Research Essay

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Chapter 13

APA and MLA Documentation and Formatting 13.1 Formatting a Research Paper

L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E S

1. Identify the major components of a research paper written using American Psychological Association

(APA) style.

2. Apply general APA style and formatting conventions in a research paper.

In this chapter, you will learn how to use APA style, the documentation and formatting style followed

by the American Psychological Association, as well asMLA style, from the Modern Language

Association. There are a few major formatting styles used in academic texts, including AMA,

Chicago, and Turabian:

 AMA (American Medical Association) for medicine, health, and biological sciences

 APA (American Psychological Association) for education, psychology, and the social sciences

 Chicago—a common style used in everyday publications like magazines, newspapers, and books

 MLA (Modern Language Association) for English, literature, arts, and humanities

 Turabian—another common style designed for its universal application across all subjects and

disciplines

While all the formatting and citation styles have their own use and applications, in this chapter we

focus our attention on the two styles you are most likely to use in your academic studies: APA and

MLA.

If you find that the rules of proper source documentation are difficult to keep straight, you are not

alone. Writing a good research paper is, in and of itself, a major intellectual challenge. Having to

follow detailed citation and formatting guidelines as well may seem like just one more task to add to

an already-too-long list of requirements.

Following these guidelines, however, serves several important purposes. First, it signals to your

readers that your paper should be taken seriously as a student’s contribution to a given academic or

professional field; it is the literary equivalent of wearing a tailored suit to a job interview. Second, it

shows that you respect other people’s work enough to give them proper credit for it. Finally, it helps

your reader find additional materials if he or she wishes to learn more about your topic.

Chapter 13 of was adapted by The Saylor Foundation under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 license without attribution as requested by the work’s original creator or licensee. © 2013, The Saylor Foundation.

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Furthermore, producing a letter-perfect APA-style paper need not be burdensome. Yes, it requires

careful attention to detail. However, you can simplify the process if you keep these broad guidelines

in mind:

 Work ahead whenever you can. Chapter 11 "Writing from Research: What Will I

Learn?" includes tips for keeping track of your sources early in the research process, which will save

time later on.

 Get it right the first time. Apply APA guidelines as you write, so you will not have much to

correct during the editing stage. Again, putting in a little extra time early on can save time later.

 Use the resources available to you. In addition to the guidelines provided in this chapter,

you may wish to consult the APA website athttp://www.apa.org or the Purdue University Online

Writing lab athttp://owl.english.purdue.edu, which regularly updates its online style guidelines.

General Formatting Guidelines

This chapter provides detailed guidelines for using the citation and formatting conventions developed by

the American Psychological Association, or APA. Writers in disciplines as diverse as astrophysics, biology,

psychology, and education follow APA style. The major components of a paper written in APA style are

listed in the following box.

These are the major components of an APA-style paper:

1. Title page

2. Abstract

3. Body, which includes the following:

o Headings and, if necessary, subheadings to organize the content

o In-text citations of research sources

4. References page

All these components must be saved in one document, not as separate documents.

Title Page

The title page of your paper includes the following information:

 Title of the paper

 Author’s name

 Name of the institution with which the author is affiliated

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 Header at the top of the page with the paper title (in capital letters) and the page number (If the

title is lengthy, you may use a shortened form of it in the header.)

List the first three elements in the order given in the previous list, centered about one third of the way

down from the top of the page. Use the headers and footers tool of your word-processing program to add

the header, with the title text at the left and the page number in the upper-right corner. Your title page

should look like the following example.

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Abstract

The next page of your paper provides an abstract, or brief summary of your findings. An abstract does not

need to be provided in every paper, but an abstract should be used in papers that include a hypothesis. A

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good abstract is concise—about one hundred to one hundred fifty words—and is written in an objective,

impersonal style. Your writing voice will not be as apparent here as in the body of your paper. When

writing the abstract, take a just-the-facts approach, and summarize your research question and your

findings in a few sentences.

In Chapter 12 "Writing a Research Paper", you read a paper written by a student named Jorge, who

researched the effectiveness of low-carbohydrate diets. Read Jorge’s abstract. Note how it sums up the

major ideas in his paper without going into excessive detail.

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E X E R C I S E 1

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Write an abstract summarizing your paper. Briefly introduce the topic, state your findings, and sum up

what conclusions you can draw from your research. Use the word count feature of your word-processing

program to make sure your abstract does not exceed one hundred fifty words.

Tip

Depending on your field of study, you may sometimes write research papers that present extensive

primary research, such as your own experiment or survey. In your abstract, summarize your research

question and your findings, and briefly indicate how your study relates to prior research in the field.

Margins, Pagination, and Headings

APA style requirements also address specific formatting concerns, such as margins, pagination, and

heading styles, within the body of the paper. Review the following APA guidelines.

Use these general guidelines to format the paper:

1. Set the top, bottom, and side margins of your paper at 1 inch.

2. Use double-spaced text throughout your paper.

3. Use a standard font, such as Times New Roman or Arial, in a legible size (10- to 12-point).

4. Use continuous pagination throughout the paper, including the title page and the references

section. Page numbers appear flush right within your header.

5. Section headings and subsection headings within the body of your paper use different types of

formatting depending on the level of information you are presenting. Additional details from Jorge’s

paper are provided.

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E X E R C I S E 2

Begin formatting the final draft of your paper according to APA guidelines. You may work with an existing

document or set up a new document if you choose. Include the following:

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 Your title page

 The abstract you created in Note 13.8 "Exercise 1"

 Correct headers and page numbers for your title page and abstract

Headings

APA style uses section headings to organize information, making it easy for the reader to follow the

writer’s train of thought and to know immediately what major topics are covered. Depending on the

length and complexity of the paper, its major sections may also be divided into subsections, sub-

subsections, and so on. These smaller sections, in turn, use different heading styles to indicate different

levels of information. In essence, you are using headings to create a hierarchy of information.

The following heading styles used in APA formatting are listed in order of greatest to least importance:

1. Section headings use centered, boldface type. Headings use title case, with important words in the

heading capitalized.

2. Subsection headings use left-aligned, boldface type. Headings use title case.

3. The third level uses left-aligned, indented, boldface type. Headings use a capital letter only for the

first word, and they end in a period.

4. The fourth level follows the same style used for the previous level, but the headings are boldfaced

and italicized.

5. The fifth level follows the same style used for the previous level, but the headings are italicized

and not boldfaced.

Visually, the hierarchy of information is organized as indicated in Table 13.1 "Section Headings".

Table 13.1 Section Headings

Level of Information Text Example

Level 1 Heart Disease

Level 2 Lifestyle Factors That Reduce Heart Disease Risk

Level 3 Exercising regularly.

Level 4 Aerobic exercise.

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Level of Information Text Example

Level 5 Country line dancing.

A college research paper may not use all the heading levels shown in Table 13.1 "Section Headings", but

you are likely to encounter them in academic journal articles that use APA style. For a brief paper, you

may find that level 1 headings suffice. Longer or more complex papers may need level 2 headings or other

lower-level headings to organize information clearly. Use your outline to craft your major section

headings and determine whether any subtopics are substantial enough to require additional levels of

headings.

E X E R C I S E 3

Working with the document you developed in Note 13.11 "Exercise 2", begin setting up the heading

structure of the final draft of your research paper according to APA guidelines. Include your title and at

least two to three major section headings, and follow the formatting guidelines provided above. If your

major sections should be broken into subsections, add those headings as well. Use your outline to help

you.

Because Jorge used only level 1 headings, his Exercise 3 would look like the following:

Level of Information Text Example

Level 1 Purported Benefits of Low-Carbohydrate Diets

Level 1 Research on Low-Carbohydrate Diets and Weight Loss

Level 1 Other Long-Term Health Outcomes

Level 1 Conclusion

Citation Guidelines

In-Text Citations

Throughout the body of your paper, include a citation whenever you quote or paraphrase material from

your research sources. As you learned in Chapter 11 "Writing from Research: What Will I Learn?", the

purpose of citations is twofold: to give credit to others for their ideas and to allow your reader to follow up

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and learn more about the topic if desired. Your in-text citations provide basic information about your

source; each source you cite will have a longer entry in the references section that provides more detailed

information.

In-text citations must provide the name of the author or authors and the year the source was published.

(When a given source does not list an individual author, you may provide the source title or the name of

the organization that published the material instead.) When directly quoting a source, it is also required

that you include the page number where the quote appears in your citation.

This information may be included within the sentence or in a parenthetical reference at the end of the

sentence, as in these examples.

Epstein (2010) points out that “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of

psychoactive drugs as addictive” (p. 137).

Here, the writer names the source author when introducing the quote and provides the publication date in

parentheses after the author’s name. The page number appears in parentheses after the closing quotation

marks and before the period that ends the sentence.

Addiction researchers caution that “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we

think of psychoactive drugs as addictive” (Epstein, 2010, p. 137).

Here, the writer provides a parenthetical citation at the end of the sentence that includes the author’s

name, the year of publication, and the page number separated by commas. Again, the parenthetical

citation is placed after the closing quotation marks and before the period at the end of the sentence.

As noted in the book Junk Food, Junk Science (Epstein, 2010, p. 137), “junk food cannot be considered

addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive.”

Here, the writer chose to mention the source title in the sentence (an optional piece of information to

include) and followed the title with a parenthetical citation. Note that the parenthetical citation is

placed before the comma that signals the end of the introductory phrase.

David Epstein’s book Junk Food, Junk Science (2010) pointed out that “junk food cannot be considered

addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive” (p. 137).

Another variation is to introduce the author and the source title in your sentence and include the

publication date and page number in parentheses within the sentence or at the end of the sentence. As

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long as you have included the essential information, you can choose the option that works best for that

particular sentence and source.

Citing a book with a single author is usually a straightforward task. Of course, your research may require

that you cite many other types of sources, such as books or articles with more than one author or sources

with no individual author listed. You may also need to cite sources available in both print and online and

nonprint sources, such as websites and personal interviews. Chapter 13 "APA and MLA Documentation

and Formatting", Section 13.2 "Citing and Referencing Techniques" and Section 13.3 "Creating a

References Section" provide extensive guidelines for citing a variety of source types.

Writing at Work

APA is just one of several different styles with its own guidelines for documentation, formatting, and

language usage. Depending on your field of interest, you may be exposed to additional styles, such as the

following:

 MLA style. Determined by the Modern Languages Association and used for papers in literature,

languages, and other disciplines in the humanities.

 Chicago style. Outlined in the Chicago Manual of Style and sometimes used for papers in the

humanities and the sciences; many professional organizations use this style for publications as well.

 Associated Press (AP) style. Used by professional journalists.

References List

The brief citations included in the body of your paper correspond to the more detailed citations provided

at the end of the paper in the references section. In-text citations provide basic information—the author’s

name, the publication date, and the page number if necessary—while the references section provides more

extensive bibliographical information. Again, this information allows your reader to follow up on the

sources you cited and do additional reading about the topic if desired.

The specific format of entries in the list of references varies slightly for different source types, but the

entries generally include the following information:

 The name(s) of the author(s) or institution that wrote the source

 The year of publication and, where applicable, the exact date of publication

 The full title of the source

 For books, the city of publication

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 For articles or essays, the name of the periodical or book in which the article or essay appears

 For magazine and journal articles, the volume number, issue number, and pages where the article

appears

 For sources on the web, the URL where the source is located

The references page is double spaced and lists entries in alphabetical order by the author’s last name. If an

entry continues for more than one line, the second line and each subsequent line are indented five spaces.

Review the following example. (Chapter 13 "APA and MLA Documentation and Formatting", Section 13.3

"Creating a References Section" provides extensive guidelines for formatting reference entries for

different types of sources.)

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Tip

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In APA style, book and article titles are formatted in sentence case, not title case. Sentence case means

that only the first word is capitalized, along with any proper nouns.

K E Y T A K E A W A Y S

 Following proper citation and formatting guidelines helps writers ensure that their work will be taken

seriously, give proper credit to other authors for their work, and provide valuable information to readers.

 Working ahead and taking care to cite sources correctly the first time are ways writers can save time

during the editing stage of writing a research paper.

 APA papers usually include an abstract that concisely summarizes the paper.

 APA papers use a specific headings structure to provide a clear hierarchy of information.

 In APA papers, in-text citations usually include the name(s) of the author(s) and the year of

publication.

 In-text citations correspond to entries in the references section, which provide detailed

bibliographical information about a source.

13.2 Citing and Referencing Techniques L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E

1. Apply American Psychological Association (APA) style formatting guidelines for citations.

This section covers the nitty-gritty details of in-text citations. You will learn how to format citations

for different types of source materials, whether you are citing brief quotations, paraphrasing ideas, or

quoting longer passages. You will also learn techniques you can use to introduce quoted and

paraphrased material effectively. Keep this section handy as a reference to consult while writing the

body of your paper.

Formatting Cited Material: The Basics

As noted in previous sections of this book, in-text citations usually provide the name of the author(s) and

the year the source was published. For direct quotations, the page number must also be included. Use

past-tense verbs when introducing a quote—“Smith found…” and not “Smith finds.…”

Formatting Brief Quotations

For brief quotations—fewer than forty words—use quotation marks to indicate where the quoted material

begins and ends, and cite the name of the author(s), the year of publication, and the page number where

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the quotation appears in your source. Remember to include commas to separate elements within the

parenthetical citation. Also, avoid redundancy. If you name the author(s) in your sentence, do not repeat

the name(s) in your parenthetical citation. Review following the examples of different ways to cite direct

quotations.

Chang (2008) emphasized that “engaging in weight-bearing exercise consistently is one of the single best

things women can do to maintain good health” (p. 49).

The author’s name can be included in the body of the sentence or in the parenthetical citation. Note that

when a parenthetical citation appears at the end of the sentence, it comes after the closing quotation

marks and before the period. The elements within parentheses are separated by commas.

Weight Training for Women (Chang, 2008) claimed that “engaging in weight-bearing exercise

consistently is one of the single best things women can do to maintain good health” (p. 49).

Weight Training for Women claimed that “engaging in weight-bearing exercise consistently is one of the

single best things women can do to maintain good health” (Chang, 2008, p. 49).

Including the title of a source is optional.

In Chang’s 2008 text Weight Training for Women, she asserts, “Engaging in weight-bearing exercise is

one of the single best things women can do to maintain good health” (p. 49).

The author’s name, the date, and the title may appear in the body of the text. Include the page number in

the parenthetical citation. Also, notice the use of the verb asserts to introduce the direct quotation.

“Engaging in weight-bearing exercise,” Chang asserts, “is one of the single best things women can do to

maintain good health” (2008, p. 49).

You may begin a sentence with the direct quotation and add the author’s name and a strong verb before

continuing the quotation.

Formatting Paraphrased and Summarized Material

When you paraphrase or summarize ideas from a source, you follow the same guidelines previously

provided, except that you are not required to provide the page number where the ideas are located. If you

are summing up the main findings of a research article, simply providing the author’s name and

publication year may suffice, but if you are paraphrasing a more specific idea, consider including the page

number.

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Read the following examples.

Chang (2008) pointed out that weight-bearing exercise has many potential benefits for women.

Here, the writer is summarizing a major idea that recurs throughout the source material. No page

reference is needed.

Chang (2008) found that weight-bearing exercise could help women maintain or even increase bone

density through middle age and beyond, reducing the likelihood that they will develop osteoporosis in

later life (p. 86).

Although the writer is not directly quoting the source, this passage paraphrases a specific detail, so the

writer chose to include the page number where the information is located.

Tip

Although APA style guidelines do not require writers to provide page numbers for material that is not

directly quoted, your instructor may wish you to do so when possible.

Check with your instructor about his or her preferences.

Formatting Longer Quotations

When you quote a longer passage from a source—forty words or more—use a different format to set off the

quoted material. Instead of using quotation marks, create a block quotation by starting the quotation on a

new line and indented five spaces from the margin. Note that in this case, the parenthetical citation

comes after the period that ends the sentence. Here is an example:

In recent years, many writers within the fitness industry have emphasized the ways in which women can

benefit from weight-bearing exercise, such as weightlifting, karate, dancing, stair climbing, hiking, and

jogging. Chang (2008) found that engaging in weight-bearing exercise regularly significantly reduces

women’s risk of developing osteoporosis. Additionally, these exercises help women maintain muscle mass

and overall strength, and many common forms of weight-bearing exercise, such as brisk walking or stair

climbing, also provide noticeable cardiovascular benefits. (p. 93)

E X E R C I S E 1

Review the places in your paper where you cited, quoted, and paraphrased material from a source with a

single author. Edit your citations to ensure that

 each citation includes the author’s name, the date of publication, and, where appropriate, a page

reference;

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 parenthetical citations are correctly formatted;

 longer quotations use the block-quotation format.

If you are quoting a passage that continues into a second paragraph, indent five spaces again in the first

line of the second paragraph. Here is an example:

In recent years, many writers within the fitness industry have emphasized the ways in which women can

benefit from weight-bearing exercise, such as weightlifting, karate, dancing, stair climbing, hiking, and

jogging. Chang (2008) found that engaging in weight-bearing exercise regularly significantly reduces

women’s risk of developing osteoporosis. Additionally, these exercises help women maintain muscle mass

and overall strength, and many common forms of weight-bearing exercise, such as brisk walking or stair

climbing, also provide noticeable cardiovascular benefits.

It is important to note that swimming cannot be considered a weight-bearing exercise, since the water

supports and cushions the swimmer. That doesn’t mean swimming isn’t great exercise, but it should be

considered one part of an integrated fitness program. (p. 93)

Tip

Be wary of quoting from sources at length. Remember, your ideas should drive the paper, and quotations

should be used to support and enhance your points. Make sure any lengthy quotations that you include

serve a clear purpose. Generally, no more than 10–15 percent of a paper should consist of quoted material.

Introducing Cited Material Effectively

Including an introductory phrase in your text, such as “Jackson wrote” or “Copeland found,” often helps

you integrate source material smoothly. This citation technique also helps convey that you are actively

engaged with your source material. Unfortunately, during the process of writing your research paper, it is

easy to fall into a rut and use the same few dull verbs repeatedly, such as “Jones said,” “Smith stated,” and

so on.

Punch up your writing by using strong verbs that help your reader understand how the source material

presents ideas. There is a world of difference between an author who “suggests” and one who “claims,”

one who “questions” and one who “criticizes.” You do not need to consult your thesaurus every time you

cite a source, but do think about which verbs will accurately represent the ideas and make your writing

more engaging. The following chart shows some possibilities.

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Strong Verbs for Introducing Cited Material

ask suggest question

explain assert claim

recommend compare contrast

propose hypothesize believe

insist argue find

determine measure assess

evaluate conclude study

warn point out sum up

E X E R C I S E 2

Review the citations in your paper once again. This time, look for places where you introduced source

material using a signal phrase in your sentence.

1. Highlight the verbs used in your signal phrases, and make note of any that seem to be overused

throughout the paper.

2. Identify at least three places where a stronger verb could be used.

3. Make the edits to your draft.

Writing at Work

It is important to accurately represent a colleague’s ideas or communications in the workplace. When

writing professional or academic papers, be mindful of how the words you use to describe someone’s tone

or ideas carry certain connotations. Do not say a source argues a particular point unless an argument is,

in fact, presented. Use lively language, but avoid language that is emotionally charged. Doing so will

ensure you have represented your colleague’s words in an authentic and accurate way.

Formatting In-Text Citations for Other Source Types

These sections discuss the correct format for various types of in-text citations. Read them through quickly

to get a sense of what is covered, and then refer to them again as needed.

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Print Sources

This section covers books, articles, and other print sources with one or more authors.

A Work by One Author

For a print work with one author, follow the guidelines provided in Chapter 13 "APA and MLA

Documentation and Formatting", Section 13.1 "Formatting a Research Paper". Always include the author’s

name and year of publication. Include a page reference whenever you quote a source directly. (See also the

guidelines presented earlier in this chapter about when to include a page reference for paraphrased

material.)

Chang (2008) emphasized that “engaging in weight-bearing exercise consistently is one of the single best

things women can do to maintain good health” (p. 49).

Chang (2008) pointed out that weight-bearing exercise has many potential benefits for women.

Two or More Works by the Same Author

At times, your research may include multiple works by the same author. If the works were published in

different years, a standard in-text citation will serve to distinguish them. If you are citing multiple works

by the same author published in the same year, include a lowercase letter immediately after the year.

Rank the sources in the order they appear in your references section. The source listed first includes

an a after the year, the source listed second includes a b, and so on.

Rodriguez (2009a) criticized the nutrition-supplement industry for making unsubstantiated and

sometimes misleading claims about the benefits of taking supplements. Additionally, he warned that

consumers frequently do not realize the potential harmful effects of some popular supplements

(Rodriguez, 2009b).

Tip

If you have not yet created your references section, you may not be sure which source will appear first.

See Chapter 13 "APA and MLA Documentation and Formatting", Section 13.3 "Creating a References

Section" for guidelines—or assign each source a temporary code and highlight the in-text citations so you

remember to double-check them later on.

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Works by Authors with the Same Last Name

If you are citing works by different authors with the same last name, include each author’s initials in your

citation, whether you mention them in the text or in parentheses. Do so even if the publication years are

different.

J. S. Williams (2007) believes nutritional supplements can be a useful part of some diet and fitness

regimens. C. D. Williams (2008), however, believes these supplements are overrated.

According to two leading researchers, the rate of childhood obesity exceeds the rate of adult obesity (K.

Connelley, 2010; O. Connelley, 2010).

Studies from both A. Wright (2007) and C. A. Wright (2008) confirm the benefits of diet and exercise on

weight loss.

A Work by Two Authors

When two authors are listed for a given work, include both authors’ names each time you cite the work. If

you are citing their names in parentheses, use an ampersand (&) between them. (Use the word and,

however, if the names appear in your sentence.)

As Garrison and Gould (2010) pointed out, “It is never too late to quit smoking. The health risks

associated with this habit begin to decrease soon after a smoker quits” (p. 101).

As doctors continue to point out, “It is never too late to quit smoking. The health risks associated with this

habit begin to decrease soon after a smoker quits” (Garrison & Gould, 2010, p. 101).

A Work by Three to Five Authors

If the work you are citing has three to five authors, list all the authors’ names the first time you cite the

source. In subsequent citations, use the first author’s name followed by the abbreviation et al. (Et al. is

short for et alia, the Latin phrase for “and others.”)

Henderson, Davidian, and Degler (2010) surveyed 350 smokers aged 18 to 30.

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One survey, conducted among 350 smokers aged 18 to 30, included a detailed questionnaire about

participants’ motivations for smoking (Henderson, Davidian, & Degler, 2010).

Note that these examples follow the same ampersand conventions as sources with two authors. Again, use

the ampersand only when listing authors’ names in parentheses.

As Henderson et al. (2010) found, some young people, particularly young women, use smoking as a means

of appetite suppression.

Disturbingly, some young women use smoking as a means of appetite suppression (Henderson et al.,

2010).

Note how the phrase et al. is punctuated. No period comes after et, but al. gets a period because it is an

abbreviation for a longer Latin word. In parenthetical references, include a comma after et al. but not

before. Remember this rule by mentally translating the citation to English: “Henderson and others, 2010.”

A Work by Six or More Authors

If the work you are citing has six or more authors, list only the first author’s name, followed by et al., in

your in-text citations. The other authors’ names will be listed in your references section.

Researchers have found that outreach work with young people has helped reduce tobacco use in some

communities (Costello et al., 2007).

A Work Authored by an Organization

When citing a work that has no individual author(s) but is published by an organization, use the

organization’s name in place of the author’s name. Lengthy organization names with well-known

abbreviations can be abbreviated. In your first citation, use the full name, followed by the abbreviation in

square brackets. Subsequent citations may use the abbreviation only.

It is possible for a patient to have a small stroke without even realizing it (American Heart Association

[AHA], 2010).

Another cause for concern is that even if patients realize that they have had a stroke and need medical

attention, they may not know which nearby facilities are best equipped to treat them (AHA, 2010).

E X E R C I S E 3

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1. Review the places in your paper where you cited material from a source with multiple authors or with

an organization as the author. Edit your citations to ensure that each citation follows APA guidelines for

the inclusion of the authors’ names, the use of ampersands and et al., the date of publication, and, where

appropriate, a page reference.

2. Mark any additional citations within your paper that you are not sure how to format based on the

guidelines provided so far. You will revisit these citations after reading the next few sections.

A Work with No Listed Author

If no author is listed and the source cannot be attributed to an organization, use the title in place of the

author’s name. You may use the full title in your sentence or use the first few words—enough to convey

the key ideas—in a parenthetical reference. Follow standard conventions for using italics or quotations

marks with titles:

 Use italics for titles of books or reports.

 Use quotation marks for titles of articles or chapters.

“Living With Diabetes: Managing Your Health” (2009) recommends regular exercise for patients with

diabetes.

Regular exercise can benefit patients with diabetes (“Living with Diabetes,” 2009).

Rosenhan (1973) had mentally healthy study participants claim to be experiencing hallucinations so they

would be admitted to psychiatric hospitals.

A Work Cited within Another Work

To cite a source that is referred to within another secondary source, name the first source in your

sentence. Then, in parentheses, use the phrase as cited inand the name of the second source author.

Rosenhan’s study “On Being Sane in Insane Places” (as cited in Spitzer, 1975) found that psychiatrists

diagnosed schizophrenia in people who claimed to be experiencing hallucinations and sought treatment—

even though these patients were, in fact, imposters.

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Two or More Works Cited in One Reference

At times, you may provide more than one citation in a parenthetical reference, such as when you are

discussing related works or studies with similar results. List the citations in the same order they appear in

your references section, and separate the citations with a semicolon.

Some researchers have found serious flaws in the way Rosenhan’s study was conducted (Dawes, 2001;

Spitzer, 1975).

Both of these researchers authored works that support the point being made in this sentence, so it makes

sense to include both in the same citation.

A Famous Text Published in Multiple Editions

In some cases, you may need to cite an extremely well-known work that has been repeatedly republished

or translated. Many works of literature and sacred texts, as well as some classic nonfiction texts, fall into

this category. For these works, the original date of publication may be unavailable. If so, include the year

of publication or translation for your edition. Refer to specific parts or chapters if you need to cite a

specific section. Discuss with your instructor whether he or she would like you to cite page numbers in

this particular instance.

In New Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis, Freud explains that the “manifest content” of a

dream—what literally takes place—is separate from its “latent content,” or hidden meaning (trans. 1965,

lecture XXIX).

Here, the student is citing a classic work of psychology, originally written in German and later translated

to English. Since the book is a collection of Freud’s lectures, the student cites the lecture number rather

than a page number.

An Introduction, Foreword, Preface, or Afterword

To cite an introduction, foreword, preface, or afterword, cite the author of the material and the year,

following the same format used for other print materials.

Electronic Sources

Whenever possible, cite electronic sources as you would print sources, using the author, the date, and

where appropriate, a page number. For some types of electronic sources—for instance, many online

articles—this information is easily available. Other times, however, you will need to vary the format to

reflect the differences in online media.

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Online Sources without Page Numbers

If an online source has no page numbers but you want to refer to a specific portion of the source, try to

locate other information you can use to direct your reader to the information cited. Some websites

number paragraphs within published articles; if so, include the paragraph number in your citation.

Precede the paragraph number with the abbreviation for the word paragraph and the number of the

paragraph (e.g., para. 4).

As researchers have explained, “Incorporating fresh fruits and vegetables into one’s diet can be a

challenge for residents of areas where there are few or no easily accessible supermarkets” (Smith & Jones,

2006, para. 4).

Even if a source does not have numbered paragraphs, it is likely to have headings that organize the

content. In your citation, name the section where your cited information appears, followed by a paragraph

number.

The American Lung Association (2010) noted, “After smoking, radon exposure is the second most

common cause of lung cancer” (What Causes Lung Cancer? section, para. 2).

This student cited the appropriate section heading within the website and then counted to find the specific

paragraph where the cited information was located.

If an online source has no listed author and no date, use the source title and the abbreviation n.d. in your

parenthetical reference.

It has been suggested that electromagnetic radiation from cellular telephones may pose a risk for

developing certain cancers (“Cell Phones and Cancer,” n.d.).

Personal Communication

For personal communications, such as interviews, letters, and e-mails, cite the name of the person

involved, clarify that the material is from a personal communication, and provide the specific date the

communication took place. Note that while in-text citations correspond to entries in the references

section, personal communications are an exception to this rule. They are cited only in the body text of

your paper.

J. H. Yardley, M.D., believes that available information on the relationship between cell phone use and

cancer is inconclusive (personal communication, May 1, 2009).

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Writing at Work

At work, you may sometimes share information resources with your colleagues by photocopying an

interesting article or forwarding the URL of a useful website. Your goal in these situations and in formal

research citations is the same. The goal is to provide enough information to help your professional peers

locate and follow up on potentially useful information. Provide as much specific information as possible to

achieve that goal, and consult with your professor as to what specific style he or she may prefer.

E X E R C I S E 4

Revisit the problem citations you identified in Note 13.55 "Exercise 3"—for instance, sources with no listed

author or other oddities. Review the guidelines provided in this section and edit your citations for these

kinds of sources according to APA guidelines.

K E Y T A K E A W A Y S

 In APA papers, in-text citations include the name of the author(s) and the year of publication

whenever possible.

 Page numbers are always included when citing quotations. It is optional to include page numbers

when citing paraphrased material; however, this should be done when citing a specific portion of a work.

 When citing online sources, provide the same information used for print sources if it is available.

 When a source does not provide information that usually appears in a citation, in-text citations

should provide readers with alternative information that would help them locate the source material. This

may include the title of the source, section headings and paragraph numbers for websites, and so forth.

 When writing a paper, discuss with your professor what particular standards he or she would like you

to follow.

13.3 Creating a References Section L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E

1. Apply American Psychological Association (APA) style and formatting guidelines for a references

section.

This section provides detailed information about how to create the references section of your paper.

You will review basic formatting guidelines and learn how to format bibliographical entries for

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various types of sources. This section of Chapter 13 "APA and MLA Documentation and Formatting",

like the previous section, is meant to be used as a reference tool while you write.

Formatting the References Section: The Basics

At this stage in the writing process, you may already have begun setting up your references section. This

section may consist of a single page for a brief research paper or may extend for many pages in

professional journal articles. As you create this section of your paper, follow the guidelines provided here.

Formatting the References Section

To set up your references section, use the insert page break feature of your word-processing program to

begin a new page. Note that the header and margins will be the same as in the body of your paper, and

pagination continues from the body of your paper. (In other words, if you set up the body of your paper

correctly, the correct header and page number should appear automatically in your references section.)

See additional guidelines below.

Formatting Reference Entries

Reference entries should include the following information:

 The name of the author(s)

 The year of publication and, where applicable, the exact date of publication

 The full title of the source

 For books, the city of publication

 For articles or essays, the name of the periodical or book in which the article or essay appears

 For magazine and journal articles, the volume number, issue number, and pages where the article

appears

 For sources on the web, the URL where the source is located

See the following examples for how to format a book or journal article with a single author.

Sample Book Entry

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Sample Journal Article Entry

The following box provides general guidelines for formatting the reference page. For the remainder of this

chapter, you will learn about how to format bibliographical entries for different source types, including

multiauthor and electronic sources.

Formatting the References Section: APA General Guidelines

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1. Include the heading References, centered at the top of the page. The heading should not be

boldfaced, italicized, or underlined.

2. Use double-spaced type throughout the references section, as in the body of your paper.

3. Use hanging indentation for each entry. The first line should be flush with the left margin, while

any lines that follow should be indented five spaces. Note that hanging indentation is the opposite of

normal indenting rules for paragraphs.

4. List entries in alphabetical order by the author’s last name. For a work with multiple authors, use

the last name of the first author listed.

5. List authors’ names using this format: Smith, J. C.

6. For a work with no individual author(s), use the name of the organization that published the work

or, if this is unavailable, the title of the work in place of the author’s name.

7. For works with multiple authors, follow these guidelines:

o For works with up to seven authors, list the last name and initials for each author.

o For works with more than seven authors, list the first six names, followed by ellipses, and

then the name of the last author listed.

o Use an ampersand before the name of the last author listed.

8. Use title case for journal titles. Capitalize all important words in the title.

9. Use sentence case for all other titles—books, articles, web pages, and other source titles. Capitalize

the first word of the title. Do not capitalize any other words in the title except for the following:

o Proper nouns

o First word of a subtitle

o First word after a colon or dash

10. Use italics for book and journal titles. Do not use italics, underlining, or quotation marks for titles

of shorter works, such as articles.

E X E R C I S E 1

Set up the first page of your references section and begin adding entries, following the APA formatting

guidelines provided in this section.

1. If there are any simple entries that you can format completely using the general guidelines, do so at

this time.

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2. For entries you are unsure of how to format, type in as much information as you can, and highlight

the entries so you can return to them later.

Formatting Reference Entries for Different Source Types

As is the case for in-text citations, formatting reference entries becomes more complicated when you are

citing a source with multiple authors, citing various types of online media, or citing sources for which you

must provide additional information beyond the basics listed in the general guidelines. The following

guidelines show how to format reference entries for these different situations.

Print Sources: Books

For book-length sources and shorter works that appear in a book, follow the guidelines that best describes

your source.

A Book by Two or More Authors

List the authors’ names in the order they appear on the book’s title page. Use an ampersand before the last

author’s name.

Campbell, D. T., & Stanley, J. C. (1963). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for

research. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.

An Edited Book with No Author

List the editor or editors’ names in place of the author’s name, followed by Ed. orEds. in parentheses.

Myers, C., & Reamer, D. (Eds.). (2009). 2009 nutrition index. San Francisco, CA: HealthSource, Inc.

An Edited Book with an Author

List the author’s name first, followed by the title and the editor or editors. Note that when the editor is

listed after the title, you list the initials before the last name.

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Tip

The previous example shows the format used for an edited book with one author—for instance, a

collection of a famous person’s letters that has been edited. This type of source is different from an

anthology, which is a collection of articles or essays by different authors. For citing works in anthologies,

see the guidelines later in this section.

A Translated Book

Include the translator’s name after the title, and at the end of the citation, list the date the original work

was published. Note that for the translator’s name, you list the initials before the last name.

Freud, S. (1965). New introductory lectures on psycho-analysis (J. Strachey, Trans.). New York, NY: W.

W. Norton. (Original work published 1933).

A Book Published in Multiple Editions

If you are using any edition other than the first edition, include the edition number in parentheses after

the title.

A Chapter in an Edited Book

List the name of the author(s) who wrote the chapter, followed by the chapter title. Then list the names of

the book editor(s) and the title of the book, followed by the page numbers for the chapter and the usual

information about the book’s publisher.

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A Work That Appears in an Anthology

Follow the same process you would use to cite a book chapter, substituting the article or essay title for the

chapter title.

An Article in a Reference Book

List the author’s name if available; if no author is listed, provide the title of the entry where the author’s

name would normally be listed. If the book lists the name of the editor(s), include it in your citation.

Indicate the volume number (if applicable) and page numbers in parentheses after the article title.

Two or More Books by the Same Author

List the entries in order of their publication year, beginning with the work published first.

Swedan, N. (2001). Women’s sports medicine and rehabilitation.Gaithersburg, MD: Aspen Publishers.

Swedan, N. (2003). The active woman’s health and fitness handbook. New York, NY: Perigee.

If two books have multiple authors, and the first author is the same but the others are different,

alphabetize by the second author’s last name (or the third or fourth, if necessary).

Carroll, D., & Aaronson, F. (2008). Managing type II diabetes. Chicago, IL: Southwick Press.

Carroll, D., & Zuckerman, N. (2008). Gestational diabetes. Chicago, IL: Southwick Press.

Books by Different Authors with the Same Last Name

Alphabetize entries by the authors’ first initial.

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A Book Authored by an Organization

Treat the organization name as you would an author’s name. For the purposes of alphabetizing, ignore

words like The in the organization’s name. (That is, a book published by the American Heart Association

would be listed with other entries whose authors’ names begin with A.)

American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders DSM-

IV (4th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing.

A Book-Length Report

Format technical and research reports as you would format other book-length sources. If the organization

that issued the report assigned it a number, include the number in parentheses after the title. (See also the

guidelines provided for citing works produced by government agencies.)

Jameson, R., & Dewey, J. (2009). Preliminary findings from an evaluation of the president’s physical

fitness program in Pleasantville school district. Pleasantville, WA: Pleasantville Board of Education.

A Book Authored by a Government Agency

Treat these as you would a book published by a nongovernment organization, but be aware that these

works may have an identification number listed. If so, include it in parentheses after the publication year.

U.S. Census Bureau. (2002). The decennial censuses from 1790 to 2000(Publication No. POL/02-MA).

Washington, DC: US Government Printing Offices.

E X E R C I S E 2

Revisit the references section you began to compile in Note 13.73 "Exercise 1". Use the guidelines

provided to format any entries for book-length print sources that you were unable to finish earlier.

Review how Jorge formatted these book-length print sources:

Atkins, R. C. (2002). Dr. Atkins’ diet revolution. New York, NY: M. Evans and Company.

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Agatson, A. (2003). The South Beach diet. New York, NY: St. Martin’s Griffin.

Print Sources: Periodicals

An Article in a Scholarly Journal

Include the following information:

 Author or authors’ names

 Publication year

 Article title (in sentence case, without quotation marks or italics)

 Journal title (in title case and in italics)

 Volume number (in italics)

 Issue number (in parentheses)

 Page number(s) where the article appears

DeMarco, R. F. (2010). Palliative care and African American women living with HIV. Journal of Nursing

Education, 49(5), 1–4.

An Article in a Journal Paginated by Volume

In these types of journals, page numbers for one volume continue across all the issues in that volume. For

instance, the winter issue may begin with page 1, and in the spring issue that follows, the page numbers

pick up where the previous issue left off. (If you have ever wondered why a print journal did not begin on

page 1, or wondered why the page numbers of a journal extend into four digits, this is why.) Omit the issue

number from your reference entry.

Wagner, J. (2009). Rethinking school lunches: A review of recent literature.American School Nurses’

Journal, 47, 1123–1127.

An Abstract of a Scholarly Article

At times you may need to cite an abstract—the summary that appears at the beginning—of a published

article. If you are citing the abstract only, and it was published separately from the article, provide the

following information:

 Publication information for the article

 Information about where the abstract was published (for instance, another journal or a collection

of abstracts)

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A Journal Article with Two to Seven Authors

List all the authors’ names in the order they appear in the article. Use an ampersand before the last name

listed.

Barker, E. T., & Bornstein, M. H. (2010). Global self-esteem, appearance satisfaction, and self-reported

dieting in early adolescence. Journal of Early Adolescence, 30(2), 205–224.

Tremblay, M. S., Shields, M., Laviolette, M., Craig, C. L., Janssen, I., & Gorber, S. C. (2010). Fitness of

Canadian children and youth: Results from the 2007–2009 Canadian Health Measures

Survey. Health Reports, 21(1), 7–20.

A Journal Article with More Than Seven Authors

List the first six authors’ names, followed by a comma, an ellipsis, and the name of the last author listed.

The article in the following example has sixteen listed authors; the reference entry lists the first six

authors and the sixteenth, omitting the seventh through the fifteenth.

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Writing at Work

The idea of an eight-page article with sixteen authors may seem strange to you—especially if you are in the

midst of writing a ten-page research paper on your own. More often than not, articles in scholarly journals

list multiple authors. Sometimes, the authors actually did collaborate on writing and editing the published

article. In other instances, some of the authors listed may have contributed to the research in some way

while being only minimally involved in the process of writing the article. Whenever you collaborate with

colleagues to produce a written product, follow your profession’s conventions for giving everyone proper

credit for their contribution.

A Magazine Article

After the publication year, list the issue date. Otherwise, treat these as you would journal articles. List the

volume and issue number if both are available.

A Newspaper Article

Treat these as you would magazine and journal articles, with one important difference: precede the page

number(s) with the abbreviation p. (for a single-page article) or pp. (for a multipage article). For articles

whose pagination is not continuous, list all the pages included in the article. For example, an article that

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begins on page A1 and continues on pages A4 would have the page reference A1, A4. An article that begins

on page A1 and continues on pages A4 and A5 would have the page reference A1, A4–A5.

A Letter to the Editor

After the title, indicate in brackets that the work is a letter to the editor.

Jones, J. (2009, January 31). Food police in our schools [Letter to the editor]. Rockwood Gazette, p. A8.

A Review

After the title, indicate in brackets that the work is a review and state the name of the work being

reviewed. (Note that even if the title of the review is the same as the title of the book being reviewed, as in

the following example, you should treat it as an article title. Do not italicize it.)

E X E R C I S E 3

Revisit the references section you began to compile in Note 13.73 "Exercise 1". Use the guidelines

provided above to format any entries for periodicals and other shorter print sources that you were unable

to finish earlier.

Electronic Sources

Citing Articles from Online Periodicals: URLs and Digital Object Identifiers (DOIs)

Whenever you cite online sources, it is important to provide the most up-to-date information available to

help readers locate the source. In some cases, this means providing an article’s URL, or web address. (The

letters URL stand for uniform resource locator.) Always provide the most complete URL possible. Provide

a link to the specific article used, rather than a link to the publication’s homepage.

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As you know, web addresses are not always stable. If a website is updated or reorganized, the article you

accessed in April may move to a different location in May. The URL you provided may become a dead

link. For this reason, many online periodicals, especially scholarly publications, now rely on DOIs rather

than URLs to keep track of articles.

A DOI is a Digital Object Identifier—an identification code provided for some online documents, typically

articles in scholarly journals. Like a URL, its purpose is to help readers locate an article. However, a DOI

is more stable than a URL, so it makes sense to include it in your reference entry when possible. Follow

these guidelines:

 If you are citing an online article with a DOI, list the DOI at the end of the reference entry.

 If the article appears in print as well as online, you do not need to provide the URL. However,

include the words Electronic version after the title in brackets.

 In other respects, treat the article as you would a print article. Include the volume number and

issue number if available. (Note, however, that these may not be available for some online

periodicals).

An Article from an Online Periodical with a DOI

List the DOI if one is provided. There is no need to include the URL if you have listed the DOI.

Bell, J. R. (2006). Low-carb beats low-fat diet for early losses but not long term. OBGYN News, 41(12), 32.

doi:10.1016/S0029-7437(06)71905-X

An Article from an Online Periodical with No DOI

List the URL. Include the volume and issue number for the periodical if this information is available. (For

some online periodicals, it may not be.)

Note that if the article appears in a print version of the publication, you do not need to list the URL, but do

indicate that you accessed the electronic version.

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Robbins, K. (2010, March/April). Nature’s bounty: A heady feast [Electronic version]. Psychology Today,

43(2), 58.

A Newspaper Article

Provide the URL of the article.

McNeil, D. G. (2010, May 3). Maternal health: A new study challenges benefits of vitamin A for women

and babies. The New York Times.Retrieved from

http://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/04/health/04glob.html?ref=health

An Article Accessed through a Database

Cite these articles as you would normally cite a print article. Provide database information only if the

article is difficult to locate.

Tip

APA style does not require writers to provide the item number or accession number for articles retrieved

from databases. You may choose to do so if the article is difficult to locate or the database is an obscure

one. Check with your professor to see if this is something he or she would like you to include.

An Abstract of an Article

Format these as you would an article citation, but add the word Abstract in brackets after the title.

Bradley, U., Spence, M., Courtney, C. H., McKinley, M. C., Ennis, C. N., McCance, D. R.…Hunter, S. J.

(2009). Low-fat versus low-carbohydrate weight reduction diets: Effects on weight loss, insulin

resistance, and cardiovascular risk: A randomized control trial [Abstract]. Diabetes,58(12), 2741–

2748. http://diabetes.diabetesjournals.org/content/early/2009/08/23/db00098.abstract

A Nonperiodical Web Document

The ways you cite different nonperiodical web documents may vary slightly from source to source,

depending on the information that is available. In your citation, include as much of the following

information as you can:

 Name of the author(s), whether an individual or organization

 Date of publication (Use n.d. if no date is available.)

 Title of the document

 Address where you retrieved the document

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If the document consists of more than one web page within the site, link to the homepage or the entry

page for the document.

American Heart Association. (2010). Heart attack, stroke, and cardiac arrest warning signs. Retrieved

from http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier=3053

An Entry from an Online Encyclopedia or Dictionary

Because these sources often do not include authors’ names, you may list the title of the entry at the

beginning of the citation. Provide the URL for the specific entry.

Addiction. (n.d.) In Merriam-Webster’s online dictionary. Retrieved from http://www.merriam-

webster.com/dictionary/addiction

Data Sets

If you cite raw data compiled by an organization, such as statistical data, provide the URL where you

retrieved the information. Provide the name of the organization that sponsors the site.

US Food and Drug Administration. (2009). Nationwide evaluation of X-ray trends: NEXT surveys

performed [Data file]. Retrieved from http://www.fda.gov/Radiation-

EmittingProducts/RadiationSafety/NationwideEvaluationofX- RayTrendsNEXT/ucm116508.htm

Graphic Data

When citing graphic data—such as maps, pie charts, bar graphs, and so on—include the name of the

organization that compiled the information, along with the publication date. Briefly describe the contents

in brackets. Provide the URL where you retrieved the information. (If the graphic is associated with a

specific project or document, list it after your bracketed description of the contents.)

US Food and Drug Administration. (2009). [Pie charts showing the percentage breakdown of the FDA’s

budget for fiscal year 2005]. 2005 FDA budget summary. Retrieved from

mhttp://www.fda.gov/AboutFDA/ReportsManualsForms/Reports/BudgetReports/2005FDABudget

Summary/ucm117231.htm

An Online Interview (Audio File or Transcript)

List the interviewer, interviewee, and date. After the title, include bracketed text describing the interview

as an “Interview transcript” or “Interview audio file,” depending on the format of the interview you

accessed. List the name of the website and the URL where you retrieved the information. Use the

following format.

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Davies, D. (Interviewer), & Pollan, M. (Interviewee). (2008). Michael Pollan offers president food for

thought [Interview transcript]. Retrieved from National Public Radio website:

http://www.npr.org/templates/transcript/transcript.php?storyId=100755362

An Electronic Book

Electronic books may include books available as text files online or audiobooks. If an electronic book is

easily available in print, cite it as you would a print source. If it is unavailable in print (or extremely

difficult to find), use the format in the example. (Use the words Available from in your citation if the book

must be purchased or is not available directly.)

Chisholm, L. (n.d.). Celtic tales. Retrieved from

http://www.childrenslibrary.org/icdl/BookReader?bookid=

chicelt_00150014&twoPage=false&route=text&size=0&fullscreen=false&pnum1=1&lang=

English&ilang=English

A Chapter from an Online Book or a Chapter or Section of a Web Document

These are treated similarly to their print counterparts with the addition of retrieval information. Include

the chapter or section number in parentheses after the book title.

Hart, A. M. (1895). Restoratives—Coffee, cocoa, chocolate. In Diet in sickness and in health (VI).

Retrieved from http://www.archive.org/details/dietinsicknessin00hartrich

A Dissertation or Thesis from a Database

Provide the author, date of publication, title, and retrieval information. If the work is numbered within

the database, include the number in parentheses at the end of the citation.

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Computer Software

For commonly used office software and programming languages, it is not necessary to provide a citation.

Cite software only when you are using a specialized program, such as the nutrition tracking software in

the following example. If you download software from a website, provide the version and the year if

available.

Internet Brands, Inc. (2009). FitDay PC (Version 2) [Software]. Available from

http://www.fitday.com/Pc/PcHome.html?gcid=14

A Post on a Blog or Video Blog

Citation guidelines for these sources are similar to those used for discussion forum postings. Briefly

describe the type of source in brackets after the title.

Writing at Work

Because the content may not be carefully reviewed for accuracy, discussion forums and blogs should not

be relied upon as a major source of information. However, it may be appropriate to cite these sources for

some types of research. You may also participate in discussion forums or comment on blogs that address

topics of personal or professional interest. Always keep in mind that when you post, you are making your

thoughts public—and in many cases, available through search engines. Make sure any posts that can easily

be associated with your name are appropriately professional, because a potential employer could view

them.

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A Television or Radio Broadcast

Include the name of the producer or executive producer; the date, title, and type of broadcast; and the

associated company and location.

West, Ty. (Executive producer). (2009, September 24). PBS special report: Health care

reform [Television broadcast]. New York, NY, and Washington, DC: Public Broadcasting Service.

A Television or Radio Series or Episode

Include the producer and the type of series if you are citing an entire television or radio series.

Couture, D., Nabors, S., Pinkard, S., Robertson, N., & Smith, J. (Producers). (1979). The Diane Rehm

show [Radio series]. Washington, DC: National Public Radio.

To cite a specific episode of a radio or television series, list the name of the writer or writers (if available),

the date the episode aired, its title, and the type of series, along with general information about the series.

Bernanke, J., & Wade, C. (2010, January 10). Hummingbirds: Magic in the air [Television series episode].

In F. Kaufman (Executive producer),Nature. New York, NY: WNET.

A Motion Picture

Name the director or producer (or both), year of release, title, country of origin, and studio.

Spurlock, M. (Director/producer), Morley, J. (Executive producer), & Winters. H. M. (Executive

producer). (2004). Super size me. United States: Kathbur Pictures in association with Studio on

Hudson.

A Recording

Name the primary contributors and list their role. Include the recording medium in brackets after the

title. Then list the location and the label.

Smith, L. W. (Speaker). (1999). Meditation and relaxation [CD]. New York, NY: Earth, Wind, & Sky

Productions.

Székely, I. (Pianist), Budapest Symphony Orchestra (Performers), & Németh, G. (Conductor).

(1988). Chopin piano concertos no. 1 and 2 [CD]. Hong Kong: Naxos.

A Podcast

Provide as much information as possible about the writer, director, and producer; the date the podcast

aired; its title; any organization or series with which it is associated; and where you retrieved the podcast.

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Kelsey, A. R. (Writer), Garcia, J. (Director), & Kim, S. C. (Producer). (2010, May 7). Lies food labels tell

us. Savvy consumer podcasts [Audio podcast]. Retrieved from

http://www.savvyconsumer.org/podcasts/050710

E X E R C I S E 4

Revisit the references section you began to compile in Note 13.73 "Exercise 1".

1. Use the APA guidelines provided in this section to format any entries for electronic sources that you

were unable to finish earlier.

2. If your sources include a form of media not covered in the APA guidelines here, consult with a writing

tutor or review a print or online reference book. You may wish to visit the website of the American

Psychological Association at http://www.apa.org or the Purdue University Online Writing lab

athttp://owl.english.purdue.edu, which regularly updates its online style guidelines.

3. Give your paper a final edit to check the references section. K E Y T A K E A W A Y S

 In APA papers, entries in the references section include as much of the following information as

possible:

o Print sources. Author(s), date of publication, title, publisher, page numbers (for shorter

works), editors (if applicable), and periodical title (if applicable).

o Online sources (text-based). Author(s), date of publication, title, publisher or

sponsoring organization, and DOI or URL (if applicable).

o Electronic sources (non-text-based). Provide details about the creator(s) of the work,

title, associated company or series, and date the work was produced or broadcast. The specific

details provided will vary depending on the medium and the information that is available.

o Electronic sources (text-based). If an electronic source is also widely available in print

form, it is sometimes unnecessary to provide details about how to access the electronic version.

Check the guidelines for the specific source type.

13.4 Using Modern Language Association (MLA) Style L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E S

1. Identify the major components of a research paper written using MLA style.

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2. Apply general Modern Language Association (MLA) style and formatting conventions in a research

paper.

We have addressed American Psychological Association (APA) style, as well as the importance of

giving credit where credit is due, so now let’s turn our attention to the formatting and citation style of

the Modern Language Association, known as MLA style.

MLA style is often used in the liberal arts and humanities. Like APA style, it provides a uniform

framework for consistency across a document in several areas. MLA style provides a format for the

manuscript text and parenthetical citations, or in-text citations. It also provides the framework for

the works cited area for references at the end of the essay. MLA style emphasizes brevity and clarity.

As a student writer, it is to your advantage to be familiar with both major styles, and this section will

outline the main points of MLA as well as offer specific examples of commonly used references.

Remember that your writing represents you in your absence. The correct use of a citation style

demonstrates your attention to detail and ability to produce a scholarly work in an acceptable style,

and it can help prevent the appearance or accusations of plagiarism.

If you are taking an English, art history, or music appreciation class, chances are that you will be

asked to write an essay in MLA format. One common question goes something like “What’s the

difference?” referring to APA and MLA style, and it deserves our consideration. The liberal arts and

humanities often reflect works of creativity that come from individual and group effort, but they may

adapt, change, or build on previous creative works. The inspiration to create something new, from a

song to a music video, may contain elements of previous works. Drawing on your fellow artists and

authors is part of the creative process, and so is giving credit where credit is due.

A reader interested in your subject wants not only to read what you wrote but also to be aware of the

works that you used to create it. Readers want to examine your sources to see if you know your

subject, to see if you missed anything, or if you offer anything new and interesting. Your new or up-

to-date sources may offer the reader additional insight on the subject being considered. It also

demonstrates that you, as the author, are up-to-date on what is happening in the field or on the

subject. Giving credit where it is due enhances your credibility, and the MLA style offers a clear

format to use.

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Uncredited work that is incorporated into your own writing is considered plagiarism. In the

professional world, plagiarism results in loss of credibility and often compensation, including future

opportunities. In a classroom setting, plagiarism results in a range of sanctions, from loss of a grade

to expulsion from a school or university. In both professional and academic settings, the penalties

are severe. MLA offers artists and authors a systematic style of reference, again giving credit where

credit is due, to protect MLA users from accusations of plagiarism.

MLA style uses a citation in the body of the essay that links to the works cited page at the end. The

in-text citation is offset with parentheses, clearly calling attention to itself for the reader. The

reference to the author or title is like a signal to the reader that information was incorporated from a

separate source. It also provides the reader with information to then turn to the works cited section

of your essay (at the end) where they can find the complete reference. If you follow the MLA style,

and indicate your source both in your essay and in the works cited section, you will prevent the

possibility of plagiarism. If you follow the MLA guidelines, pay attention to detail, and clearly

indicate your sources, then this approach to formatting and citation offers a proven way to

demonstrate your respect for other authors and artists.

Five Reasons to Use MLA Style

1. To demonstrate your ability to present a professional, academic essay in the correct style

2. To gain credibility and authenticity for your work

3. To enhance the ability of the reader to locate information discussed in your essay

4. To give credit where credit is due and prevent plagiarism

5. To get a good grade or demonstrate excellence in your writing

Before we transition to specifics, please consider one word of caution: consistency. If you are

instructed to use the MLA style and need to indicate a date, you have options. For example, you

could use an international or a US style:

 International style: 18 May 1980 (day/month/year)

 US style: May 18, 1980 (month/day/year)

If you are going to the US style, be consistent in its use. You’ll find you have the option on page 83 of

the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, 7th edition. You have many options when writing

in English as the language itself has several conventions, or acceptable ways of writing particular

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parts of speech or information. For example, on the next page our MLA Handbook addresses the

question:

Which convention is preferred in MLA style:

1. twentieth century

2. Twentieth Century

3. 20th century

4. 20th Century

You are welcome to look in the MLA Handbook and see there is one preferred style or convention

(you will also find the answer at end of this section marked by an asterisk [*]). Now you may say to

yourself that you won’t write that term and it may be true, but you will come to a term or word that

has more than one way it can be written. In that case, what convention is acceptable in MLA style?

This is where the MLA Handbook serves as an invaluable resource. Again, your attention to detail and

the professional presentation of your work are aspects of learning to write in an academic setting.

Now let’s transition from a general discussion on the advantages of MLA style to what we are

required to do to write a standard academic essay. We will first examine a general “to do” list, then

review a few “do not” suggestions, and finally take a tour through a sample of MLA features. Links to

sample MLA papers are located at the end of this section.

General MLA List

1. Use standard white paper (8.5 × 11 inches).

2. Double space the essay and quotes.

3. Use Times New Roman 12-point font.

4. Use one-inch margins on all sides

5. Indent paragraphs (five spaces or 1.5 inches).

6. Include consecutive page numbers in the upper-right corner.

7. Use italics to indicate a title, as in Writing for Success.

8. On the first page, place your name, course, date, and instructor’s name in the upper-left corner.

9. On the first page, place the title centered on the page, with no bold or italics and all words

capitalized.

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10. On all pages, place the header, student’s name + one space + page number, 1.5 inches from the

top, aligned on the right.

Tip

Depending on your field of study, you may sometimes write research papers in either APA or MLA style.

Recognize that each has its advantages and preferred use in fields and disciplines. Learn to write and

reference in both styles with proficiency.

Title Block Format

You never get a second chance to make a first impression, and your title block (not a separate title page;

just a section at the top of the first page) makes an impression on the reader. If correctly formatted with

each element of information in its proper place, form, and format, it says to the reader that you mean

business, that you are a professional, and that you take your work seriously, so it should, in turn, be

seriously considered. Your title block in MLA style contributes to your credibility. Remember that your

writing represents you in your absence, and the title block is the tailored suit or outfit that represents you

best. That said, sometimes a separate title page is necessary, but it is best both to know how to properly

format a title block or page in MLA style and to ask your instructor if it is included as part of the

assignment.

Your name

Instructor

Course number

Date

Title of Paper

Paragraphs and Indentation

Make sure you indent five spaces (from the left margin). You’ll see that the indent offsets the beginning of

a new paragraph. We use paragraphs to express single ideas or topics that reinforce our central purpose or

thesis statement. Paragraphs include topic sentences, supporting sentences, and conclusion or

transitional sentences that link paragraphs together to support the main focus of the essay.

Tables and Illustrations

Place tables and illustrations as close as possible to the text they reinforce or complement. Here’s an

example of a table in MLA.

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Table 13.2

Sales Figures by Year Sales Amount ($)

2007 100,000

2008 125,000

2009 185,000

2010 215,000

As we can see in Table 13.2, we have experienced significant growth since 2008.

This example demonstrates that the words that you write and the tables, figures, illustrations, or images

that you include should be next to each other in your paper.

Parenthetical Citations

You must cite your sources as you use them. In the same way that a table or figure should be located right

next to the sentence that discusses it (see the previous example), parenthetical citations, or citations

enclosed in parenthesis that appear in the text, are required. You need to cite all your information. If

someone else wrote it, said it, drew it, demonstrated it, or otherwise expressed it, you need to cite it. The

exception to this statement is common, widespread knowledge. For example, if you search online for MLA

resources, and specifically MLA sample papers, you will find many similar discussions on MLA style. MLA

is a style and cannot be copyrighted because it is a style, but the seventh edition of the MLA

Handbook can be copyright protected. If you reference a specific page in that handbook, you need to

indicate it. If you write about a general MLA style issue that is commonly covered or addressed in multiple

sources, you do not. When in doubt, reference the specific resource you used to write your essay.

Your in-text, or parenthetical, citations should do the following:

 Clearly indicate the specific sources also referenced in the works cited

 Specifically identify the location of the information that you used

 Keep the citation clear and concise, always confirming its accuracy

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Works Cited Page

After the body of your paper comes the works cited page. It features the reference sources used in your

essay. List the sources alphabetically by last name, or list them by title if the author is not known as is

often the case of web-based articles. You will find links to examples of the works cited page in several of

the sample MLA essays at the end of this section.

As a point of reference and comparison to our APA examples, let’s examine the following three citations

and the order of the information needed.

Citation

Type

MLA Style APA Style

Website Author’s Last Name, First Name. Title of the

website. Publication Date. Name of Organization (if

applicable). Date you accessed the website. <URL>.

Author’s Last Name, First Initial. (Date of

publication). Title of document. Retrieved

from URL

Online

article

Author’s Last Name, First Name. “Title of Article.”

Title of the website. Date of publication.

Organization that provides the website. Date you

accessed the website.

Author’s Last name, First Initial. (Date of

publication). Title of article. Title of Journal,

Volume(Issue). Retrieved from URL

Book Author’s Last Name, First Name. Title of the Book.

Place of Publication: Publishing Company, Date of

publication.

Author’s Last Name, First Initial. (Date of

publication). Title of the book. Place of

Publication: Publishing Company.

Note: The items listed include proper punctuation and capitalization according to the style’s guidelines.

E X E R C I S E 1

In Chapter 13 "APA and MLA Documentation and Formatting", Section 13.1 "Formatting a Research

Paper", you created a sample essay in APA style. After reviewing this section and exploring the resources

linked at the end of the section (including California State University–Sacramento’s clear example of a

paper in MLA format), please convert your paper to MLA style using the formatting and citation guidelines.

You may find it helpful to use online applications that quickly, easily, and at no cost convert your citations

to MLA format.

E X E R C I S E 2

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Please convert the APA-style citations to MLA style. You may find that online applications can quickly,

easily, and at no cost convert your citations to MLA format. There are several websites and applications

available free (or as a free trial) that will allow you to input the information and will produce a correct

citation in the style of your choice. Consider these two sites:

 http://www.noodletools.com

 http://citationmachine.net

Hint: You may need access to the Internet to find any missing information required to correctly cite in MLA

style. This demonstrates an important difference between APA and MLA style—the information provided

to the reader.

Sample Student Reference List in APA Style

1 Brent, D. A., Poling, K. D., & Goldstein, T. R. (2010). Treating depressed and suicidal adolescents: A

clinician’s guide. New York, NY: Guilford Press.

MLA

2 Dewan, S. (2007, September 17). Using crayons to exorcise Katrina.The New York Times. Retrieved

from http://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/17/arts/design/17ther.html

MLA

3 Freud, S. (1955). Beyond the pleasure principle. In The Complete Works of Sigmund Freud. (Vol. XVII,

pp. 3–66). London, England: Hogarth.

MLA

4 Henley, D. (2007). Naming the enemy: An art therapy intervention for children with bipolar and

comorbid disorders. Art Therapy: Journal of the American Art Therapy Association, 24(3), 104–110.

MLA

5 Hutson, M. (2008). Art therapy: The healing arts. Psychology Today.Retrieved from

http://www.psychologytoday.com/articles/200705/art-therapy-the-healing-arts

MLA

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Sample Student Reference List in APA Style

6 Isis, P. D., Bus, J., Siegel, C. A., & Ventura, Y. (2010). Empowering students through creativity: Art

therapy in Miami-Dade County Public Schools. Art Therapy: Journal of the American Art Therapy

Association, 27(2), 56–61.

MLA

7 Johnson, D. (1987). The role of the creative arts therapies in the diagnosis and treatment of

psychological trauma. The Arts in Psychotherapy, 14, 7–13.

MLA

8 Malchiodi, C. (2006). Art therapy sourcebook. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

MLA

9 Markel, R. (Producer). (2010). I’m an artist [Motion picture]. United States: Red Pepper Films.

MLA

10 Kelley, S. J. (1984). The use of art therapy with sexually abused children. Journal of Psychosocial

Nursing and Mental Health, 22(12), 12–28.

MLA

11 Pifalo, T. (2008). Why art therapy? Darkness to light: Confronting child abuse with courage. Retrieved

from http://www.darkness2light.org/KnowAbout/articles_art_therapy.asp

MLA

12 Rubin, J. A. (2005). Child art therapy (25th ed.). New York, NY: Wiley.

MLA

13 Schimek, J. (1975). A critical re-examination of Freud’s concept of unconscious mental

representation. International Review of Psychoanalysis, 2, 171–187.

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Sample Student Reference List in APA Style

MLA

14 Strauss, M. B. (1999). No talk therapy for children and adolescents. New York, NY: Norton.

MLA

15 Thompson, T. (2008). Freedom from meltdowns: Dr. Thompson’s solutions for children with

autism. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.

MLA

Useful Sources of Examples of MLA Style

 Arizona State University Libraries offers an excellent resource with clear examples.

o http://libguides.asu.edu/content.php?pid=122697&sid=1132964

 Purdue Online Writing Lab includes sample pages and works cited.

o http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/747/01

 California State University–Sacramento’s Online Writing Lab has an excellent visual description

and example of an MLA paper.

o http://www.csus.edu/owl/index/mla/mla_format.htm

 SUNY offers an excellent, brief, side-by-side comparison of MLA and APA citations.

o http://www.sunywcc.edu/LIBRARY/research/MLA_APA_08.03.10.pdf

 Cornell University Library provides comprehensive MLA information on its Citation Management

website.

o http://www.library.cornell.edu/resrch/citmanage/mla

 The University of Kansas Writing Center is an excellent resource.

o http://www.writing.ku.edu/guides

* (a) is the correct answer to the question at the beginning of this section. The MLA Handbook prefers

“twentieth century.”

K E Y T A K E A W A Y S

 MLA style is often used in the liberal arts and humanities.

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 MLA style emphasizes brevity and clarity.

 A reader interested in your subject wants not only to read what you wrote but also to be informed of

the works you used to create it.

 MLA style uses a citation in the body of the essay that refers to the works cited section at the end.

 If you follow MLA style, and indicate your source both in your essay and in the works cited section,

you will prevent the possibility of plagiarism.

13.5 APA and MLA Documentation and Formatting: End-of-Chapter Exercises E X E R C I S E S

1. In this chapter, you learned strategies for using APA and MLA style documentation and formatting in

a research paper. Locate a source that uses APA or MLA style, such as an article in a professional

journal in the sciences or social sciences. Identify these key components of an APA or MLA paper in

your example: the abstract, section heads, in-text citations, and references list.

2. Check one of your assignments for correct APA or MLA formatting and citations. (You may wish to

conduct this activity in two sessions—one to edit the body of the paper and one to edit the references

section.) Check for the following:

o All components of an APA or MLA paper are included.

o The title page (or title block) and body of the paper are correctly formatted.

o In-text, or parenthetical, citations are complete and correctly formatted.

o Sources cited within the paper match the sources listed in the references or works cited

section.

o The references or works cited section uses correct formatting and lists entries in

alphabetical order.

3. As electronic media continually change, guidelines for citing electronic sources are continually

updated. Identify three new or emerging forms of electronic media not listed in this text—for instance,

virtual communities, such as Second Life, or social networking sites, such as LinkedIn, Facebook, and

MySpace. Answer the following questions:

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o Under what circumstances would this media be a useful source of information for a research

paper? How might students use these sources to conduct research five or ten years from now?

o What information would a student need to provide if citing this source? Why?

o Develop brief guidelines for how to cite the emerging media source types you identified.