, business demand is derived demand. It ultimately derives from the demand for consumer goods. Finally, many business markets have inelastic and more fluctuating demand. The total demand for many business products is not much affected by price changes, especially in the short run.

Nature of the Buying Unit

Nature of the business market buying unit

More decision participants

More professional purchasing effort

Compared with consumer purchases, a business purchase usually involves more decision participants and a more professional purchasing effort. Business buying is done by trained purchasing agents who spend their working lives learning how to buy better. Buying committees composed of technical experts and top management are common in the buying of major goods. B-to-B marketers now face a new breed of higher-level, better-trained supply managers. Therefore, companies must have well-trained marketers and salespeople to deal with these well-trained buyers.

Types of Decisions

Business purchases

More complex buying decisions

Large sums of money

Complex technical and economic considerations

Interactions among people at many levels of the buyer’s organization

Business buyers usually face more complex buying decisions than do consumer buyers. Business purchases often involve large sums of money, complex technical and economic considerations, and interactions among people at many levels of the buyer’s organization.

Decision Process

Buying processes

Longer and more formalized procedures

Buyer and seller more dependent on each other

Supplier development: Systematic development of networks of supplier-partners to ensure a dependable supply of products and materials

The business buying process tends to be longer and more formalized. Large business purchases usually call for detailed product specifications, written purchase orders, careful supplier searches, and formal approval. In the business buying process, the buyer and seller are often much more dependent on each other. In the short run, sales go to suppliers who meet buyers’ immediate product and service needs. In the long run, however, business-to-business marketers keep customers by meeting current needs and by partnering with them to help solve their problems.

Supplier development refers to the systematic development of networks of supplier-partners to ensure an appropriate and dependable supply of products and materials for use in making products or reselling them to others.

Figure 5.6 - A Model of Business Buying Behavior

Types of Buying Situations (1 of 2)

Straight rebuy

Buyer routinely reorders something without any modifications

Modified rebuy

Buyer wants to modify product specifications, prices, terms, or suppliers

New task

Buyer purchases a product or service for the first time

Systems selling (or solutions selling)

Buying a packaged solution to a problem from a single seller

Avoids the separate decisions involved in a complex buying situation

There are three major types of buying situations: straight rebuy, modified rebuy, and a new task situation.

In a straight rebuy, the buyer reorders something without any modifications. It is usually handled on a routine basis by the purchasing department. In a modified rebuy, the buyer wants to modify product specifications, prices, terms, or suppliers.

A company buying a product or service for the first time faces a new task situation. The marketer not only tries to reach as many key buying influences as possible, but also provides help and information. The buyer makes the fewest decisions in the straight rebuy and the most in the new task situation.

Systems selling (or solutions selling) refers to buying a packaged solution to a problem from a single seller, thus avoiding all the separate decisions involved in a complex buying situation.

Types of Buying Situations (2 of 2)

Solutions selling: IBM works with Six Flags to provide a complete solution.

Delivering a fun and safe experience for Six Flags guests requires careful and effective management of thousands of park assets across its 19 regional theme parks. IBM works hand in hand with Six Flags to provide not just software but a complete solution.

Participants in the Business Buying Process

Buying center: All the individuals and units that play a role in the purchase decision-making process

Actual users of the product or service

People who make the buying decision

People and units influencing the buying decision

People who do the actual buying

Individuals and units controlling the buying information

The buying center consists of all the individuals and units that play a role in the purchase decision-making process. This group includes the actual users of the product or service, those who make the buying decision, those who influence the buying decision, those who do the actual buying, and those who control buying information.

The buying center is not a fixed and formally identified unit within the buying organization. It is a set of buying roles assumed by different people for different purchases. Within the organization, the size and makeup of the buying center will vary for different products and for different buying situations.

Figure 5.7 - Major Influences on Business Buying Behavior

Figure 5.7 illustrates that business buying behavior is influenced by a complex combination of environmental, organizational, interpersonal, and individual factors.

Learning Objective 5-4 Summary

Buying behavior of organizations

Business-to-business (B-to-B) marketers

Business buying process

Market structure and demand

Types of buying situations

Buying center - decision making unit

The business market is composed of all organizations that buy goods and services for use in the production of other products and services or for the purpose of reselling or renting them to others at a profit. Compared with consumer markets, business markets usually have fewer, larger buyers who are more geographically concentrated.

Business demand is derived demand, and the business buying decision usually involves more and more professional buyers. Business buyers make decisions that vary with the three types of buying situations: straight rebuys, modified rebuys, and new tasks.

The decision-making unit of a buying organization—the buying center—can consist of many different persons playing many different roles. The business marketer needs to know the following: Who are the major buying center participants? In what decisions do they exercise influence and to what degree? What evaluation criteria does each decision participant use? The business marketer also needs to understand the major environmental, organizational, interpersonal, and individual influences on the buying process.

Learning Objective 5-5

List and define the steps in the business buying decision process.

Figure 5.8 - Stages of Business Buying Behavior

Figure 5.8 lists the eight stages of the business buying process. The buying process begins with problem recognition. Problem recognition can result from internal or external stimuli. Having recognized a need, the buyer next prepares a general need description that describes the characteristics and quantity of the needed items or solutions. Once the buying organization has defined the need, it develops the item’s technical product specifications, often with the help of a value analysis engineering team. Product value analysis is an approach to cost reduction in which components are studied carefully to determine if they can be redesigned, standardized, or made by less costly methods of production.

In the next buying process step, the buyer conducts a supplier search to find the best vendors. In the proposal solicitation stage, the buyer invites qualified suppliers to submit proposals. The buyer next reviews the proposals and selects a supplier or suppliers. During supplier selection, the buyer will consider many supplier attributes and their relative importance. The buyer now prepares an order-routine specification. It includes the final order with the chosen supplier or suppliers. Many large buyers now practice vendor-managed inventory, in which they turn over ordering and inventory responsibilities to their suppliers. The final stage of the business buying process is the supplier performance review, in which the buyer reviews the supplier performance. The seller’s job is to monitor the same factors used by the buyer to make sure that the seller is giving the expected satisfaction.

E-Procurement and Online Purchasing

Purchasing through electronic connections between buyers and sellers–usually online

E-procurement occurs through

Reverse auctions

Online trading exchanges

Company buying sites

Extranet links with key suppliers

Advances in information technology have dramatically affected the face of the B-to-B buying process. Online purchasing, often called e-procurement, refers to purchasing through electronic connections between buyers and sellers—usually online.

Companies can do e-procurement in any of several ways. They can conduct reverse auctions, in which they put their purchasing requests online and invite suppliers to bid for the business. They can engage in online trading exchanges, through which companies work collectively to facilitate the trading process. Companies also can conduct e-procurement by setting up their own company buying sites. Companies can also create extranet links with key suppliers.

Benefits and Problems of E-Procurement

Benefits

Cuts transaction costs

Results in efficient purchasing for both buyers and suppliers

Reduces the time between order and delivery

Helps an organization keep better track of all purchases

Frees buyers from a lot of paperwork

Problems

Can affect the customer-supplier relationship

Pits suppliers against one another

Business-to-business e-procurement yields many benefits. First, it shaves transaction costs and results in more efficient purchasing for both buyers and suppliers. E-procurement reduces the time between order and delivery, and eliminates the paperwork associated with traditional requisition and ordering procedures. It helps an organization keep better track of all purchases. Finally, e-procurement frees purchasing people from a lot of drudgery and paperwork.

However, the rapidly expanding use of e-procurement also presents some problems. At the same time that the Internet makes it possible for suppliers and customers to share business data and even collaborate on product design, it can also erode decades-old customer-supplier relationships. Buyers now use the power of the Internet to pit suppliers against one another and search out better deals, products, and turnaround times on a purchase-by-purchase basis.

Business-to-Business Digital and Social Media Marketing

B-to-B marketers are now using a wide range of digital and social media marketing approaches.

Compared with traditional media and sales approaches, digital and social media can create greater customer engagement and interaction.

B-to-B marketers are now using a wide range of digital and social media marketing approaches—from Web sites, blogs, mobile apps, e-newsletters, and proprietary online networks to mainstream social media such as Facebook, LinkedIn, YouTube, Google+, and Twitter—to engage customers and manage customer relationships anywhere, any time.

Compared with traditional media and sales approaches, digital and social media can create greater customer engagement and interaction. B-to-B marketers know that they aren’t really targeting businesses, they are targeting individuals in those businesses who affect buying decisions. Today’s business buyers are always connected via their digital devices—whether it’s PCs, tablets, or smartphones.

Learning Objective 5-5 Summary

Steps in the business buying decision process:

Problem recognition, general need description, product specifications, proposal solicitation, supplier selection, order-routine specification, and performance review

Information and digital technology have given birth to “e-procurement.”

The business buyer decision process itself can be quite involved, with eight basic stages: problem recognition, general need description, product specification, supplier search, proposal solicitation, supplier selection, order-routine specification, and performance review. Buyers who face a new task buying situation usually go through all stages of the buying process. Buyers making modified or straight rebuys may skip some of the stages. Companies must manage the overall customer relationship, which often includes many different buying decisions in various stages of the buying decision process.

Recent advances in information and digital technology have given birth to “e-procurement,” by which business buyers are purchasing all kinds of products and services online. Business marketers are increasingly connecting with customers online and through digital, mobile, and social media to engage customers, share marketing information, sell products and services, provide customer support services, and maintain ongoing customer relationships.

Learning Objectives (3 of 4)

5-1. Understand the consumer market and the major factors that influence consumer buyer behavior.

5-2. Identify and discuss the stages in the buyer decision process.

5-3. Describe the adoption and diffusion process for new products.

Learning Objectives (4 of 4)

5-4. Define the business market and identify the major factors that influence business buyer behavior.

5-5. List and define the steps in the business buying decision process.