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AmericAn secondAry educAtion 40(1) FAll 2011

ciVic PArticiPAtion: A curriculum For democrAcy

Authors

louise conn Fleming, Ph.d, is a Professor and Chair for the Department of Foundations, Inquiry, & Community Education in the Dwight Schar College of Education at Ashland University in Ashland, Ohio.

Abstract

The U. S. was founded on the principle that ordinary citizens would rule, but most students are not taught to be rulers. Colonists in New England worked together on issues for the common good, and children learned the skills of associating from their parents. Today, however, many citizens feel they can- not make a difference, and civic participation has declined. If our democracy is to last, civic participation must become central to the curriculum. This article includes ingredients of a curriculum for democracy and examples of school programs that include those ingredients.

Most American schools teach history and government, but few prepare stu- dents to be citizens by involving them in democratic practices. Meier (2000) stated that the real crisis in education is not how much our children don’t know, but how little they participate in democracy. The United States was founded on the belief that the ordinary citizen is the ruler, but “only 10-20 percent of Americans receive the formal and informal education intended to produce a ruling class” (Meier, 2009, p. 46).

Even when they try to make their voices heard, people often feel as if the results have been predetermined and that no one is really listening to them (The Harwood Group, 1991). Although many young adults volun- teered in the 2008 presidential campaign, for instance, many others did not participate because they believed that the results would not change any-

AmericAn secondAry educAtion 40(1) FAll 2011

ciVic PArticiPAtion: A curriculum For democrAcy Fleming

thing (Levine, 2009). Such attitudes are far from the traditions established by the nation’s founders.

New England colonies were founded around communities, at the cen- ter of which was the meeting house. The colonies were thought of as com- monwealths, communities that shared wealth and in which people worked together on issues of the common good. In the 1830s, Frenchman Alexis de Tocqueville, visited the U.S. and marveled at the number of associations do- ing public work. School children invented games with rules and settled their own disputes. Americans consistently invented solutions to problems, and they associated for celebrations, public security, trade and industry, morals and religion, and even temperance. He stated,

if some obstacle blocks the public road halting the circulation of traffic, the neighbors at once form a deliberative body; this improvised assem- bly produces an executive authority which remedies the trouble before anyone has thought of the possibility of some previously constituted au- thority beyond that of those concerned. (de Tocqueville, 1988, p. 189)

In the nineteenth century children learned empowerment and the skills of association from watching their parents. It was also considered part of the job of schooling. According to Thomas Jefferson and later Horace Mann, who is considered the father of the common school, the school’s main pur- pose was citizenship. Theobald and Curtiss (2000) stated,

When free schools were established in this country, the goal was to provide a common education so that people could effectively wield the power that was theirs by virtue of living in a democracy. In other words, schooling was about improving life, not by enabling individual acquisition in the marketplace, but by setting up better deliberation in the policy arena. (p. 106)

In the twentieth century, believing in the capacity for intelligent judgment and action, educational philosopher John Dewey encouraged maximum participation by the public (Westbrook, 1991). He regarded participatory democracy as an ethical ideal and a necessary subject for education (John- son and Reed, 2008).

Why a Curriculum for Democracy? Participatory democracy is an inheritance into which we need to invite stu- dents for two reasons. The first is that the future of democracy depends on it

AmericAn secondAry educAtion 40(1) FAll 2011

Fleming ciVic PArticiPAtion: A curriculum For democrAcy

(Barber, 2003). A democracy cannot maintain itself without active citizens, and young people cannot live up to their full potential as citizens unless they have been taught how. The second is that participatory democracy is good for students. Adolescence today is treated as a deficit, and society treats adolescents as if they have nothing to offer a community except to go to school and stay out of trouble (Levine, 2007). When young people be- lieve they have no effective way to contribute, they turn inward and brood (Theobald & Curtiss, 2000).

Levine (2007) contended that young people needed opportunities for leading, serving, deliberating, and addressing problems so they can use their “energy, creativity, resilience, independence, and fresh thinking” (p. 64). He summed up by stating that participating in politics, community af- fairs, or leadership roles at age fifteen or twenty-two makes it much more likely that an individual will be involved at thirty or forty.

Meier (2009) argued that students were learning habits of dependency and compliance and that the only alternative they saw was rebellion. She argued that students need a curriculum that encourages independence and thoughtfulness and an ethic of participation, in short, a curriculum for de- mocracy.

That’s what schools ought to be doing – schooling for ruling. That’s their singular public responsibility. There is no other place in modern life where ordinary people learn the trade of democracy – its particular body of knowledge, its particular skills, and its “habits of mind.” (p. 46)

What is a Curriculum for Democracy? The habits of mind that are needed for thinking as a citizen should perme- ate the curriculum, and students should observe them in the adults in their lives (Meier, 2002). Questions such as what is patriotism, what is it to have a stake in one’s community, how to respect and to challenge authority, how to develop mutuality and trust, and how to understand the connections be- tween themselves and the planet are a good place to start (Meier, 2002).

Levine (2007) argued that a class in civics, government, or social stud- ies is foundational, pointing out that young people who had taken a civics class were more likely to vote and follow the news, and four times as likely to volunteer for a campaign. He also argued that students should have am- ple opportunities for classroom discussions of controversial issues so they could learn to debate without demonizing opponents, and he emphasized discussion that is linked to action. Levine (2009) also suggested other activi- ties, including service learning, mock trials and other simulations related

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ciVic PArticiPAtion: A curriculum For democrAcy Fleming

to citizenship, as well as participation in student government, the school newspaper, or community research projects.

Students’ chances to make substantive contributions may start with their own schools, but they should also extend beyond the school so com- munity members can become partners and mentors in civic engagement. The effects of this curriculum benefit both the students and the community. Smith (2002) contended that community participation breaks down the wall between the school and the community.

Entering the community, students have the chance to participate in ac- tivities – from service to data gathering and from planning to presenta- tions – that are valued by the adults who are important to them. Chil- dren are primed to learn things that bring them genuine praise and the satisfaction that comes from helping others. Finally, students’ work is assessed in the same way as the work of any person is assessed: on the basis of its competence and its contribution to community well-being and sustainability. (p. 593)

Haynes (2009) argued that preparing ethical and engaged citizens requires giving students, “meaningful opportunities to practice freedom responsibly in a school culture that encourages shared decision making” (p. 11). Among the specific practices he advocated are service learning, peer mediation, ethical use of the Internet, and a free student press. He also recommended having classes make their own rules, holding class meetings in which every student has the opportunity to speak, a student-run character council, and frequent discussion of ethical issues in class.

Two Key Practices According to Mathews (2006, p. xi), “The work of making collective deci- sions and acting on them generates the political equivalent of the electricity that lights the lamp.” He suggested that deliberation and action are the key practices in a curriculum for democracy.

Democratic Deliberation. According to the ancient Greeks, democratic deliberation is “’the talk we use to teach ourselves before we act’” (Mathews, 2006, p. 93). It is the central theme in a curriculum for democracy. It is at the heart of citizen participation. It is what enables groups to accomplish what they cannot by themselves. The nation, educators, and students need to commit to democratic discourse as the underpinning that makes democracy work. Levine (2009) stated that, as frequently as possible, schools need to offer opportunities to discuss issues.

AmericAn secondAry educAtion 40(1) FAll 2011

Fleming ciVic PArticiPAtion: A curriculum For democrAcy

As students discuss issues, teachers should moderate, promoting civil- ity, diversity of perspectives, reliance on trustworthy information, and the application of such perennial principles from the U. S. Constitution as freedom of speech. (p. 24)

Parker (1997) suggested some specific practices that encouraged delibera- tion. They included 1) increasing interaction among students who are dif- ferent from one another, 2) asking students to deliberate about problems related to their personal interactions as well as controversies that grow out of academic disciplines, and 3) modeling and expecting deliberation that is rooted in knowledge, not just opinion. Parker (1997) emphasized that,

“Interaction in schools can help children develop the habits of behavior and character necessary for public life: the courtesies, manners, tolerance, respect, sense of justice, and knack for forging public policy with others, whether one likes them or not” (p. 1).

Students and teachers at Parkway High School for Peace and Social Justice provided an example of democratic deliberation (Seif, 2009). They were expected to follow Peace Actions, including respectful language and actions. They studied ideas such as leadership for social responsibility and how to handle personal conflicts. Students researched and collaborated on social issues and considered questions such as, What is racism? and What forces may have led to the growth and institutionalization of racism? (Seif, 2009, pp. 5-6))

Meier (2009) stated that both students and teachers need opportunities to deliberate. At Mission Hill school, teachers regularly discussed issues as diverse as dress codes and curriculum. Seventh grade students elected rep- resentatives to the School Governing Board, which also included members from the school staff, students’ families, and the broader community. In their classes, students at Mission Hill focused on habits of mind that are central to an informed and intelligent citizenry: evidence, viewpoint, connections/ cause and effect, conjecture, and relevance (Meier, 2009). The office at Mis- sion Hill is open to everyone, and students regularly observe staff handling decisions, discussing issues, and correcting mistakes (Meier, 2009).

Mathews (2006) identified six practices as essential for the deliberative arts. These practices turn an assembly of disparate individuals with compet- ing interests into a purposeful group with shared goals. The first practice is naming: finding a name that is large enough to encompass the interests of the people in the group. This means that everyone is given a chance to tell their own story and that everyone listens to the stories of the others. The second practice is framing: identifying all the possible options for achiev-

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ciVic PArticiPAtion: A curriculum For democrAcy Fleming

ing that goal. The third practice is democratic deliberation: discussing and judging the merits of each option in relation to the group’s goal. In delibera- tion, it is essential for people to participate as equals whose experiences are equally important. They should seek outside resources and information as it is needed, but they should not defer to someone just because he or she appears to have expertise on the subject.

The fourth practice is working together for mutual goals. Agencies or authorities need to resist solving the problem by themselves. It is critical for citizens and agencies to commit to acting together as equals, each bringing to the process their resources, knowledge, and abilities. The fifth practice is working together over an extended time. This means that both citizens and agencies take responsibility for outcomes and commit to serving together over time. The sixth practice is ongoing evaluation. On an ongoing basis, citizens themselves need to evaluate their goals, actions, and results, and determine future goals and actions.

“An integral part of education is learning that democratic communi- ties are strong enough to contain their deepest differences” (Gerzon, 1997, p. 6). If we avoid discussing these differences in schools, we are telling young people that we do not trust them to deal with difficult issues, and that furthermore, perhaps it is the adults do not know how to deal with differ- ence. “The core challenge of citizenship is learning to cope creatively with controversy and to make informed choices. A generation of students will learn these skills only if educators enable them to encounter situations that require using them” (Gerzon, 1997, p. 4).

Action. “There is no right way to teach democracy unless we also practice it,” stated Gerzon, (1997, p. 1). Problem-solving in a “rich and varied environment” with a “whole community of players on a real-world stage” will help students to think critically and creatively about what they are learning and doing (Theobald & Curtiss, 2000, p. 108). Additionally, acting in the community shows children the relevance and results of their efforts and gives them the satisfaction of having made a contribution . Thus, the community is “potentially the teacher and the topic” (Theobald & Cur- tiss, 2000, p. 107).

“The best social action projects are like an earthquake,” wrote Schmidt (2009, p. 35). They arise from work and conversations with students, but they must be guided by teachers who encourage their questions. Schmidt’s examples include a group of fifth graders who waged a campaign to close and clean up a hazardous waste site near their school. According to Schmidt, many teachers who pursue social action projects with their stu- dents “report that their students exceed expectations on dozens of stan-

AmericAn secondAry educAtion 40(1) FAll 2011

Fleming ciVic PArticiPAtion: A curriculum For democrAcy

dards,” and, in the process, they are testing their own “courage, persistence, ingenuity, intelligence, and diplomacy” (p. 35). Participation in social action projects teaches students what it means to be a citizen; the importance of political leadership and public service; finding and using information on a public issue; communicating to the public; using knowledge of government, law, and politics to take action; and examining ethical and moral reasoning (Schmidt, 2009, p. 36).

Levine (2007) noted that civic participation changes a person. As they work, people “begin to see themselves as citizens and participants, rather than as isolated individuals” (p. 73). Additionally, lack of skills should not deter would-be participants. They gain the skills as they practice them. Civic engagement teaches a host of skills, including how to chair meetings, keep records, persuade peers, and handle a budget, as well as civic development and understanding of government functions, such as legislatures, elections, and trials (Levine, 2007). Levine also stated that studies show that such valu- able skills and knowledge, learned in youth, persist into adulthood.

Curriculum for Democracy in Action In a curriculum for democracy, students can participate within or outside their schools, deliberating and acting to produce results. One district em- barked on a sustainability campaign, and seniors developed a class project designed to reduce energy consumption and waste (Smith & Sobel, 2010). Some students studied electrical consumption and compared costs of tradi- tional electricity with solar panels. Others investigated using compostable dishes and flatware in the cafeteria and installing waterless urinals in the restrooms. Students presented their findings to school leaders and an archi- tectural team working in the district. Within a year, the school had imple- mented some of the students’ ideas. Students learned how to apply skills of literacy, math, and analysis, and the district benefited from their work.

By tapping into student commitment and creativity, the district has ben- efited from students’ innovative thinking and given them a chance to make long-lasting contributions to the school. (Smith & Sobel, 2010, p. 38)

Many other students and teachers are creating opportunities to partici- pate civically in their communities, and they are transforming themselves and their communities. Barbara Black and Letitia Rice in New Hampshire worked with their fifth and sixth graders to help revitalize a park. They mapped it, identified flora, researched native flora, designed a landscape

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proposal, presented it to town committees, and planted in the spring. Dur- ing the process, they learned and achieved in a meaningful context and took steps toward shaping the future of the community (Sobel & Spikol, 2008).

Like the caddis fly [an insect whose larvae live in streams and build their own shelters], we build who we are by what is around us and where we have come from. This seems particularly true for middle school students as they begin their slow and often difficult transition from childhood to adulthood. They construct their portable self, and although they will emerge as their own adult, their school and community experiences can shape the home that will always be part of them. We want those cases to be constructed of New Hampshire leaves and pebbles of com- munity service rather than shreds of MTV and Tommy Hilfiger. (p. 74)

Like Black and Rice, fourth and fifth grade teachers in the Upper Connecti- cut River Valley invented curricula to connect their students with their com- munities, and in the process, students learned academics, strengthened col- laboration between the school and the local citizens, and laid a foundation for future engagement in civic life (Sobel, 2008). Valley Quest was invented by Delia Clark, Maggie Stier, Linny Levin, and a “host of local school prin- cipals and teachers” (Sobel, 2008, p. 102). In their curriculum, students researched local history, made maps, interviewed community elders, wrote poetry, and discovered “new corners of the terrain in their own backyards” (Sobel, 2008, p. 102). Students invented quests, which led to treasure boxes hidden in the community. In April, when the quests from all participating classrooms were published, the season officially opened. Stated Sobel, “ Everyone and their grandmothers go questing” ( 2008, p. 105).

In southern New Jersey, fourth graders became very concerned about children who were hospitalized for serious illnesses. Working with the Ali- cia Rose “Victorious” Foundation, they raised hundreds of dollars by sell- ing bandanas and put together Teen Kits to distribute to hospitalized youth (Sudek & Hartman, 2009). In Baltimore, high school students worked with a community association to collect evidence in support of class-action law- suits that forced removal of alcohol and tobacco billboards from their neigh- borhood (Levine, 2007). The Youth and Farm Market Project in Minneapolis and Saint Paul operated community gardens, sold produce, and worked to “ improve nutrition and provide vegetables and herbs that immigrants needed to cook their traditional foods” (Levine, 2007, p. 160).

Another example arose from the trouble that a group of skateboarders in Burnsville, Minnesota were causing. When Mayor Kautz asked them what

AmericAn secondAry educAtion 40(1) FAll 2011

Fleming ciVic PArticiPAtion: A curriculum For democrAcy

would change their behavior, they asked for a skate park. She challenged them to organize the community and to build their own skate park. The young people raised funds and negotiated agreements with neighborhoods, city agencies, businesses, and insurance companies. Finally, city council agreed to support their plan and the park was built (Boyte & Kari, 1997).

In 1987 to 1988, Bill Elasky, sixth grade teacher in Amesville, Ohio, and his students constructed a year-long unit on water quality testing. It started with the children’s curiosity about a chemical spill in a creek near the school. “Before they finished, the group had become one of the area’s most reliable sources of information on water quality both in homes and in the wild” (Wood, 1992, p. 14). According to Wood, students raised money for their work, ordered test kits, mapped area streams, took photographs, and tested water samples. They were featured in local papers and were in demand as invited speakers at a number of conferences. During the process students learned academics, how to work together, and how to make a dif- ference.

The recurring theme here is that community makes learning possible. Indeed, the strength of democratic community is that collaboration makes individual growth possible. (Wood, 1992, p. 117)

A high school business teacher in Howard, South Dakota, obtained a grant from a nearby university to study cash flow in the community (Theobald & Curtiss, 2000). He took the problem to his students who developed pro- cesses to follow. They conducted town meetings with local business owners, consulted with the county auditor, and surveyed community members. Stu- dents sorted data and analyzed the answers and found that most residents were spending their income in larger cities some distance away.

When the results were reported in the local paper, residents saw what was happening and responded by buying locally. By the end of the summer, annual sales tax projections had already been exceeded and the auditor estimated that $6 to $7 million had been infused into Howard’s economy (Theobald & Curtiss, 2000). This project taught students real life applications of economics. They also learned about their local area, how to construct surveys and analyze data, and how to talk to people. Finally, they learned “that ineffable quality that all schools strive for: student character” (p. 110).

Elaine Senechal, former teacher at Greater Eggleston Community High School in Boston, taught a course in environmental justice. The school is in Roxbury, which is the site of the city bus lot, and it also has heavy truck traf- fic (Smith, 2002). She invited a community organization called Alternatives

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ciVic PArticiPAtion: A curriculum For democrAcy Fleming

for Community and Environment (ACE) to meet with her students to talk about their efforts to improve air quality. They had discovered that little ac- curate data existed about the air quality in their neighborhood. Together, the students and the organization worked with public health agencies to write grants and to purchase monitoring equipment. They started monitoring air quality and sharing the information with local residents. ACE and students led efforts to enforce anti-idling laws and to have diesel buses gradually replaced with less-polluting alternatives. Students have continued activism to protect the air and the neighborhood (Smith, 2007).

[Students learned] to collect and analyze data, to collaborate with one other and other community members, to organize public events, and to write and deliver testimony at hearings. They came to perceive them- selves as citizens capable of participating in public conversations that could protect and improve their own lives and the lives of those around them. They and others began to recognize their voices as significant and as potentially powerful as the voices of any other participants in civic government (Smith, 2007, p. 193).

Conclusion A curriculum for democracy is a curriculum for civic participation. It is good for students, for schools, for communities, and for the strength of de- mocracy. It is education for self-rule, a democracy “rooted in collective de- cision making and acting” (Mathews, 2006, p. vii). Inviting students into citizenship empowers them. They discover that they can make authentic contributions and that they are both citizens and rulers. They learn academ- ics while practicing skills of listening, thinking, debating, deliberating, and acting. A curriculum for democracy demonstrates to students and the public a belief in young people’s capacity for citizenship, and it recognizes that they are the future of democracy. Civic participation is critical for creating citizens who contribute toward public goals, and it is critical for preserving a democracy of citizens who are rulers. We need to start today to build a curriculum for democracy.

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