management

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Annotated Bibliography

Josh Minzer

OGL 554: Learning and Development in Organizations

Megan Todd, Ph.D.

9/22/2021

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Introduction

The following annotated bibliography will provide a literature review of the content

discussed throughout OGL 554: Learning and Development in Organizations. This content

discusses topics including adult learning within a training context, instructional design,

instructional design and online learning, and career development and life-long learning. While

each module’s content is unique, common themes of instructional design strategy, empathy,

inclusion and accommodation, and learning theory arise throughout the literature review.

Towards the end of each review, I present my own brief commentary of the application and

takeaways of each article.

Module 2: Adult Learning Within a Training Context

Olsen, D. (2016). Adult Learning in Innovative Organisations. European Journal of Education,

51(2), 210–226. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejed.12170

In an attempt to determine whether organizations are aware of the relationship between

learning and innovation, Dr. Dorothy Sutherland Olsen conducts a qualitative study examining

the learning strategies of various innovative firms and their activities they design to promote

learning (Olsen, 2016). However, prior to her observations, Olsen reinforces what she is looking

for through an empirical review that discusses historical methods of studying the innovative

process. In the review, she finds the activities of employees engaged in innovation are engaging

in complex problem solving, thinking on one’s own, taking decisions, and having a high level of

discretion over one’s choice of methods and organization of tasks (Olsen, 2016). She uses these

behaviors as a baseline for her observations in her research design.

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After a series of interviews and observations, Olsen found that most HRM departments

were aware and committed to the development of their employees (Olsen, 2016). She also found

that most of the learners in her study fell under her definition of the “creative worker” she had

discovered in her empirical research. The frequency of creative workers in these organizations

suggest that there may be an important kind of learning in these innovative firms (Olsen, 2016).

Olsen’s observations align with the concepts of adult learning (andragogy) discussed in module 1

and 2. The employees that are successfully engaging in innovation are those whose environments

are set up by HRM departments to give adults high levels of discretion to think on their own and

make their own choices.

Levett-Jones, T. L. (2005). Self-directed learning: Implications and limitations for undergraduate

nursing education. Nurse Education Today, 25(5), 363–368.

In the article Self-directed learning: Implications and limitations for undergraduate nursing

education, Dr. Tracy Levett-Jones conducts a literature review discussing Knowles’ theory of

andragogy and its implications and limitations for undergraduate nursing education. She

concludes that while many adults prefer to be in charge of their own learning and thrive under

such conditions, there is evidence of a growing dissatisfaction with an all-encompassing

application of self-directed learning (SDL) (Levett-Jones, 2005). As self-directed learning has

become popular over the last few decades in nursing education, Levett-Jones finds that SDL

increases nursing students’ confidence in their own ability, and their capacity to learn in novel

situation (Levett-Jones, 2005). As being a nurse is taking on a role that is in a constantly

changing environment, Knowles’ self-directed learning approach seems to be the essential tool

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for enabling nursing students to develop their independent learning skills, as well as many other

critical attributes needed in their future careers.

However, Levett-Jones finds evidence to show that SDL is not universally applicable to

all learners and all situations. Levett-Jones reveals that the majority of students prefer a

teacher-centered approach to learning, even though many educators appeared to prefer a

student-centered approach (Levett-Jones, 2005). She also found that SDL may create hostility in

which learners think that the educators “are not doing their jobs” (Levett-Jones, 2005).

Consequently, Levett-Jones concludes her research by stating that there needs to be a balance

between SDL and traditional education, and there needs to be an adequate amount of preparation

in order for SDL to be successful (Levett-Jones, 2005).

This article is important because it adds criticism to Knowles’ theory of adult learning.

Like most things, there must be a balance of self-directed learning and traditional learning

because while the benefits of SDL are greatly apparent, learners must be prepped and willing to

participate in the learning process.

Martin, V. S. (2011). Andragogy, organization, and implementation concerns for gaming as an

instructional tool in the community college. New Directions for Community Colleges,

2011(154), 63–71. https://doi.org/10.1002/cc.447

In Andragogy, Organization, and Implementation Concerns for Gaming as an

Instructional Tool in the Community College, Dr. Vance S. Martin acknowledges the importance

of digital skills. However, he states that there is a lack of research that suggests which skills to

teach and the method in which they are taught. Martin forms the argument through an empirical

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literature review that since video games increase engagement and active learning, most teachers

should reconsider using them as tools in the community college environment. However, Martin

notes that some limitations present challenges for video games being introduced into the learning

environment. Some examples include a teacher’s time to play the video game to determine

whether or not it is productive to the lesson, the cost associated with having students buy the

video game, the technology required for devices to run the video game, and the potential security

risks involved in downloading the video game onto school computers (Martin, 2011). He

concludes by discussing the implications for the future while we move into a world advancing in

technology. Martin argues that video games provide an immersive experience for adult learners

that could serve as an additional tool in the classroom (Martin, 2011). Through proper facilitation

it can be used to benefit the learning process.

While this module discusses the importance of adult learning versus a pedagogical

approach to learning, we must remind ourselves that adults learn through both extrinsic and

intrinsic motivators (Noe, 2018). Such motivators could involve facilitating learning as it relates

to an adult’s personal interests. Martin reinforces this idea in his article when he states that the

average age of a person who plays video games is thirty-five with 25 percent of Americans over

fifty playing video games (Martin, 2011). I do not believe, however, that this article has

significant implications for organizational learning unless an organization has the resources to

fund the production of their own video game that is directly applicable to the desired skills they

want to teach.

Module 3: Instructional Design

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Stefaniak, J. (2020). The utility of design thinking to promote systemic instructional design

practices in the workplace. TechTrends, 64(2), 202–210.

In The Utility of Design Thinking to Promote Systemic Instructional Design Practices in

the Workplace, Jill Stefaniak provides her observations how an organizational system should be

critical to an Instructional Designer’s (IDs) thought process in the instructional designing

process. Stefaniak addresses issues in the instructional design discipline by noting that most IDs

either have no formal education or training experience before being hired into their role, or their

education taught them to scale their designs within the constraints of teaching within a

semester-long course (Stefaniak, 2020). Consequently, many IDs do not understand the systemic

impact of design decisions within an organization (Stefaniak, 2020).

Stefaniak then provides a framework that describes what an organizational system may

look like and addresses how every component is interrelated. The key takeaways for designing

within this system is to recognize the boundaries and constraints within the system by

empathizing with the learners by keeping the learner at the focal point during every stage of the

instructional design process and use constant feedback to make necessary revisions to the

intervention process (Stefaniak, 2020).

This article is useful for this module because it provides a birds-eye-view of the

instructional design process as it connects to every piece within an organizational system.

North, C., Shortt, M., Bowman, M. A., & Akinkuolie, B. (2021). How Instructional Design Is

Operationalized in Various Industries for job-Seeking Learning Designers: Engaging the

Talent Development Capability Model. TechTrends, 1–18.

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In her article, Cara North and her colleagues review 100 online job postings from

LinkedIn, Indeed, and HigherEdJobs to determine what are the most important capabilities to

employers seeking jobs in instructional design. This study was conducted quantitatively over the

course of the COVID-19 pandemic to analyze how the Association for Talent Development

adapted their Talent Development Capability Model to accommodate for such a change. After

creating their own database of 100 job listings under the title “Instructional Designer,” North et

al. tracked every listing’s capabilities on an Excel sheet to find high frequency capabilities and

low frequency capabilities. They found the five capabilities that were of the highest frequency

were instructional design, training delivery and facilitation, technology application,

communication, and collaboration and leadership (North et al., 2021). The three capabilities that

fell into the low frequency category were knowledge management, lifelong learning, and

business insight (North et al., 2021). In conclusion, North et al. offer insights into individuals

seeking jobs in instructional design.

Not only does this article give insight into the most valuable capabilities instructional

designers need to look good for employers, it gives a lens into what capabilities employers might

be overseeing in the instructional design role such as life long learning.

Klein, J. D., & Kelly, W. Q. (2018). Competencies for instructional designers: A view from

employers. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 31(3), 225–247.

While many academics have studied survey data or summarized existing literature to

determine what competencies are valued in the field of instructional design, few have used job

announcements or interviewed project managers. In the article Competencies for Instructional

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Designers: A View from Employers, James Klein and Wei Qiang Kelly use multi-method

approach to gather data in what competencies are valued from the perspective of job

announcements and project managers. Project managers were selected if they met a strict

criterion, and Klein and Kelly sorted through just under 400 announcements from 43 unique

states in the United States to compare each perspective (Klein & Kelly, 2018).

The top frequencies listed in the job announcements were found to be collaborating

effectively with stakeholders and teammates, utilizing analysis, design, development,

implementation and evaluation (ADDIE) procedures, software fluency, and applicable

knowledge of learning theories and principles (Klein & Kelly, 2018). The top frequencies listed

for the project manager interviews were collaborating effectively with stakeholders and

teammates, using analysis techniques for determining content and tasks, having strong

client-relationship skills, and having proficiency in the software (Klein & Kelly, 2018). The

authors compare the data between the two research methods and conclude that the two align

significantly.

These findings can be used to help employers focus on these competencies in job

interviews to identify qualified applicants. Furthermore, instructional designers seeking

employment can take courses to brush up on these skills in order to stand out when applying for

such roles.

Module 4: Instructional Design and Online Learning

Al Mamun, M. A., Lawrie, G., & Wright, T. (2020). Instructional design of scaffolded online

learning modules for self-directed and inquiry-based learning environments. Computers

& Education, 144, 103695.

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In Instructional design of scaffolded online learning modules for self-directed and

inquiry-based learning environments, Md Abdullah Al Mamun, Gwendolyn Lawrie, and Tony

Wright explore scaffolding techniques that blend between the pedagogical, traditional learning

environment to one that is self-directed and online. Traditionally, many scaffolding techniques

involved a student taking information from a teacher who was the source of information.

However, in an online self-directed environment, there is no teacher to provide scaffolding. Al

Mamun et al. opt into observing an alternative method of scaffolding based on empirical

methodologies. Such a method involves adapting the customary Predict, Observe, and Explain

(POE) format to include an additional step in the framework, Evaluate (POEE) (Al Mamun et al.,

2020). This new format ensures students are consisting evaluating the quality of their

understanding in a self-regulated environment (Al Mamun et al., 2020). After conducting two

scaffolded learning modules, their evidence concluded that the use of this strategy in online

environments was substantially effective (Al Mamun et al., 2020). However, despite the positive

results of their study, they also argue that these supports are still not as effective as the potential

presence of direct teacher mediation and peer interaction (Al Mamun et al., 2020).

Although this study does not provide a tool that can equally supplement the benefits of a direct

teacher, Al Mamun et al. give a resource that may be significant in organizations that only have

the resources to provide a self-directed environment.

Ou, C., Joyner, D. A., & Goel, A. K. (2019). Designing and Developing Video Lessons for

Online Learning: A Seven-Principle Model. Online Learning, 23(2), 82–104.

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In Module 4, a significant portion of the content focusses on using Mayer’s multimedia

principles for effective online learning. However, in Designing and Developing Video Lessons

for Online Learning: A Seven-Principle Model, Chaohua Ou, David A Joyner, and Ashok K.

Goel criticize Mayer’s principles as outdated. As Mayer’s “traditional” principles identified in

his research do not necessarily suffice as technology continues to advance, researchers are urged

to explore new design possibilities (Ou et al., 2019). This study qualitatively draws on seven

principles drawn from instructional design theories with the objective of creating effective video

lessons for an online graduate course and quantitatively examines its effectiveness through the

use of student participant surveys.

After a concise literature review that discusses multiple instructional design theories, Ou

et al. present their Seven-Principle Module for Designing and Developing Video Lessons split

into three separate instructional categories – instructional methods, instructional sequence, and

instructional presentation (Ou et al., 2019). Under instructional methods contains the four

principles learn by example, learn by doing, adaptive feedback, and learning through reflection

(Ou et al., 2019). These principles were presented in an effort to understand human cognition by

demonstrating a mastery of learning goals (Ou et al., 2019). Under instructional sequence is one

principle titled Four-Phase Instruction Principle. This principle provides a sequence of actions

that provide a format for video learning: (1) activation of prior experience, (2) demonstration of

skills, (3) application of skills, and (4) integration of these skills into the real-world activities (Ou

et al., 2019). Lastly, under instructional presentation is the personalize principle and the

multimedia principle. The personalize principle suggests an approach to learning that is less

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formal and more conversational. The multimedia principle draws back on Mayer’s principles of

multimedia.

In conclusion, the results of the student participant surveys were highly rated and,

therefore, Ou et al. find that following the seven principles in the creation of online learning

experience is vital to a course’s effectiveness (Ou et al., 2019). These principles can serve as a

helpful tool to assist learning designers in the production of effective, self-directed online

trainings for an organization.

Arghode, V., Brieger, E. W., & McLean, G. N. (2017). Adult learning theories: implications for

online instruction. European Journal of Training and Development.

In Adult learning theories: implications for online instruction, Vishal Arghode, Earl W.

Brieger, and Gary N. Mclean argue the importance of evaluating learning theories such as

behaviorism, constructivism, and humanism as they apply to the increasing number of online

degree programs and corporate trainings. Arghode, Brieger, and Mclean conduct a literature

review assessing four main learning theories to explore their role in adult online instruction,

based on their strength in supporting adult learning (Arghode et al., 2017). After significant

analyses of the learning theories, the authors find that every theory shows how learning cannot

have a desired impact unless the instruction is effective and engaging (Arghode et al., 2017).

They provide figures throughout the article that defines each learning theory, states its

limitations, and gives examples of online learning activities that can be delivered using the

respective theory. They conclude the article by stating how there needs to be further research

done on applying learning theories to online learning since every presented theory contributed

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uniquely in the design of an online curriculum (Arghode et al., 2017). However, they also state

the commonality between each theory being that effective learning can be facilitated and

achieved through an emphasis on appropriate interventions (Arghode et al., 2017).

After conducting a needs analysis on an instructional designer’s leaner demographic, this

article could be used as a resource to determine which learning strategy may best fit the needs of

the learners. Such strategies could enhance the online curriculum to be more engaging.

Module 5: Career Development and Life-long Learning

Pabico, C., Perkins, C. K., Graebe, J., & Cosme, S. (2019). Creating a culture of lifelong

learning: A strategy for organizational success. Nursing Management, 50(2), 9–11.

In Creating a culture of lifelong learning: A strategy for organizational success, Christine

Pabico et al. advocate for a framework for nurses that supports continuing professional

development (CPD). In the case for nurses, Pabico and her colleagues argue that engagement in

CPD must begin in the transition from a student to a registered nurse (RN) (Pabico et al., 2019).

Pabico et al. conduct a brief qualitative literature review and find that hospitals that maintain

high job satisfaction and retention link their success back to strong onboarding processes and

continuum of CPD opportunities (Pabico et al., 2019). Another important point Panico and her

colleagues argue is that in order to create a culture of lifelong learning, employees must input

into the selection of educational offerings provided by their organizations (Pabico et al., 2019).

This article is relevant for organizations that want to create a culture of life-long learning,

and opportunities for their employees to engage in continuing professional development.

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Edmondson, A., & Saxberg, B. (2017). Putting lifelong learning on the CEO agenda. Mckinsey

Quarterly, 4, 54–61.

In an open letter to business leaders Amy Edmondson and Bror Saxberg plead to their

audience while emphasizing the importance of investing in human capital through life long

learning. They claim that as the future will be filled with more advanced technology, people will

need to use complex cognitive skills for more and more of their time (Edmondson & Saxberg,

2017). They explain that business leaders have the responsibility to prepare their employees for

this as it will bring them a competitive advantage (Edmondson & Saxberg, 2017). One challenge

that Edmondson and Saxberg claim employers do not understand is that they cannot replace their

older employees with newer employees with the skills that they need. As quoted in their article,

“You can’t “fire and hire” your way to success if you have to turn over people every 9 to 18

months to bring in new skills” (Edmondson & Saxberg, 2017).

In the second half of the article Edmondson and Saxberg explain where business leaders’

priorities should be moving into the future. One soft priority they state is to move away from a

focus on “hard” skills – such as coding, analytics, and data science – and increase the importance

of “soft” skills – such as collaboration, empathy, and meaning making (Edmondson & Saxberg,

2017). The next suggestion they give is to spontaneously and continuously build collaborative

skills, both within teams and outside the bounds of the team, by working with people across

boundaries, such as expertise or distance (Edmondson & Saxberg, 2017). The last suggestion

they give is to search for meaning in areas that AI and technology cannot do (Edmondson &

Saxberg, 2017).

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This article is useful in the discussion of increasing employee production and success in

an organization through life-long learning. An emphasis on critical thinking skills through a

distancing from “hard skills” and a redirection towards prioritizing “soft skills” may enable

organizations to be more competitive in the AI era.

Autin, K. L., Blustein, D. L., Ali, S. R., & Garriott, P. O. (2020). Career development impacts of

COVID-19: Practice and policy recommendations. Journal of Career Development,

47(5), 487–494.

In Career Development Impacts of COVID-19: Practice and Policy Recommendations,

Kelsey L. Autin et al. provide commentary on the key emerging impacts of the pandemic and

how career development professionals can respond through policy and practice (Autin et al.,

2020). As the COVID-19 pandemic has results in significant employment shifts, millions of

employees are adjusting to a new environment that is working in isolation (Autin et al., 2020).

Autin et al. highlight four key impacts in their article in response to the sudden change. The

impacts include unemployment, worker mental health, work-family interface, and employment

disparities (Autin et al., 2020). For each impact, Autin et al. provide 2-3 practice and policy

recommendations. Among many recommendations, some common themes arise between each

impact. For instance, impacts such as unemployment and worker mental health both recommend

providing constant, appropriate, and targeted interventions to identify worker needs (Autin et al.,

2020). Furthermore, many other recommendations suggest providing safety needs, career

counseling, mental health services, and outside partnerships to ensure employees are being

properly accommodated for in their newly defined roles (Autin et al., 2020).

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This article is beneficial for any employer or career development specialist interested in

advocacy for worker protections with regard to unemployment, mental health, work-family

interface, and employment disparity. It initiates a fresh discussion of inclusion in the work place

in a post-COVID-19 environment.

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Works Cited

Al Mamun, M. A., Lawrie, G., & Wright, T. (2020). Instructional design of scaffolded online learning modules for self-directed and inquiry-based learning environments. Computers & Education, 144, 103695.

Arghode, V., Brieger, E. W., & McLean, G. N. (2017). Adult learning theories: implications for online instruction. European Journal of Training and Development.

Autin, K. L., Blustein, D. L., Ali, S. R., & Garriott, P. O. (2020). Career development impacts of COVID-19: Practice and policy recommendations. Journal of Career Development, 47(5), 487–494.

Edmondson, A., & Saxberg, B. (2017). Putting lifelong learning on the CEO agenda. Mckinsey Quarterly, 4, 54–61.

Klein, J. D., & Kelly, W. Q. (2018). Competencies for instructional designers: A view from employers. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 31(3), 225–247.

Levett-Jones, T. L. (2005). Self-directed learning: Implications and limitations for undergraduate nursing education. Nurse Education Today, 25(5), 363–368.

Martin, V. S. (2011). Andragogy, organization, and implementation concerns for gaming as an instructional tool in the community college. New Directions for Community Colleges, 2011(154), 63–71. https://doi.org/10.1002/cc.447

Noe, R. A. (2018). Employee Training and Development. McGraw-Hill Education.

North, C., Shortt, M., Bowman, M. A., & Akinkuolie, B. (2021). How Instructional Design Is Operationalized in Various Industries for job-Seeking Learning Designers: Engaging the Talent Development Capability Model. TechTrends, 1–18.

Olsen, D. (2016). Adult Learning in Innovative Organisations. European Journal of Education, 51(2), 210–226. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejed.12170

Ou, C., Joyner, D. A., & Goel, A. K. (2019). Designing and Developing Video Lessons for Online Learning: A Seven-Principle Model. Online Learning, 23(2), 82–104.

Pabico, C., Perkins, C. K., Graebe, J., & Cosme, S. (2019). Creating a culture of lifelong learning: A strategy for organizational success. Nursing Management, 50(2), 9–11.

Stefaniak, J. (2020). The utility of design thinking to promote systemic instructional design practices in the workplace. TechTrends, 64(2), 202–210.