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MODULE TITLE : APPLICATIONS OF PNEUMATICS AND

HYDRAULICS

TOPIC TITLE : SPECIFICATION, SELECTION AND

MAINTENANCE OF EQUIPMENT

LESSON 1 : COMPRESSOR SELECTION

APH - 3 - 1

Published by Teesside University Open Learning (Engineering)

School of Science & Engineering

Teesside University

Tees Valley, UK

TS1 3BA

+44 (0)1642 342740

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________________________________________________________________________________________

INTRODUCTION ________________________________________________________________________________________

In this lesson we are going to consider the principles of compressor selection.

Generally, more than one type of compressor will meet a practical requirement

and the choice will be made after consideration of some or all of the factors

outlined in the following text.

________________________________________________________________________________________

YOUR AIMS ________________________________________________________________________________________

On completion of this lesson you should be able to:

• appreciate the importance of correct compressor selection

• understand the different kinds of duty to which a compressor may be

subjected

• correctly select a compressor to meet the volume and pressure

requirements of a given system

• interpret a duty cycle chart

• explain the operation of typical compressor cooling systems.

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________________________________________________________________________________________

CHOICE OF COMPRESSOR ________________________________________________________________________________________

The choice of a compressor for any installation may be either a relatively

simple or an extremely complex task, depending upon the size and complexity

of the plant being supplied. It is safe to say that the choice of a compressor for

any installation is best undertaken with the aid of expert advice from

compressor manufacturers. Reputable suppliers are only too willing to assist,

as it is in their own interest to do so. However, at the end of the day, the

responsibility for correct selection lies with the selecting engineer: therefore

knowledge of the key factors to be considered is essential.

If the compressor being selected is for the purpose of supplying air-power to a

complete plant, its importance must be fully understood. Should the

compressor fail because it is not suited to the particular situation, the whole

plant may be brought to a standstill. It can be seen that care and attention to

detail, during the selection of such a vital piece of equipment, is essential.

From previous work, we have seen that there are several different types of

compressor and many different designs. The different designs have often been

developed as a response to changing needs with respect to quality, quantity and

pressure requirements of systems.

It is important to be able to analyse the needs of the compressed air user, to

ensure the correct matching of machine type to the kind of work that it is to

undertake. Therefore we could define one of the prime criteria of compressor

selection as the purpose of the compressor.

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DURATION OF THE LOAD

There are different kinds of duty for compressors. At one end of the scale is

the small garage compressor, used to inflate car tyres, which is only used for

short periods throughout the day. At the other end of the scale is the process

compressor in a chemical plant, which is supplying high quantities of air

24 hours a day, 7 days a week. These are extremes of use, but they highlight

the fact that a compressor's duty cycle is extremely varied and has an important

bearing on selection.

It is possible to break down duty types into four categories which are outlined

below.

Occasional Intermittent Use

This is the kind of machine found, for example, in small garages and training

workshops – typically the kind of application where usage is only in the order

of 10 to 15 minutes per hour during an 8-hour day.

Traditionally, small single-stage single-acting reciprocating compressors,

which are air-cooled and are supplied as packaged units, with drive motor,

receiver and all controls mounted, are used for this application.

The major drawback with this kind of machine tends to be the noise level.

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Normal Industrial Use

Most industrial compressors come into this category. Normally they operate

continuously throughout an 8-hour shift, and experience periods of both light

and heavy-duty running, depending upon the demand for air.

This obviously calls for a machine which is built for a much longer life than

occasional duty; but its total number of running hours per week is still

relatively small.

Machines which are suitable for this category are:

• multistage

• reciprocating

• vane and screw compressors, the final choice being dependent upon other

factors.

Day and Night Shift Working

This duty is yet again more arduous; but the types of machine selected are

often the same, the main difference being the way the machines are operated

and maintained. It could be that two machines are installed, the usage being

alternated, one for day shift and one for night shift.

Continuous Process Work

This is the most difficult duty of all. It often means supplying air 24 hours per

day for 7 days per week and often every week of the year, apart from an annual

shut-down period of two or three weeks.

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This kind of duty will almost certainly entail selection of a machine which is

of a heavy-duty type and extremely reliable in operation. In most cases several

machines are used and the usage varied, by this means a 'back up' machine is

provided.

Outline two benefits of using two compressors on an alternating basis for this

continuous duty.

...................................................................................................................................................

________________________________________________________________________________________

Two benefits of using two compressors on an alternating basis for such continuous duty are:

• A back-up compressor is always available should one machine fail.

• Maintenance may be carried out on the machine that is not in use.

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PRESSURE CAPABILITY

If a compressor is supplying air for power, its pressure capability is of prime

importance.

The machine must be capable of generating air at a greater pressure than the

user requires, to cater for pressure drops within the system.

It must also be capable of operating at this pressure as efficiently as possible.

What is the effect on the flow-rate of a single-stage reciprocating compressor operating

at a higher pressure than its design limit?

...................................................................................................................................................

________________________________________________________________________________________

There will be a reduction in its flow-rate due to the re-expansion of the clearance space

gases causing a reduction in volumetric efficiency.

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There are advantages to be gained by selecting a compressor from a

manufacturer's standard pressure range. Typically for power air (7 to 9 bar),

these would be:

• cheaper price

• quicker delivery

• wider choice of models.

It will be found that a machine such as this will normally satisfy most plant

requirements.

If there is a special requirement for higher pressures to service one or two

pieces of equipment, local high-pressure booster compressors may be used to

draw a small supply of air from the main air-line, and increase its pressure to

satisfy this need.

CAPACITY

Selecting the correct capacity of machine to satisfy demand is not as easy as it

may seem. To estimate the amount of compressed air that a plant will use

poses several problems.

There are three main difficulties to overcome:

• estimating the consumption of each piece of equipment

• analysing the duty cycle of each piece of equipment

• estimating the amount of leakage within the system.

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Let us look at each of the above difficulties in greater detail.

• Machine manufacturer's catalogues often give details of air consumption.

This may be in terms of FAD or compressed air, but it is unlikely that this

data will be available for every piece of equipment. Therefore, some

calculation based on machine observations will be necessary.

• It is unlikely that each piece of equipment will be in operation at the same

time, so their periods of use will have to be analysed.

• The rate of leakage within the system will have to be calculated. Most

compressed air systems have leakage which is typically between 5% and

15% of total consumption and in older systems may be appreciably more.

DUTY CYCLE CHART

When analysing the duty cycle, it will be useful to produce a chart giving a

visual representation of demand for air throughout the day. This is done by

plotting demand for air on the vertical axis and time on the horizontal, as

shown in FIGURE 1.

FIG. 1 Typical Demand for Air Throughout an 8 Hour Day

Air flow

m3 min–1

B re

a k B re

a k

L u n ch

Start 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 End Time of day - hours

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EXPANSION

When considering a compressor installation it is wise to obtain information

with regard to future expansion of the plant. It may be possible to cater for this

future need, as it will certainly have a bearing on the compressor selection.

There have been many cases where, 12 months after a system has been

installed, it is unable to satisfy demand because additional equipment has been

added.

It's also important that air consumption be expressed in terms of FAD as the

following example illustrates.

Example

A machine is rated at using compressed air at the rate of 1 m3 min–1 at 7 bar

gauge. Convert this to FAD.

Solution

Because FAD is air at atmospheric pressure we can calculate its value using

the gas laws. Assuming no appreciable temperature change,

Working in absolute values:

V p V

p2 1 1

7 1 01 1

1 01

7 93

= = +( ) ×

. m min FAD3 –1

p V p V1 1 2 2=

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It is obvious from this calculation that care must be taken to convert any

machine consumption figures in compressed air to FAD.

NUMBER OF COMPRESSORS REQUIRED

It may be found that after estimating the demand for air, it may be met by a

single compressor. While on the face of it this may be a simple solution, it

may not be the best option. There are various reasons why this is so but one

consideration is that, when the distribution system covers a large area and long

pipe runs are encountered, excessive pressure drops can occur. This problem

can be reduced by using two compressors sited at opposite ends of the

distribution system.

TYPES OF COMPRESSOR REQUIRED

We previously dealt with compressor types. A short review of their suitability

for a specific purpose may be advantageous at this point.

The choice of a compressor type to supply normal production shop air at

approximately 7 bar gauge is dependent upon various factors.

Reciprocating Piston Machines

These machines have managed to service this area reliably for many years.

Their operation and maintenance requirements are fairly well understood by

most maintenance engineers.

They are readily available from many manufacturers and spares are often in

good supply.

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Choice of control and output flow is comparatively straightforward. Smaller

models can be air cooled, while most medium to larger sizes are water cooled.

The main disadvantages are that they:

• provide pulsating air

• are noisy in operation

• require heavier foundations than other types

• produce air which is often oil loaded.

However, some of these disadvantages can often be overcome by correct siting

and installation.

Vane Compressors

These are normally chosen for smaller plants, although some larger capacity

models are available.

They are quieter in operation than reciprocating compressors and don't have

special foundation requirements.

These machines are normally supplied as packaged units that only require

bolting down and the services connecting up.

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Screw Compressors

These machines are the main competitor to the reciprocating compressor for

producing air-power to medium-sized plants. Their increasing popularity is

associated with the following advantages:

• the air is pulsation free

• they are relatively quiet in operation

• no special foundations are required.

While the routine maintenance requirements of this type of machine are fairly

simple, a major overhaul is complex and is normally a task for the

manufacturer or specialist service company.

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________________________________________________________________________________________

COMPRESSOR COOLING ________________________________________________________________________________________

Cooling for compressors is an important consideration. It is essential that a

compressor is run at its optimum temperature, if efficiency in operation and

long life are to be obtained. The type of cooling may be either water or air.

AIR COOLING

This is the simplest and least expensive method, both in terms of initial cost

and also maintenance.

There are two types of air-cooling system:

• Natural cooling: the compressor jacket is finned, so heat is dissipated

directly to the surroundings by a combination of conduction and

convection. This method is limited to small low-duty compressors. The

degree of cooling obtained is dependent upon ambient temperatures.

Therefore, accurate control of temperature is not possible.

• Forced-draught cooling: again the jacket is finned, but the cooling air is

blown across the fins by a fan, giving a greater cooling effect. This

method is more effective than the first since a degree of control can be

achieved by controlling the speed of the fan or the angle of the fan blades.

This method can be used for small and some medium sizes of machine.

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WATER COOLING

Water cooling is used for most medium and larger machines. It tends to

provide lower cooling temperatures which do not fluctuate as much as those

for air-cooled types.

It is possible to re-cycle the heat removed in the cooling water and use it to do

useful work. This is obviously more energy efficient.

The three most commonly used methods of water cooling are:

• mains water

• thermo-siphon

• forced circulation.

Each system will be considered separately.

Mains Water

In this system water is drawn from the main, passed through the compressor

cooling jacket picking up heat, and finally ejected directly to waste. A flow

control valve, which has its opening controlled by a temperature sensor within

the compressor water jacket, regulates the rate of flow to maintain a constant

temperature. FIGURE 2 illustrates the principle.

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FIG. 2 Mains Water Cooling

List two possible disadvantages of this system.

...................................................................................................................................................

________________________________________________________________________________________

• High volumes of water are passed through the machine: this can be expensive.

• If the water is untreated, it may cause scaling and fouling of the compressor cooling

jacket and pipework, reducing efficiency. Freezing in winter may also be a problem.

Water supply

Waste

Temperature sensor

Bypass for manual control

Flow indicator

Strainer Self acting temperature

control valve

Compressor

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Thermo-siphon

This system is a semi-closed loop system as shown in FIGURE 3, in which the

cooling water is kept in a holding tank at some elevated position. Evaporative

losses are topped up via a mains-water ball-float valve, which is similar to that

used in a toilet flush water system. Cool water from the bottom of the tank

flows into the cooling jacket inlet, where it picks up heat, rises due to

convection, and finally flows back to the tank via the top jacket outlet: hence a

continuous circulation is maintained. The heat is dissipated from the surface

of the water and also through the tank sides.

A temperature sensor is normally incorporated within the tank. Should the

temperature exceed a pre-determined maximum, it would open a valve,

allowing mains water to flow into the tank. This would displace the hot water

in the tank, forcing it through an overflow, hence cooling the system.

FIG. 3 Thermo-siphon Cooling System

Mains

Ball valve

Overflow

Cool in

Warm out

Temperature sensor

Compressor

Water tank

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List two advantages of this system compared to the mains-water system.

...................................................................................................................................................

________________________________________________________________________________________

• Less water is used, making it cheaper to operate.

• The water may be treated to prevent scaling and freezing.

Forced Circulation

FIGURE 4 shows a forced circulation cooling system. This is a closed-loop

system, which is the most practical method of cooling larger compressors.

Water is pumped through the compressor, picking up heat, and then passed to a

three way valve, where, depending upon its temperature, it is either sent to the

cooler or diverted back to the pump inlet.

On start-up the compressor will be cold. To allow it to reach its normal

operating temperature as quickly as possible, the cooling water is only

circulated around the compressor jacket, and does not receive any cooling.

When the normal operating temperature is reached a sensor opens the three-

way valve and diverts the flow to the cooler. Heat is removed here and the

water is re-circulated back to the pump inlet.

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FIG. 4 Forced Circulation Cooling System

This system is normally used for larger machines with intercoolers and

aftercoolers.

With all water-cooled systems, it is important that the flow of water is

monitored, and with the mains and forced cooling systems, it is essential that

water is flowing before the machine is started up. This is often ensured by

interlocking a flow switch with the compressor starter controls.

Pump

To cooler

From cooler

Warm out

Compressor

Cool in

3-way valve

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________________________________________________________________________________________

FINANCIAL CONSIDERATIONS ________________________________________________________________________________________

In most industrial plants an air compressor is an essential piece of equipment.

Therefore, the capital outlay for a good reliable machine is easily justified.

Unfortunately this is only part of the cost.

Other costs to be considered are:

• the compressor building

• installation costs

• running costs

• maintenance

• spares

• depreciation of capital.

OTHER CONSIDERATIONS

Other factors which should be taken into consideration when selecting a

compressor are:

• the space available – this should include ease of access for maintenance

purposes

• the choice of a permanent or temporary installation

• the type of prime-mover to be used – these may be electric motor, internal

combustion engine or turbine

• compatability with other compressors already on site.

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________________________________________________________________________________________

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS ________________________________________________________________________________________

1. Explain briefly why a compressor must be capable of producing air at a

higher pressure than the end-user requires.

2. List three reasons why it may be difficult to obtain an accurate value for

the demand for compressed air.

3. Explain briefly the purpose of a three-way valve in a forced-cooling

system.

4. List two advantages of utilising compressors, of the same type and

design, for a factory air supply.

5. Explain the main advantage water cooling has over air cooling.

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________________________________________________________________________________________

NOTES ________________________________________________________________________________________

...................................................................................................................................................

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________________________________________________________________________________________

ANSWERS TO SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS ________________________________________________________________________________________

1. A compressor must be capable of producing air at a higher pressure than

the end-user requires, to cater for pressure losses within the system.

2. The three main reasons for difficulties with accurate calculations of flow

demand are:

• it can be difficult to obtain information on the flow requirement for

every piece of equipment

• it is unlikely that each piece of equipment will be operated at the

same time

• the leakage rate of the system must be taken into account.

3. The purpose of the three-way valve is to give a choice of flow-path for the

cooling water on exit from the compressor, dependent upon its

temperature. If the temperature is low, flow is directed back to the pump

inlet without being cooled. If the temperature is high, it is directed to the

cooling tower.

4. If compressors of the same type and design are used, the following

advantages are gained:

• maintenance personnel become familiar with the machines

• the amount of spares held in stock are minimised because of

interchangeability.

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5. The main advantage water cooling possesses over air cooling is the fact

that water cooling gives greater control and stability of temperature.

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________________________________________________________________________________________

SUMMARY ________________________________________________________________________________________

The correct selection of a compressor for any given situation entails an

understanding of quite a number of variables. Coupled with the information

given in the previous three lessons, a clear picture should now be emerging.

Given below are the major factors to be considered when selecting a

compressor:

• the working pressure required, which is determined by plant usage

• the capacity requirement of the system – this is obtained by adding

together the requirements of each piece of equipment, and making

allowances for leakage and future expansion

• the quality of the air required, including permissible levels of moisture

and oil

• the kind of duty to which the compressor is going to be subjected

• financial considerations

• installation costs – these are higher if special buildings, soundproofing or

foundations are required

• the type of prime mover required

• maintenance considerations.

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setdistillerparams << /HWResolution [2400 2400] /PageSize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice