Arabic Language

CHAPTER 10

COMMUNICATING WITH ARABS

This chapter is about the Arabic languageand how speech is used in the Arab cul- ture. Though you may never learn Arabic, you will need to know something about the lan- guage and how it is used. Arabic is the native language of 400 million to 425 million people and the official language of some twenty countries. In 1973, it was named the fourth of- ficial language of the United Nations (there are now six), and it is the fifth most widely

spoken language in the world.* Arabic ori- ginated in the Arabian Peninsula as one of the northern Semitic languages. The only other Semitic languages still in wide use today are Hebrew (revived as a spoken lan- guage only a century ago) and Amharic (Ethiopian), which is from the southern Semitic branch. There are still a few speakers of the other northern Semitic languages (Aramaic, Syriac, and Chaldean) in Lebanon, Syria, and Iraq.

Many English words have come from Arabic, the most easily recognizable being those that begin with al (the Arabic word for “the”), such as algebra, alchemy, alcove, alcohol, and alkali. Many pertain to math- ematics and the sciences; medieval European scholars drew heavily on Arabic source ma- terials in these fields. Other Arabic words in- clude cipher, algorithm and almanac. Some foods that originated in the East brought their

Arabic names west with them, such as coffee, sherbet, sesame, apricot, ginger, saffron, and carob.*

VARIETIES OF ARABIC

Spoken Arabic in all its forms is very differ- ent from written Arabic. The written version is Classical Arabic, the language that was in use in the seventh century a.d. in the Hejaz area of Arabia. It is this rich, poetic language of the Qur’an that has persisted as the writ- ten language of all Arabic-speaking peoples since that time. Classical Arabic, which has evolved into Modern Standard Arabic to ac- commodate new words and usages, is sacred to Muslims. It is esthetically pleasing and far more grammatically complex than the spoken (or colloquial) dialects.

The spoken languages are “Formal Spoken Arabic,” a classicized style of speech

comprehensible to all educated Arabs, and colloquial (ordinary spoken) Arabic, which includes many dialects and subdialects. Al- though some of them differ from each other as, or more than Spanish does from Italian or the Scandinavian languages do from each other, they are all recognized as Arabic. When Arabic spread throughout the Middle East and North Africa with the Arabian con- quests, it mixed with and assimilated local languages, spawning the dialects that are spoken today.

An overview of Arabic language usage reveals the following:

Classical/Modern Standard Arabic: Classical Arabic is used in the Qur’an; Modern Standard Arabic is almost the same, used for all writing and for formal discussions, speeches, and news broadcasts but not for or-

dinary conversation. It is based on Classical Arabic, and is the same in all Arab countries, except for occa- sional variations in regional or spe- cialized vocabulary.† This is taught far more than the dialects in Western schools and universities. It is the only kind of Arabic taught in the Middle East.

Colloquial Arabic (dialects). Colloquial Arabic is used for everyday spoken communication but not for writing, except sometimes in very informal correspondence, in film or play scripts, or as slang in cartoons and the like.

Formal Spoken Arabic. Formal Spoken Arabic (Educated Spoken Arabic) is improvised, consisting principally of Standard Arabic terminology within the structure of the local dialect; it is

used by educated people when they converse with Arabs whose dialect is very different from their own. It is an acquired skill, with no hard-and-fast rules.

THE SUPERIORITY OF ARABIC

It is not an exaggeration to say that Arabs are passionately in love with their language. Just speaking and hearing it can be a moving ex- perience. Arabs are secure in the knowledge that their language is superior to all others. This attitude about one’s own language is held by many people in the world, but in the case of the Arabs, they can point to several factors as proof of their assertion.

Most importantly, when the Qur’an was revealed directly from God, Arabic was the medium chosen for His message; its use was not an accident. Arabic is also extremely dif-

ficult to master, and it is complex grammat- ically; this is viewed as another sign of su- periority. Because its structure lends itself to rhythm and rhyme, Arabic is pleasing to listen to when recited aloud. Finally, it has an unusually large vocabulary, and its grammar allows for the easy coining of new words, so that borrowing from other languages is less common in Arabic than in many other lan- guages. In other words, Arabic is richer than other languages, or so it is argued.

While most Westerners feel an affection for their native language, the pride and love Arabs feel for Arabic are much more intense. The Arabic language is their greatest cultural treasure and achievement, an art form that unfortunately cannot be accessed or appreci- ated by outsiders.

Arabic, if spoken or written in an ornate and semi-poetic style, casts a spell. Hearing the words and phrases used skillfully is an

esthetic, poetic experience, and people re- spond as much or more to the style as to the content. A talented orator can wield power in this subtle way. Beautiful Arabic conjures up images of once-memorized Qur’an passages or bits of poetry, and it can be just as intric- ate orally as the most complex Arabic calli- graphy designs are visually. Arabs love po- etry, which in ancient times was the nomadic Arabs’ chief means of artistic expression and still has a powerful place in their culture.*

THE PRESTIGE OF CLASSICAL ARABIC

The reverence for Arabic pertains only to Classical/Standard Arabic, which is what Arabs mean by the phrase “the Arabic lan- guage.” This was illustrated by the comment of an Egyptian village headman who once explained to me why he considered the vil- lage school to be important. “For one thing,”

he said, “that’s where the children go to learn Arabic.”

To the contrary, Arabic dialects have no prestige. Some people go so far as to suggest that they have “no grammar” and are not worthy of serious study. The dialects differ from each other, but now they are on the way to becoming more mutually intelligible and less of a block to communication. Satellite television has exposed everyone to other dia- lects, through programs from other countries and through frequent news interviews, often among people of mixed nationalities. Even speech from distant areas is commonly heard now. Committees of scholars have coined new words and tried to impose conventional usages to partially replace the dialects, but they have had no more success than language regulatory groups in other countries.

A good command of Standard Arabic is highly admired in the Arab culture because

it is difficult to attain. Few people other than scholars and specialists in Arabic have enough confidence to speak extemporan- eously in Standard Arabic or to defend their written style. In Arabic, the written language is called “The Most Eloquent Language.”

To become truly literate in Arabic re- quires more years of study than are required for English literacy. The student must learn new words in Standard Arabic (more than 50 percent of the words are different from the local dialect in some countries) and a whole new grammar, including case endings and new verb forms. A significant part of the literacy problem in the Arab world stems from the difficulty of Standard Arabic. Even people who have had five or six years of schooling are still considered functionally il- literate (unable to use the language for any- thing more than rudimentary needs, such as signing one’s name or reading signs).

On the other hand, the written language is not entirely a foreign language to illiterates or even to preschool children. They hear it passively on a constant basis, in news broad- casts, in speeches and formal discussions, on Sesame Street and in children’s books and re- cordings.

From time to time Arab scholars have suggested that Standard Arabic be replaced by written dialects to facilitate education and literacy. This idea has been repeatedly and emphatically denounced by the large major- ity of Arabs and has almost no chance of ac- ceptance in the foreseeable future. The most serious objection is that Classical Arabic is the language of the Qur’an. Another argu- ment is that if it were supplanted by the dia- lects, the entire body of Arabic literature and poetry would become inaccessible, and the language would lose much of its beauty.

There has also been some talk of simplifying the language, but this is not popular either.

There is a political argument for Standard Arabic—it is a cultural force that unites all Arabs. To discard it, many fear, would lead to a linguistic fragmentation that would ex- acerbate the tendencies toward political and psychological fragmentation already present. As one language expert said, “The Arabic language becomes instrumental in preserving our cultural hemisphere and protecting our heritage, religion, and values.”3

ELOQUENCE OF SPEECH

Eloquence is emphasized and admired in the Arab world far more than in the West, which accounts for the flowery prose in Arabic, both in written and spoken form. Instead of viewing rhetoric in a disparaging way, as Westerners often do, Arabs admire it. The

ability to speak eloquently is a sign of educa- tion and refinement.

Foreign observers frequently comment on long-winded political speeches and the repetition of phrases and themes in Arabic, failing to understand that the speaker’s style of delivery and command of the language of- ten appeal to the listeners as much as does the message itself. Exaggerations, threats, promises, and nationalistic slogans are meant more for momentary effect than as state- ments of policy or belief, yet foreigners too often take them literally, especially when en- countered in the cold light of a foreign lan- guage translation. In the Arab world, how you say something is as important as what you have to say.

Eloquence is a clue to the popular appeal of some nationalistic leaders whose words are far more compelling than their deeds. Much of the personal charisma attributed to

them is due in large part to their ability to speak in well-phrased, rhetorical Arabic. Re- petition of refrains is common, as is exagger- ation, which sometimes expresses wish ful- fillment and provides a satisfying substitu- tion of words for action.

Arabs devote considerable effort to using their language creatively and effectively. This is from a Christmas card I received in English from an Iraqi refugee, who had inter- viewed for a teaching position:

When fate bestows on a person, lost in a distant land, a drop of tenderness, a bou- quet of love, that person’s health and trust in others is restored.

I found in you true brotherhood, when you planted in my heart, which beats and which is not able to be still in its anxieties and its yearnings, that ten- derness.

Perhaps I will meet you some day in my beautiful Baghdad in order to return to you some of the kindness which you have shown me.

May this Christmas be the right occa- sion to realize our shared dream to build a world driven by friendship, love, and peace, so that the people of the earth will be blessed with justice, democracy, and the solidarity of mankind.

Leslie J. McLoughlin, a British specialist in Arabic, has written:

Westerners are not in everyday speech given, as Arabs are, to quoting poetry, ancient proverbs, and extracts from holy books. Nor are they wont to exchange fulsome greetings . . . . Perhaps the greatest difference between the Levantine approach to language and that of Westerners is that Levantines, like most Arabs, take pleasure in using lan-

guage for its own sake. The sahra (or evening entertainment) may well take the form of talk alone, but talk of a kind for- gotten in the West except in isolated communities such as Irish villages or Swiss mountain communities—talk not merely comical, tragic, historical, pastor- al, etc., but talk ranging over poetry, storytelling, anecdotes, jokes, word games, singing and acting.4

When the American television show The Apprentice was copied in the Arab world, it was felt too harsh to say to someone, “You’re fired!” Instead, the candidates were refused with “God be good to you.”5 Any listener understood the message from the context. There are several expressions of goodwill that are used to mask a different or negative meaning.

SPEECH MANNERISMS

Making yourself completely understood by another person is a difficult task under the best of circumstances. It is more difficult still if you each have dramatically different ways of expressing yourself. Such is the problem between Westerners and Arabs, which often results in misunderstanding, leaving both parties feeling bewildered or deceived.

Arabs talk a lot, repeat themselves, shout when excited, and make extensive use of gestures. They punctuate their conversations with oaths (such as “I swear by God”) to em- phasize what they say, and they exaggerate for effect. Foreigners sometimes wonder if they are involved in a discussion or an argu- ment.

If you speak softly and make your state- ments only once, Arabs may wonder if you really mean what you are saying. People will

ask, “Do you really mean that?” or, “Is that true?” It’s not that they do not believe you, but they need repetition and a few emphatic “yeses” to be reassured.

Arabs have a great tolerance for noise and interference during discussions; often several people speak at once (each trying to outshout the other), interspersing their state- ments with gestures, all the while being coached by bystanders. Businessmen inter- rupt meetings to greet callers, answer the telephone, and sign papers brought in by clerks. A foreigner may feel that he or she can be heard only by insisting on the precon- dition of being allowed to speak without in- terruption. Loudness of speech is mainly for dramatic effect and in most cases should not be taken as an indication of aggression or in- sistence on the part of the speaker.

In a taxi in Cairo once, my driver was shouting and complaining and gesticulating

wildly to other drivers as he worked his way through the crowded streets. Amid all this action, he turned around, laughed, and winked. “You know,” he said, “sometimes I really enjoy this!”

Some situations absolutely demand emo- tion and drama. In Baghdad, I was in a taxi when it was hit from the rear. Both drivers leapt out of their cars and began shouting at each other. After waiting ten minutes, while a crowd gathered, I decided to pay the fare and leave. I pushed through the crowd and got the driver’s attention. He broke off the ar- gument, politely told me that there was noth- ing to pay, and then resumed arguing at full voice.

Loud and boisterous behavior does have limits, however. It is more frequent, of course, among people of approximately the same age and social status who know each other well. It occurs mostly in social situ-

ations, less often in business meetings, and is not acceptable when dealing with elders or social superiors, in which case polite defer- ence is required. Bedouins and the Arabs of Saudi Arabia and the Gulf tend to be more reserved and soft-spoken, at least in more or less formal discussions. In fact, in almost every respect, protocol is stricter in the Ar- abian Peninsula than elsewhere in the Arab world.

PLEASANT AND INDIRECT RESPONSES

In general, Arab speech is rich in color and emotion. It is vibrant, and not tied down to sterile logic. Arab culture values hospitality and goodwill over precision and directness in conversation.

If you ask for directions, you will almost always get a response, even if the person is not sure. It is more important to make a

token effort of helpfulness (even if the in- formation is wrong) than to refuse the re- quest (the person didn’t misguide you, he helped). If bad news is imminent, it may be considered more polite to engage in circum- locution rather than going directly to the bru- tal truth. Indirect speech is also called for when making a request of a prominent or eld- erly person; it is a sign of deference.

THE POWER OF WORDS

To the Arab way of thinking (consciously or subconsciously), words have power; they can, to some extent, affect subsequent events. Arab conversation is peppered with blessings, which are like little prayers for good fortune, intended to keep things going well. Swearing and use of curses and ob- scenities are very offensive to Arabs. If words have power and can affect events, it is

feared that curses may bring misfortune just by being uttered. There is no point in provok- ing fate.

The liberal use of blessings also demon- strates that the speaker holds no envy toward a person or object; in other words, that he or she does not cast an “evil eye” toward something. Belief in the evil eye (often just called “the eye”) is common, and it is feared or acknowledged to some extent by most Arabs, although less so by the better edu- cated. It is widely believed that a person or object can be harmed if viewed (even uncon- sciously) with envy—with an evil eye. The harm may be prevented, however, by offer- ing blessings or statements of goodwill. We teach students of Arabic a large number of what we call “benedictions.” Learning them is not enough; one must also remember to use them.

Foreigners who do not know about the evil eye may be suspected of giving it. When a friend buys a new car, don’t express envy. Instead, say, “May you always drive it safely.” When someone moves to a new house, say, “May you always live here hap- pily.” When meeting someone’s children, say, “May they always be healthy,” or, “May God keep them for you.” All these are trans- lations of much-used Arabic expressions. Westerners must learn to use benedictions as a new speech habit. Omitting benedictions can be seen as rude.

EUPHEMISMS

Arabs are uncomfortable discussing illness, disaster, or death. This trait illustrates how the power of words affects Arab speech and behavior. A careless reference to bad events can lead to misfortune or make a bad situ-

ation worse. Arabs avoid such references as much as possible, and use euphemisms in- stead.

Euphemisms serve as substitutes, and a foreigner needs to learn the code in order to understand what is really being said. For example, instead of saying that someone is sick, Arabs may describe a person as “a little tired.” They avoid saying a word like cancer, saying instead, “He has it,” or, “She has the disease,” and often wait until the illness is over before telling others about it, even rel- atives. Arabs do not speak easily about death and sometimes avoid telling others about a death for some time; even then they will phrase it euphemistically.

Some years back I was visiting the owner of an Egyptian country estate when two men came in supporting a third man who had col- lapsed in the field. The landlord quickly tele- phoned the local health unit. He got through

just as the man slipped from his chair and appeared to be having a heart attack. “Am- bulance!” he screamed. “Send me an ambu- lance! I have a man here who’s . . . a little tired!”

These are social manners—in technical situations, of course, where specificity is re- quired (doctor to patient, commander to sol- dier), explicit language is used, not courtes- ies.

These substitutions, blessings, and bene- dictions mean that Arabic is a “high-context” language—one must know the context to fully understand.

THE WRITTEN WORD

Arabs have considerable respect for the writ- ten as well as the spoken word. Some very pious people feel that anything written in Ar- abic should be burned when no longer

needed (such as newspapers) or at least not left on the street to be walked on or used to wrap things, because the name of God prob- ably appears somewhere. Decorations using Arabic calligraphy, Qur’anic quotations, and the name Allah are never used on floors (un- like crosses in floors of churches, especially in Europe). They are often seen, however, in framed pictures or painted on walls. If you buy something decorated with Arabic calli- graphy, ask what it means; you could offend Arabs by the careless handling of an item decorated with a religious quotation.

If you own an Arabic Qur’an, you must handle it with respect. It should be placed flat on a table or in its own area on a shelf, not wedged in with many other books. Best of all, keep it in a velvet box or display it on an X-shaped wooden stand (both are made for this purpose). Under no circumstances

should anything (an ashtray, another book) be placed on top of the Qur’an.

Written blessings and Qur’anic verses are effective in assuring safety and prevent- ing the evil eye, so they are seen all over the Arab world. Blessings are posted on cars and trucks and engraved on jewelry. You will see religious phrases in combination with the color blue, drawings of eyes, or pictures of open palms, all of which appear as amulets against the evil eye.

PROVERBS

Arabs use proverbs far more than Westerners do, and they have hundreds. Many are in the forms of rhymes or couplets. A person’s knowledge of proverbs and when to use them enhances his or her image by demonstrating wisdom and insight.

Here is a selection of proverbs that help illuminate the Arab outlook on life. Proverbs frequently refer to family and relatives, poverty and social inequality, fate and luck.

Support your brother, whether he is the tyrant or the tyrannized. The knife of the family does not cut. (If you are harmed by a relative, don’t take offense.) You are like a tree, giving your shade to the outside. (You should give more attention to your own family.) One hand alone does not clap. (Cooperation is essential.) The hand of God is with the group. (There is strength in unity.) The young goose is a good swimmer. (Like father, like son.)

Older than you by a day, wiser than you by a year. (Respect older people and their ad- vice.) The eye cannot rise above the eye- brow. (Be satisfied with your station in life.) The world is changeable, one day honey and the next day onions. (This rhymes in Arabic.) Every sun has to set. (Fame and fortune may be fleeting.) Seven trades but no luck. (This rhymes in Arabic.) (Even if a person is qualified, be- cause of bad luck he may not find work.) It’s all fate and chance.

Your tongue is like a horse—if you take care of it, it takes care of you; if you treat it badly, it treats you badly. The dogs may bark but the caravan moves on. (A person should rise above petty cri- ticism.) Patience is beautiful. The slave does the thinking and the lord carries it out. (Man proposes and God disposes.) Bounties are from God.

And finally, my very favorite:

The monkey in the eyes of his mother is a gazelle.

______________ * The ranking of the top ten languages is: Mandar- in Chinese, Spanish, English, Hindi-Urdu, Arabic, Bengali, Portuguese, Russian, Japanese, Punjabi. * For more examples, see the Mawrid dictionary1 101–112, or Al-bab.com, which lists some 200 words. † Classical and Modern Standard Arabic differ, but differences are technical. * Most Westerners are not particularly sensitive toward poetry. But the power of poetry in Arab culture is well described by Saudi statesman and author Ghazi Algosaibi: “Arabic poetry was born in an environment which knew no other form of literature or fine art. Unlike numerous other civil- izations which were fascinated by singing, dan- cing, acting, painting, sculpture, and music, pre- Islamic Arabs knew no medium of artistic expres- sion other than poetry. To the Arabs, poetry, re- gardless of its political and social role, represen- ted what the other fine arts combined stood for in

other cultures. This perhaps explains the special position poetry occupied in the minds and souls of the Arabs.”2