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Each of the previous eight chapters highlighted two individuals for their public health con- tributions in Spotlight on Public Health Figures features, but there are many other individuals who have made a significant contribution to public health in the nation and around the world.

History has shown that change is inevitable, and those changes have developed into significant advancements for many realms, including medicine, sociology, and, of course, public health. Public health has been part of human civilization since pre-500 BCE. In fact, the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates was one of the first individuals credited with focusing on diseases as part of human health. Over the following centuries, more people became involved with public health concerns such as sanitation, traffic safety, and chronic disease advocacy. Some of their stories are provided next.

Appendix B Additional Public Health Figures

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Additional Public Health FiguresAppendix B

Spotlight on Public Health Figures: Clara Barton (1821–1912)

Who is Clara Barton? Clara Barton was born in Massachusetts in 1821. She originally worked at the U.S. Patent Office and became an independent nurse during the Civil War. She is primarily known for collecting and distributing supplies for the Union Army during the Civil War. She was nicknamed “the angel of the battlefield” because of her willingness to walk onto the field to aid the soldiers.

What was the political climate at the time? Barton lived during the Civil War. Before the Civil War, the nation had already philosophically divided into the anti-slavery North and pro- slavery South. There were significant political battles between the two major political parties: Whigs and Democrats. The Missouri Compromise, which consisted of laws that allowed each state to determine slavery issues, was passed in 1850. It ended slavery in the northern states, but it wasn’t until the passage of the 1854 Kansas–Nebraska Act repealing the Missouri Compromise that the slavery dispute blew up into a major war. The Kansas–Nebraska Act also prompted the founding of the anti-slavery political party now known as Republicans.

What was her contribution to public health? She was one of the earliest health educators in the public health realm, focusing on nursing and creating positive outcomes for population health. She was also the founder of the American Red Cross, one of the most famous quasi-governmental agencies working to improve the health of the nation.

What motivated her? Barton was reportedly a very shy child, but she found her calling when her brother David was injured during a farming accident. At age 11, she became David’s primary caretaker. For 2 years, she stayed home from school to care for her brother, who did eventually recover. It was during that time that she realized she felt a calling to care for the sick and injured.

Sources: Biography.com. (2018a). Clara Barton biography. Retrieved from https://www.biography.com/people/clara-barton-9200960 Clara Barton Birthplace Museum. (2017). Clara’s family. Retrieved from http://www.clarabartonbirthplace.org/claras-life/claras -family/ Ourdocuments.gov. (n.d.). Kansas–Nebraska Act (1854). Retrieved from https://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?f lash=false&doc=28 University of North Carolina. (n.d.). Civil War era NC. Retrieved from https://cwnc.omeka.chass.ncsu.edu/exhibits/show/benjamin -hedrick/polticalclimate

Photos.com/Photos.com/Thinkstock Clara Barton founded the American Red Cross based on her interactions with the Swiss-inspired Red Cross network.

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Additional Public Health FiguresAppendix B

Spotlight on Public Health Figures: Florence Nightingale (1820–1910)

Who is Florence Nightingale? Florence Nightingale was born in 1820 to a very wealthy Italian family. The younger of two daughters, she was also considered the black sheep of the family due to the fact that her opinions often conflicted with those of her parents. Nightingale felt out of place in the elite circles and social situations in which she found herself. She was well educated in mathematics and various languages and received what at the time was considered a classical education. However, she found ministering to the poor people surrounding her family’s estate to be more rewarding than formal education.

What was the political climate at the time? Italy did not become a state until the country’s unification in 1861. Before this, the country struggled for unity and political autonomy. The Crimean War (1853–1856) was fought between the French and Russian military over the rights of Christian minorities in the Holy Land (currently known as Israel). The French promoted the rights of Roman Catholics, while Russia fought for the Eastern Orthodox. Italy joined its European allies, which led to Nightingale’s involvement.

What was her contribution to public health? Like her American counterpart, Clara Barton, Nightingale was a pioneer in the nursing field. She had a significant impact on 19th- and 20th-century policies about proper medical care. She was a solid philanthropist, volunteering her time and skills to the poor in her community. She served as a nurse during the Crimean War, in which she saw deplorable conditions in military medical facilities. Based on this experience, she proposed policy reforms for military hospitals on sanitation in an 1858 publication called “Notes on Matters Affecting the Health, Efficiency and Hospital Administration of the British Army.”

What motivated her? Nightingale, born to very wealthy parents, believed she had a “divine” calling to help the poor. Her parents were not pleased with her decision and actually forbade her from pursuing the education needed to become a nurse. At the time, taking a job as a nurse was considered by the upper class to be menial labor. She ignored the controversy within her family and concerns about social status and pursued her career.

Sources: Biography.com. (n.d.-b). Florence Nightingale biography. Retrieved from https://www.biography.com/people/f lorence -nightingale-9423539 Encyclopedia Britannica. (2018a). Crimean War. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/event/Crimean-War YourGuidetoItaly.com. (2013). Italian culture in the 1800s. Retrieved from http://www.yourguidetoitaly.com/italian-culture-in-the -1800-s.html

GeorgiosArt/iStock/Thinkstock Florence Nightingale served as a nurse during the Crimean War and used her experiences to propose policy reforms for military hospitals.

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Additional Public Health FiguresAppendix B

Spotlight on Public Health Figures: Thomas Francis Jr. (1900–1969)

Who is Thomas Francis Jr.? Thomas Francis Jr. was an American physician and epidemiologist who grew up in New Castle, Pennsylvania, and earned his medical degree from Yale University in 1905. He initially focused on vaccinations for bacterial pneumonia but eventually became the first person to isolate the influenza virus. He also proved there were various strains of influenza and participated in the successful development of influenza vaccinations. One of his students was the famous Jonas Salk, who ultimately developed the polio vaccine.

What was the political climate at the time? Francis lived and worked during a time of war. World War II (1939–1945) escalated the issue of disease prevention and treatment. Historically, disease had killed more soldiers than battle scars had, so controlling influenza was a priority going into World War II. There was a fear of another pandemic like the influenza outbreak of 1918, so the U.S. Army organized a commission to develop a vaccine against influenza. This support from the military and federal government allowed a commission, led by Francis, to develop and obtain Food and Drug Administration approval for a vaccine in less than two years. Frankly, for Francis, there were no major hurdles to overcome.

What was his contribution to public health? He was responsible for isolating human influenza and developed the influenza A and B vaccines in 1934 and 1940, respectively. Before Francis’s contributions, the world had suffered from multiple large-scale influenza outbreaks that had taken the lives of millions.

What motivated him? His background in virology and interest in preventing influenza outbreaks like the ones that had occurred when he was a teen motivated Francis to take action. Because the political climate supported assistance from all entities, and funding and support was available, it was just a matter of finding the influenza strain and creating the vaccines.

Sources: Encyclopedia Britannica. (2018d). Thomas Francis Jr. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/biography/Thomas -Francis-Jr The Conversation, US. (2015). How World War II spurred vaccine innovation. Retrieved from http://theconversation.com/how -world-war-ii-spurred-vaccine-innovation-39903

Preston Stroup/Associated Press Influenza research conducted by Thomas Francis Jr. contributed to the development of the influenza A and B vaccines. Francis was also a teacher and mentor for Jonas Salk.

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Additional Public Health FiguresAppendix B

Spotlight on Public Health Figures: Albert Calmette (1863–1933)

Who is Albert Calmette? Calmette was born in France. He joined the School of Naval Physicians at Brest, France, and worked for the Naval Medical Corps in 1883. He worked with Dr. Patrick Manson, who was studying mosquito transmissions that caused elephantiasis. This work captured his interest in disease transmission and prevention. When he returned from his service, he met Louis Pasteur and began working with him in the field of immunology.

What was the political climate at the time? Research in bacteria was just beginning, and people still did not understand disease transmission from insects to humans or from human to human. People were motivated to develop not only vaccines to prevent diseases, but also safe treatments for such diseases. However, people were often skeptical when researchers touted success in one of those areas.

What was his contribution to public health? Calmette, along with his colleague, Camille Guérin, was the first to create an inoculation against tuberculosis. Despite several setbacks, the vaccine went through exhaustive testing and was finally declared safe and effective in protecting newborns against the disease. In 1924, the vaccination went global.

What motivated him? His career allowed him to meet many famous physicians and scientists, including Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch. Most of his experiences in the medical world revolved around vaccination, an area that began to intrigue Calmette early in his career.

Source: Hawgood, B. J. (2007). Albert Calmette (1863–1933) and Camille Guérin (1872–1961): The C and G of BCG vaccine. Journal of Medical Biography, 15(3), 139–146.

Keystone-France/Gamma-Keystone/Getty Images Albert Calmette studied disease transmission from insects to humans. Calmette later developed the cure for tuberculosis along with his colleague, Camille Guérin.

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Additional Public Health FiguresAppendix B

Spotlight on Public Health Figures: Camille Guérin (1872–1961)

Who is Camille Guérin? Born in France, Guérin studied veterinary medicine but eventually devoted his career to finding a cure for tuberculosis. His father died of the disease in 1882, and his wife succumbed to it in 1918. In 1905, he discovered that the bovine tuberculosis bacillus could immunize animals against tuberculosis without giving them the disease. After that success, he and Calmette worked toward a human version of the inoculation.

What was the political climate at the time? Research in bacteria was just beginning, and people still did not understand the mechanisms of disease transmission. The focus was on developing safe vaccines and treatments.

What was his contribution to public health? His contribution, along with that of his colleague, Calmette, was the successful development of a vaccine to prevent tuberculosis. Despite several setbacks, the vaccine went through exhaustive testing and finally was shown to be safe and effective in protecting newborns against the disease.

What motivated him? His father and wife both died of tuberculosis, so he was highly motivated to find a cure. He met Albert Calmette at the Pasteur Institute, where the two successfully developed a safe and effective vaccine against tuberculosis.

Source: Hawgood, B. J. (2007). Albert Calmette (1863–1933) and Camille Guérin (1872–1961): The C and G of BCG vaccine. Journal of Medical Biography, 15(3), 139–146.

AFP/Getty Images Camille Guérin lost family members to tuberculosis and devoted his professional career to studying the disease. Guérin and Albert Calmette later developed the cure for tuberculosis.

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Additional Public Health FiguresAppendix B

Spotlight on Public Health Figures: Ignaz Semmelweis (1818–1865)

Who is Ignaz Semmelweis? Semmelweis was born in Hungary in 1818. The child of a well-off tradesman, Ignaz attended law school at the University of Vienna. After a year, he switched to medicine for reasons that are not known, and he earned a doctorate in 1844. He specialized in obstetrics.

What was the political climate at the time? When Semmelweis worked as a physician, little was known about the benefits of handwashing—even in the medical community. At the obstetrics hospital where he worked as an assistant, Semmelweis claimed there was one cause of puerperal fever, a bacterial infection of the female reproductive tract following childbirth or miscarriage. He believed that if medical workers washed their hands in a chlorine and lime solution, it would significantly reduce, if not eliminate, infections. He even called his colleagues “irresponsible murderers” for not washing their hands before treating patients. The members of the Medical Society of Vienna at the time not only did not believe his theory but harassed him over it and suggested that he was losing his mind. He was eventually committed to an asylum, where he died 14 days later.

What was his contribution to public health? He hypothesized that cleanliness could ward off disease. He was credited for introducing the idea of handwashing with chlorinated lime solutions to prevent diseases. While working as an assistant in the Vienna General Hospital in Austria, he introduced the concept of washing hands to reduce childbed fever. His suggested handwashing practice was never accepted during his lifetime. It wasn’t until Louis Pasteur developed the germ theory of disease that the medical community finally understood the theoretical basis for Semmelweis’s claims.

What motivated him? There is no solid record of what motivated Semmelweis’s actions. He originally attended law school and then transferred to medical school, and there is no record of why he decided to focus on medicine and obstetrics. However, some speculate that he cared deeply about the lives of those he treated and actually became fixated on the issue, which perhaps led to his admission to an asylum and eventual death. He was right that handwashing is a solid means of preventing the spread of diseases.

Sources: Clark, L. (2015, January 15). The doctor who introduced the virtues of hand washing died of an infection. Smithsonian.com. Retrieved from https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/doctor-who-introduced-virtues-hand-washing-died-infection-180953901/ Semmelweis Society International. (2009). Dr. Semmelweis’ biography. Retrieved from http://semmelweis.org/about/dr-semmelweis-biography/

Photos.com/Photos.com/Thinkstock Ignaz Semmelweis believed that handwashing with chlorinated lime solutions would help prevent the spread of disease during medical procedures. His colleagues, however, did not agree with his cleanliness theory.

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© 2019 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution.