Consultant Report - 8 pages (3900 words)

Popular Unsustainable and Environmentally Concerning Aquaculture Methodology

Arizona State University

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Abstract

Aquaculture will continue to grow as the expected fish demand will increase inevitably with the

rising population. The reliance on aquaculture systems comes with responsibility of owners and

respective stakeholders to assure that the systems are using sustainable and environmentally

friendly mechanisms. This report discusses various ways to create a more sustainable and

environmentally friendly aquaculture system in terms of fishmeal alternatives, built-structure

types, and antibiotics and chemical usage to give recommendations to fish farm owners. The

report also touches on ethical practices in owning an aquaculture system. The most sustainable

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method was found to be feed using microalgae and insects, structure type of pen and cage, and

phage therapy as an antibiotic treatment replacement.

1.0 Introduction: Background of Aquaculture Systems

1.1 Current Unsustainable Aquaculture Methodology

With the world’s increasing in population, fish and seafood in general has become widely relied

on as a source of protein, and this reliance will continue and grow. In 2030, it is expected that

150 to 160 million tons of fish will be consumed (“Global and regional food”, n.d.). Besides

fishing, aquaculture is a major method in which we obtain fish, and will continue to be to meet

the world demand of fish. Aquaculture is diverse in its methods, but the main idea is to create a

farm in a body of water to efficiently produce copious amounts of seafood like fish (freshwater

and saltwater), and shellfish. Many factors go into an aquaculture system to assure its success,

such as the feed type, the farm location, and the farm structure. Many may assume that

aquaculture would decrease pressure on fisheries because fish are being separately farmed for the

purpose of eating, however this is not the case. Currently “Around 85% of global fish stocks are

over-exploited, depleted, fully exploited or in recovery from exploitation” (Vince, 2012). This is

greatly concerning as it is known that the global population is only increasing, and therefore the

global demand for fish consumption will only increase as well. Current methods of aquaculture

currently contribute to the depletion of fisheries because of the use of fishmeal to feed the farmed

fish. Fishmeal is made up of wild-caught, usually small, marine fish that are not usually used for

human consumption. These fish, caught in vast amounts, are grinded up and used for agricultural

uses, where globally 5% of the fishmeal is used for poultry, 20% is used for swine, and 73% is

used for aquaculture (“Fish to 2030”, 2013). Fishmeal is a primary use of feed for aquaculture

because it is low cost, and provides the necessary amount of protein and lipids for the farmed

fish, however it is an unsustainable method for feedstock. In addition to this concern, current

aquaculture methods have been found to pollute the area that the fish farm exists, through the

concentrated amount of fish waste, growth hormones, chemicals and uneaten feed. As a result of

this pollution, various habitats surrounding the area are damaged and have grave impacts on

certain species. For example, benthic invertebrates, such as crabs or shellfish, are affected by the

organic matter created by aquaculture systems as there is a “Potential loss or reduced diversity

through smothering of benthic habitats and through oxygen depletion and hydrogen sulphide

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production during bacterial de-composition of organic matter” (“Impact of Aquaculture”, n.d.).

Overall, these are the main concerning issues of current aquaculture systems, and individual and

corporate owners of aquaculture systems are responsible for maintaining sustainable systems that

do not highly impact the earth’s water, land, carbon, and energy footprint.

1.2 Aquaculture and Earth Systems Engineering and Management Principles

When considering a system like aquaculture, the concepts of earth systems engineering and

management principles must be applied to assure feasibility, efficiency, and durability in the

design, and to assure ethical procedure. The three following principles are most relevant:

- “Only intervene when required and to the extent required” (Allenby, n.d.).

- “ESEM should aim for resiliency, not just redundancy, in systems design. A resilient

system resists degradation and, when it must, degrades gracefully even under

unanticipated assaults; a redundant system may have a backup mechanism for a particular

subsystem, but still may be subject to unpredicted catastrophic failures” (Allenby, n.d.).

- “The ESEM environment and the complexity of the systems at issue require explicit

mechanisms for assuring continual learning, including ways in which assimilation of the

learning by stakeholders can be facilitated” (Allenby, n.d.).

The first principle mentioned applies as only aquaculture systems that are unsustainable should

be altered, and existing aquaculture systems that are unsustainable should be adjusted only to the

extent required to avoid unnecessary energy and material use. The second principle is applicable

in a sense that the built aquaculture systems usually involving cages like structures, should use

material that is durable and does not give off chemicals harmful to the environment surrounding

the system as it ages. The third principle applies to aquaculture systems because research and

technological advances are always being made, thus learning about new methods and ways to be

more sustainable and environmentally friendly is of utmost importance when having ownership

of an aquaculture system. These principles are important to keep in mind when thinking about

management of an aquaculture system to assure that the best methods are chosen.

2.0 Solutions: Methods to Improve the Sustainability of Aquaculture Systems

2.1 Fishmeal Usage and Alternatives: Soy, Microalgae, Insects

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Fishmeal alternatives are feedstock that have enough protein and lipids to replace some of the

fishmeal being fed to the farmed fish. Using fishmeal alternatives increases sustainability of the

system as it decreases fishmeal reliance, and also has benefits in creating less waste in the ocean

depending on what the replacement is. There are three types of fishmeal alternatives that will be

analyzed and compared: soy, yeast, microalgae, and insects. These feedstocks will be analyzed

based on the provided protein and lipid percent, health and growth of the fish, overall

sustainability, and its degradability in the water environments. Salmon aquaculture systems will

be looked at when comparing these feedstocks because it is the highest consumed fish globally.

Soy is a widely grown bean plant and has diverse uses, but is mostly utilized in agriculture. Soy

calories are roughly made up of 38% high quality protein, and 40% fat and lipids (“Soybean

Nutritional”, 2017). Many have researched soy as fishmeal alternative because of its promising

high protein and lipid yield, and because of its low cost. According to a research study, when

40% of the fishmeal was replaced with a type of soybean meal with reduced content of

oligosaccharides and antinutritional factors, Salmon were able to accept this diet, and did not

have a significantly less weight of a Salmon fed purely fishmeal. After 55 days of being fed

fishmeal, the Salmon were approximately 239 grams, and after 55 days of being fed 60%

fishmeal and 40% soybean meal, the Salmon were approximately 232 grams (Klijn, 2012). 40%

is a significant amount to replace as many times fish have digestibility issues with fishmeal

alternatives, or get sickly and show signs of anemia. Although replacing 40% is a significant

amount and could greatly reduce global fishmeal reliance, soy itself uses a lot of resources to

produce, and may not potentially be the most sustainable as a result. To grow soy in the amount

that is needed to replace the fishmeal, large amounts of land, and freshwater are needed, and

there would be some carbon dioxide, GHG emissions as well. In terms of degradability, plant

feed is known to have acceptable degradability properties, which does not allow the feed to

continue to persist in the environment and cause pollution in the environment or block other

organisms from sunlight.

Microalgae is microscopic algae that is grown in fresh and salt water marine environments.

Microalgae has been highly researched as a potential fish meal alternative because it has high

generally high protein and lipid yield. Microalgae is primarily made up of 50-60% protein, and

around 10-12% lipids depending on the microalgae type (“Algal Chemical”, n.d.). According to

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a research study when 10% of the feed was microalgae, the salmon was 268 grams, and when the

salmon was fed a feed that had no microalgae replacement, the salon was 271 grams. The fish

were observed to have maintained good health throughout the experiment and thrived with the

microalgae in their diets, showing that it can be a successful replacer of fishmeal. It was also

noticed that feeding the salmon microalgae made the meat pinker and more saturated. Although

the replacement is not as much as soy, 10% could still potentially save a significant amount of

fishmeal (Kousoulaki 2016). Microalgae is microscopic and does not nearly need the amount of

resources that soy does to grow in terms of land, water, carbon dioxide, and energy. They are

usually grown in ponds or bioreactors, and can be grown in marginal land, which thus does not

compete with the land needed for agriculture (Slade, 2013). A significant amount of research is

being done on microalgae as it has also been found to be a successful biofuel source. Thus,

although it microalgae is not as cheap as soy, it can be predicted to get cheaper in the future.

Similar to soy, because microalgae are plant based it degrades well in water, and does not put

harm to the environment around it.

Insects have also been shown to be a successful fishmeal replacement. Insects are roughly 66%

protein, and 19% lipids depending on the insect type, which is a great yield for fishmeal

replacement (Kouřimská, 2016). According to research, it was found that when fishmeal was

replaced with 25% or 50% by insect meal, growth of the salmon was unaffected. Overall, the fish

were able to successfully digest the insect meal and did not have any concerning health issues.

This finding is substantial as the replacement percentage is significantly high. In terms of

sustainability, insects can be grown in small spaces, and are relatively pollution free as they do

not require much resources to grow and thrive. Additionally, insects usually feed on manure or

leftover food and do not have a large freshwater consumption. Overall, insects are uncostly and

seem like a successful feed however, researchers have concerns with insects involving the safety

of human consumption of them in terms of bacteria or disease passing. In the end more research

is needed before using insects for farmed fish, however it has promising results in terms of fish

health and growth (Kupferschmidt, 2015). Also, because insects are not plant based, their

degradability in water will not be as successful as the soy or microalgae.

2.2 Built-Structure Types: Ponds, Pens and Cages

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Ponds involve the farming of fish in man-made or natural basins and can be used in fresh or

ocean water environments created to raise the fish. It is an old farming technique that is

commonly used today because of its familiarity. According to the Food and Agriculture

Organization of the United Nations (“Aquaculture Methods”, n.d.), ponds should have certain

systematic components that work together to ensure efficiency and organization. These

components include compartments enclosed by dikes, canals that supply and drain water to

different pond areas, and gates to control waterflow to different compartments. Certain pond

structures have the ability to reduce the possibility of spreading diseases, control of

contamination, overall have convenient maintenance practices, and do not have much limitation

in the types of fishes that can be farmed. In terms of sustainability ponds usually intake water

and use large amounts of land that may be needed for agriculture.

Figure 1. Example of a pond layout using water from an intake canal (Food and Agriculture

Organization of the UN) (“Aquaculture Methods”, n.d.).

When selecting the location to build the pond several standards from the Food and Agriculture

Organization of the United Nations (“Aquaculture Methods”, n.d.) should be kept in mind to

assure success and increase efficiency. First, soil quality should be considered as soils that are

clay loam or sandy clay to preserve water retention and increase suitability for diking. Also, soils

that are pH 7 and above are necessary to prevent harm on fish as a result of acidity. Land

elevation and tides should be at an average height to assure that the system can be watered by

high tides and drained by low tides. High tides greater than 4 meters will require large built

structures, which will increase the need for material and risk for hazardous destruction. Low

tides less than 1 meter is also not suitable because the system will not be drained or filled to the

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extent needed. Vegetation in the area should not be thick or large to as clearing would be

required, which is costly and damages natural growth of the environment. Additionally, the water

supply of the area should be steady, and fresh year-round, and the quality of the water should

have no pollution and have a pH of 7.8-8.5. Accessibility must also be considered as

transportation distance of equipment, workers, and fish should be minimized in case of

emergency, to save costs, and energy. The location that the system is built should also have

availability of manpower so that the system can be successfully built through efficient ways of

construction and operation. It is important to keep each of these components in mind when

selecting a location and environment for an aquaculture system.

Pen and cage culture grow fish in large fixed or floating enclosures usually made of wood, or

metal and are kept in protected areas of water bodies such as an estuary or shallow area of a lake.

According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (“Aquaculture

Methods”, n.d.), pen and cage techniques are newer and are not heavily practiced in comparison

to ponds, but are becoming more popular. Pens and cages are known to be successful in that they

are able to be put into different types of open waters, are efficient in the amount of fish that can

be farmed, and do not take up land space needed for agricultural uses. Because these cages and

pens are put into an already existing ecosystem that is exposed and vulnerable to change,

potential pollution created from the pens and cages must be taken into account to assure that the

environment around it is not significantly affected.

Figure 2. Example of a floating cage made of net and bamboo. (Food and Agriculture

Organization of the UN) (“Aquaculture Methods”, n.d.).

When selecting the location to build the pens and cages several standards from the Food and

Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (“Aquaculture Methods”, n.d.) should be kept in

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mind to assure success and increase efficiency. First, the location of the pens and cages must be

put in a secure and protected location to avoid the possibility of high winds or hurricanes

destroying the system. Consistent water exchange of good quality in the location of the pens and

cages to assure that there is plentiful dissolved oxygen, and no pollution in the area to preserve

the health of the fish. Soil at the bottom under the pen and cage is also needed to provide strong

supports for the structure if necessary in the design. Accessibility must be taken into account to

allow convenient access and minimized transportation to decrease the use of energy. Finally, the

cages and pens must be in areas that do not have many predators that will damage the pens and

cages and eat the fish.

2.3 Antibiotics Usage and Alternatives: Probiotics, Essential Oils, Phage Therapy

In aquaculture different types of chemicals are used to control disease and parasites usually in

the form of disinfectants and antibiotics, as the spread of bacterial disease in aquaculture systems

is a common known issue that fish farmers face. Antibiotics are usually put into the system for

the fish to ingest to kill pathogenic bacteria, and this method has shown to be successful.

Although this is conveyed to be a positive action, there are several concerns involving the

practice of antibiotics in aquaculture systems. First, using antibiotics and chemicals has generally

posed the concern of resistance to antimicrobials, because “…fish pathogens and other aquatic

bacteria can develop resistance as a result of antimicrobial exposure” (Romero, 2012). If the use

of antibiotics is not specifically and efficiently controlled, resistance and spread will occur, thus

deeming the antibiotic ineffective. Secondly, it has been loosely discovered that the use of

antibiotics has side-affects involving stress levels of fish. For certain fish, it was observed that

the use of antibiotics caused increased stress levels and lowered immune system responses

within the fish. Third, the use of chemicals and antibiotics can have a negative effect on the

environment that the system is in. Certain drug and chemicals can travel outside of the system

and harm organisms and damage the general ecosystem. Finally, it has been shown that the use

of antibiotics in aquaculture can put a risk to public health (Romero, 2012). The acquired

resistance to fish pathogens, have the ability to eventually become resistant to human pathogens,

thus creating a hazard to the public.

Overall, antibiotics have a necessary purpose: to keep fish from contracting diseases that spread

and kill the fish in the fish farm, however there are many issues and potential risks that they put

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on the environment and the health of the public. There are several antibiotic alternatives that

have the similar affect of eradicating disease, but have less negative effects. The first alternative

to discuss is probiotics. Probiotics are microorganisms that have benefits on the host, and in

terms of aquaculture have the ability to prevent the reproduction of bacteria within the fish and

improve immune systems13. Probiotics also have a positive influence on the environment as it

can improve water quality, and the cleanliness of the pens and cages (Romero, 2012). Although

probiotics are not used for the specific purpose of killing pathogenic bacteria, it can be used for

preventive methods and to increase the overall health of the fish. Another potential antibiotic

alternative to consider is essential oils. Essential oils are extracted oils from different types of

plants, each of which have different types of uses known to improve health when applied.

Certain essential oils have been shown to act as a defense against pathogens because they have

antibacterial, antiviral, and antifungal properties (Romero, 2012). Similar to probiotics, essential

oils would be applied to an aquaculture system for the purpose of preventive methods and to

control bacteria in the system. Finally, another antibiotic alternative in aquaculture is phage

therapy. Bacteriophages are non-pathogenic and in microbiology are used as in indicator

organism because they infect and kill host bacteria. Phages can be used in aquaculture by dipping

the fish in a phage solution, as the phages will get into the fish through contact and infect and kill

the bacteria that are physically on the fish. A feed with phages could also be used to kill bacteria

in the mouths of the fish (Romero, 2012). Studies have shown that there are no side effects, and

overall, has found to be effective and successful in bacterial disease control.

2.4 Ethical Practices

When owning a company, especially one that involves feeding the public, it is important that all

actions involved are ethical. For example, in Hawaii, an aquaculture company named Kona Blue

Water Farms were found to be guilty of several unethical actions. Multiple employees filed law

suits against the company as a result of unsafe working conditions, and injuries caused by this

(“The Empty Promise”, 2010). Additionally, the company were found guilty of releasing

antibiotics into the system that were not approved by environmental regulators (“The Empty

Promise”, 2010). Finally, it was reported that the company had workers kill a shark that

repeatedly visited the aquaculture site after it bit through a cage and released fish (“The Empty

Promise”, 2010). Eventually, the company was bought out by another owner and were not

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successful. Kona Blue Water Farms company clearly only had money on their minds, and were

not ethical in many of their actions. The main take away here is that being ethical in all actions

not only benefits the environment and other stakeholders, it also benefits the company itself and

its success.

3.0 Recommendations

3.1 Feed

When choosing the feed type in an aquaculture system, it is important to consider the

environmental and sustainable impacts that will be affected. Thus, it is recommended that

owners of aquaculture systems provide a feed that ultimately decreases fish meal reliance. As

described and compared earlier, microalgae and insects proved to be promising fish feeds that

promote sustainability. Some companies create feed containing different types of fishmeal

alternatives. It is important for aquaculture system owners to be aware of the negative impacts of

fishmeal use and to buy feed from these companies instead, especially if they contain insects,

microalgae, and a lower percentage of fishmeal.

3.2 Built-Structure

In terms of selecting a structure for the aquaculture system, the main point to consider are the

environmental conditions and availability necessary for the respective structure type, as each

type have specificities that must be met to ensure a successful system. If the environment allows

it, the pen and cage structure is overall, more sustainable than the pond structure because it does

not take up land needed for agricultural use, it does not have a high demand of water input, and

water replenishes consistently, which decreases pollution in the system. However, when using

pens and cages it is important that the feed used degrades well in water, and no harmful

chemicals that can threaten the outside environment will be utilized.

3.3 Antibiotics

The use of antibiotics and chemicals have overall shown to be dangerous as antibiotic resistance

is high possibility. When establishing an aquaculture system, it is recommended that fish be

exposed to either probiotics or essential oils for preventive measures against pathogenic bacteria,

and to improve the overall health and immune response of the fish. If the fish do happen to

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contract diseases, instead of using antibiotics, phage therapy should be used as the method has

been proven successful in removing the bacteria from the fish with no harmful side-affects.

3.4 Ethical Practices

Overall, when starting up the aquaculture system, owners should practice ethics and cultural

sensitivity in addition to environmental sensitivity. Avoid conflict with any parties involved by

obtaining their thoughts and feedback, while respecting and taking their views into account when

creating the system. Workers hired should be honest and trustworthy as any accidents could put

the health of the public in danger. Also, it is important that the safety and well-being of the

workers that will maintain the systems are assured and never comprised.

4.0 Conclusion

In conclusion, thorough research involving all components of an aquaculture system was

completed to give owners of aquaculture systems recommendations that have shown to be

successful, feasible, environmentally friendly, and sustainable. Owners should seriously consider

these recommendations and understand the importance of using them, as other choices could

leave detrimental affects on the general public, and generations to come. In addition to the

logistical recommendations, it is also important to internalize the ethical recommendations and

put the priority of money aside for a minute and assure that every part of running the aquaculture

company is done with a sense of morality and pride.

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