10 Page Research methods paper

Citation: Ellcessor, E. (2019). Call If You Can, Text If You Can't: A Dismediation of U.S. Emergency Communication Infrastructure. International journal of communication

Main Points:

The consumer may notice that 911 is becoming more familiar with technology as well as a enhancement for the disadvantaged users that they will not question what took as long. Text-to-911 is using disabilities as a “preoccupation” or used to help promote the program. 911 emergency communication system traditional methods have failed the consumer expectations due to dropped calls, delayed reverse lookups, etc. which may have led to tragic events.

Research Questions/Purpose: The purpose of this article is to explain that the change to the traditional 911 emergency communication system I necessary for the function of life to include those who have disabilities. However, the authors make the argument that they are using people with disabilities as a pawn to promote the new feature. They are using the improvement of the system as an excuse to not address why it has taken so long.

Why and how is this infrastructural change being made sense of through disability, and for whom?

Methods: Archive of Educational Material

Sample: 911 communication material such as Public Service Announcement, Brochures and web pages from the Federal Communications Commission and the National Number Association.

Variables: The change of media and technical design from the perspective of people with disabilities.

Procedure: The use of dismediation and analyzing the media looking at the information from an infrastructure perspective.

Results:

Statistical Test:

Findings: When considering the ability to talk to 911 or have a peaceful encounter with the police or 911 emergency system is a privilege. People with disabilities are not always understood and could lead to a violent encounter because officer began to assume, they are not cooperating. Although this a infrastructural change for everyone to the emergency communication system, they use disabilities as a way to justify the change and it will not be questioned.

Discussion/Interpretation:

The limitations that have been placed in the system for years is being covered up with the introduction of this new system. It has not been challenged yet and consumers will not challenge it because there was a infrastructural change.

Problems: Th argument seemed to be one sided and the author assumed that consumers would not see how this advancement is very essential if they do not have a disability.

Take home message: Technology has become domesticated by societies demand and Text-to-Call is trying to implement it into their system. 911 system has withstood being domesticated for people with thick accents or people with disabilities.

Notable Quotes:

Ultimately, I argue that in these materials, deafness and disability function as what Mara Mills refers to as an "assistive pretext" (2010)--a preoccupation--that discursively reframes a mainstream technology (texting) as an assistive technology, both justifying its introduction and limiting the scope of infrastructural change.

“The work of this article is both infrastructural and interpretive. Approached with what Lisa Parks (2015) calls an "infrastructural disposition.””

Additional References: Mills, M., & Sterne, J. (2017). Afterword II: Dismediation--three proposals, six tactics. In E. Ellcessor & B. Kirkpatrick (Eds.), Disability media studies (pp. 365-378). New York: New York University Press.

Moore, L. K. (2011). Emergency communications: Broadband and the future of 911. Journal of Communications Research, 2(2/3), 179-210.

Morley, D. (1988). Family television: Cultural power and domestic leisure. New York, NY: Routledge.

Moser, I. (2006). Disability and the promises of technology: Technology, subjectivity and embodiment within an order of the normal. Information, Communication & Society, 9(3), 373-395.

National Association of State 911 Administrators. (n.d.). 9-1-1 education resources. Retrieved from http://www.know911.org/sample-materials/

New Jersey Government. (2016). Text To 9-1-1: Call when you can, text when you can't [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2Pu1wT1WuWk

911: CALL if you can, TEXT if you can't. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.richmondgov.com/EmergencyCommunications/TextTo911.aspx

Citation: Manako Yabe (2016) Students, Faculty, and Staff's Willingness to Pay for Emergency Texting, Journal of Applied Security Research, 11:4, 437-449, DOI: 10.1080/19361610.2016.1210486

Main Points:

The text-to-911 was an important future that the emergency communication services are trying to implement. However, it is only available in certain cities. The survey was conducted at a public university revealed that the student, faculty and staff were willing to pay $7,736 for the safety feature. The amount was larger than the amount that is used for the Text-to-911 needs to afford the necessities for the program to work.

Research Questions/Purpose: The study was created to recognize the economic gain of using texting a form of communication in an emergency. This study also asses the staff and students’ voluntary agreement to pay for the program. Researchers are also trying to see if their hypothesis correct. Hypothesis 1 guess that student along with faculty will be more willing to pay than the staff. Hypothesis 2 guess that people with hearing/ speech disabilities have a high willingness to pay as hearing participants. Which population at the univesrit would benefit from the service more?

Methods: Contingent Valuation- Dichotomous Choice method

Sample: The participants of the study are students, faculty and staff.

Variables: Independent is the emergency texting. Dependent variable is the willingness to pay for the emergency texting.

Procedure: Participants were given a survey and instructed to presume the university is implementing an emergency texting program. They were asked are they willing to pay a volunteered fee that would be deducted from the paychecks of faculty/ staff and is included in tuition for students. They were able to choose the amount to pay from the prices listed. Researchers also asked questions pertaining to their personal lives to see of their responses were based off of background information.

Results:

Statistical Test:

Findings: The average amount that as a collect group, 1505 people, were willing to pay is $5.14. the total amount would be $7,736 per year. The first hypothesis was not accurate because students were willing to pay $5.10, faculty was willing to pay $4.84, and staff was willing to pay $5.29. The second hypothesis showed there was no link between emergency texting and hearing disabilities.

Discussion/Interpretation:

There were certain variables that played a part in their decision to pay a certain amount such as income, gender, experience, nationality and age.

Problems: The method that was chosen needs a large sampling size in order for the results to be more accurate. There was limited number of participants. Therefore, the extremely low response rate compared to the population may not be accurate. In addition, when participants were filling out the survey and their answer was “I don’t know” it was taken as a No. The study was also predicating that everyone had sale phones and a large part of the population did not participate.

Take home message:

The only reason they were willing to pay was for their own personal safety. And some said no but they probably did not think of having the privilege to hear and speak. However, the amount the participants are willing to pay shows the importance of the program. People are willing to pay for their safety.

Notable Quotes:

“Black Hawk County, Iowa carried out a text-to-911 trial, and they found that text-to-911 was useful for callers in domestic and child abuse situations because the callers were fearful of being overheard by offenders during their calls to 911 (Intrado, 2011). Furthermore, Vermont successfully conducted a text-to-911 trial which demonstrated that text-to-911 was efficient to protect callers who were involved in suicide and domestic violence situations”

“Text-to-911 service also benefits general populations without disabilities. For example, when the shooting occurred at Virginia Tech in 2007, students attempted to send texts to 911 as they hid from the shooters on campus. However, the texts were never delivered to the PSAPs because the PSAPs did not have the capability to receive texts at that time.”

Additional References: Acision. (2012, May 9). US research by Acision shows SMS is still the king of messaging with speed, reach and reliability named as key reasons for usage over alternative services.

Retrievedfromhttp://www.marketwired.com/press-release/us-research-acision-shows-smsis-still-king-messaging-with-speed-reach-reliability-1654679.htm Bateman, I., Carson, R. T., Day, B., Hanermann, M., Hanley, N., Hett, T., … Elgar, E. (2002). Economic valuation with stated preference techniques: A manual. Cheltenham, UK: Edward ElgarPublishing,Inc. CTIA. (2015a, March 17). Text message statistics. Retrieved fromhttp://www.statisticbrain. com/text-message-statistics/ CTIA. (2015b, June 1). Annual wireless industry survey. Retrieved fromhttp://www.ctia.org/ your-wireless-life/how-wireless-works/annual-wireless-industry-survey Emergency Access Advisory Committee. (2013). Proposed procedures for the TTY as a text terminal in legacy 9-1-1 PSAPs without IP connection. Retrieved fromhttps://apps.fcc.gov/ edocs_public/attachmatch/DOC-321704A1.pdf

Citation:

Boatright-Horowitz, S. L., Olick, K., & Amaral, R. (2004). Calling 911 during episodes of domestic abuse: What justifies a call for help? Journal of Criminal Justice, 32(1), 89–92. doi: 10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2003.10.007

Main Points:

Calling 911 has been seen as justified by the participants in the study to see if society still frowns upon domestic violence. All participants have agreed that calling the police is the right thing to do. However,

Women are afraid to call or cannot call so texting could be beneficial.

Research Questions/Purpose:

There was a large number of women who were victims of domestic violence. Out of almost four million women only half of those cases were reported to the police. The study was created to see if society was tolerant for domestic violence behavior and is it worth someone calling 911 if they are victim of the crime. “Is a 911 call justified?’

Methods: Videotape scenes/ Written demonstration

Sample: College students 18-27 years of age. (38 women & 10 males in method 1) Method 2: 22 males 159 females in a general psychology course.

Variables:

Procedure: The participants are shown a video or a written demonstration about domestic violence. The group is split in half and one side is told that the victim is reoccurring victim who has been hospitalized due to critical injuries. The other half was given some insignificant information bout the victim. As each scene passed, they were instructed to rate the level of severity and answer the research question. Method 2- Three scenes were shown (violent, nonviolent, verbally aggressive) and after each scene participants were instructed to answer some questions, rate the severity of the scene, and answer was calling 911 justified.

Results:

Statistical Test:

Findings: During the method 1 study, participants said that 911 should be contacted during a physical domestic violence situation as well as verbal threats. The results revealed that participants were against domestic violence. The participants agreed that calling 911 is justifies in verbally abuse (without injury) and physical abuse (without injury). Informing them about the victims domestic abuse past did not effect the decision to call.

Discussion/Interpretation:

Majority of the participants agreed that calling the police in any instance of verb al or physical abuse is justified. Their social desirability answers did not match the seriousness they marked for each scene.

Problems:

Gender could play a role in the decision’s participants chose. They also used a small sample and assumed the rest of the US would respond the same way.

Take home message:

People are taking domestic violence serious, and is admitting that any act of domestic violence is justifiable to call emergency communication system. However, it doesn’t explain why women are not calling the police and reporting these crimes.

Notable Quotes:

Additional References:

Citation: Jakubowski, A., Kunins, H. V., Huxley-Reicher, Z., & Siegler, A. (2017). Knowledge of the 911 Good Samaritan Law and 911-calling behavior of overdose witnesses. Substance Abuse, 39(2), 233–238. doi: 10.1080/08897077.2017.1387213

Main Points:

Good Samaritan law was passed in response to the rise in opioid addiction. There is a fear associated with calling for medical attention and help. There are many factors that play apart in participants calling for help and the knowledge of this law has changed that mindset for a lot of people. That law played a role in the increase of participants calling 911.

Research Questions/Purpose:

There has been a rise in opioid deaths and a decrease in calling 911for medical attention due to the possibility of being incarcerated. The purpose of this study is to see if having the knowledge of the Good Samaritan Law effect someone calling 911 emergency communication system for medial help. The researchers also trying to see if there are in other factors that may play a role in calling 911 emergency communication systems for medical care such as location or public housing.

Methods: Perspective Cohort study

Sample: Trained overdose responders

Variables: Independent variables is the knowledge participants have about the Good Samaritan Law at that time and the Overdose event features such as gender or relationship to the victim and the area it happened. The continuous variable is the age of participants.

Dependent variables are an overdose being witnessed and contacting 911.

Procedure: The researchers chose their participants immediately following the overdose prevention training (OPT). Participants took part in survey after training and at three, six, and the twelfth month standpoint with the use of close ended questions. Participants marked down their own attributes. At each mark participants were asked questions and tracked their responses.

Results:

Statistical Test: Researchers compared characteristics of incidents where 911 was called versus 911 not being called.

Findings: There were 326 overdose incidents witnessed by 128 participants. As the study continued the knowledge of the GSL increased to 78%, after the program, by the last survey. Participants that have he wrong information about the law decreased to 12% by the las survey. 911 as called for 83% percent of the incidents. If 911 was not contacted participants gave reasons such as someone called, the victim woke up or scared of being incarcerated. After the program participants that gained the right information after the program was three times more likely to call then others who lacked the knowledge of the law. In the statistical test, the location played a part if participants would call 911 or not. Participants were more likely to contact 911 in a public setting instead of private.

Discussion/Interpretation:

Knowledge of the GSL played a role in participants calling for medical attention. A reason for a lack of calls in private areas are that people are afraid they will be put in jail. Relationship also plays a role in the decision to call 911 because participant are more likely to call for a stranger than a relative (even with the knowledge of the law).

Problems:

Participants were reporting the answers themselves so answers could potentially be fabricated. Researchers also kept reminding them of the law at each follow up so their reactions may not have been natural due to the constant reminders.

Take home message:

It is very essential to inform and educate citizens about laws as such because it could reduce the mortality rate. If all states implement this law, it may decrease the lack of calling for medical attention. Texting 911 is could eliminate some of the fear associated with calling 911. It could also be more discrete. Only a few stated passed the GSL therefore a large number of the US states don’t have a that safety net leading to the decrease in calls.

Notable Quotes: “Furthermore, our finding that knowledge of the GSL increased over time has important implications for overdose prevention training. Our study protocol of reinforcing correct knowledge and correcting misinformation at each follow-up suggests that refresher trainings and repeated exposure to information about the GSL can help OPT participants retain and increase their knowledge of the law and, importantly, dispel misconceptions that can prevent overdose witnesses from calling 911. Our findings, however, demonstrate that there are still serious barriers preventing witnesses from calling 911.”

Additional References: Rudd, RA, Aleshire N, Zibbell JE, Gladden RM. Increases in drug and opioid overdose deaths—United States, 2000–2014. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2016;64:1378–1382. doi: 10.15585/mmwr. mm6450a3. PMID: 26720857 Baca CT, Grant KJ. What heroin users tell us about overdose. J Addict Dis. 2007;26:63–68. doi: 10.1300/J069v26n04_08. PMID: 18032233 Davidson PJ, McLean RL, Kral AH, Gleghorn AA, Edlin BR, Moss AR. Fatal heroin-related overdose in San Francisco, 1997–2000: a case for targeted intervention. J Urban Health. 2003;80:261–273. doi: 10.1093/ jurban/jtg029. PMID: 12791802 Lankenau SE, Wagner KD, Silva K, et al. Injection drug users trained by overdose prevention programs: responses to witnessed overdoses. J Community Health. 2013;38:133–141. doi: 10.1007/s10900-012-95917. PMID: 22847602

Citation: Garcia, A. C. (2017). What Went Right: Interactional Strategies for Managing Crisis Negotiations during an Emergency Service Call. The Sociological Quarterly, 58(3), 495–518. doi: 10.1080/00380253.2017.1331713

Main Points:

Crisis management team uses various techniques to effectively and must be knowledgeable and experienced. A person on the crisis management team needs to be able to calm down the victim and keep things from escalating. The dynamics of the call changed from the usual two way interaction to a three way interaction. The caller and the call taker worked as a collective by building a bond with the intruder. The caller used interactional techniques to convey to the intruder he has someone to turn to in his state of need.

Research Questions/Purpose: This article will analyze emergency communication system in connection to possible school shooter incident. The purpose of the study is to assess the results from preceding cases to get a better understanding of certain events. Researchers are also assessing the failures from a communication point as well as the success of the 911 calls.

Methods: Single case analysis- Conversation analysis

Sample: Intruder, The callers and the Call takers

Variables:

Procedure: The researcher looked closely as the emergency calls and notice the techniques and training used to connect to the intruder and deescalate the situation. The analyze the negotiation and notes the footing shifting between the three way call as the callers act as an intermediate.

Results:

Findings: Researchers analyzed the interactions between the three-way interaction and saw the participants were able to successfully display footing shifts. The caller translated the demands and statements to the call taker. She used active listening and different stages such as paraphrasing to convey to the intruder and call taker that she is listening. The call taker also kept things on track by communicating demand as well as telling the caller reassuring advice.

Discussion/Interpretation:

The skills used by the caller and the call taker are a great teaching tool because it may help improve crisis management situations in the future. This study shows that crisis management team and negotiators need to able to connect with the caller and mold their approach to fit each scenario different.

Problems:

Many of the responses from the intruder was not really heard due to hm not talking directly into the dispatchers. Therefore, they were not able to fully assess the interactions. Using the single cases analysis method also questioning the validity.

Take home message:

Although some may know the textbook meaning for these terms but to know when to implement the techniques and have smoot transition is. Using this study helps see the negotiation and asses the skills used with in interaction.

Notable Quotes:

“It is not enough to know that techniques such as listening actively, creating rapport, and using a calm and steady tone of voice will be helpful in crisis negotiations. What is critical is to know when to use each technique, and how to transition effectively between different types of actions as necessary given the unfolding interaction between the negotiator and the subject. For example, in order for crisis negotiators to be effective it is not enough to know that they should express empathy for the subject, but to know how to accomplish this action at the appropriate time in the interaction.”

Additional References: Antaki, Charles, ed. 2011. Applied Conversation Analysis: Intervention and Change in Institutional Talk. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Antaki, Charles, and Andrew Jahoda. 2010. “Psychotherapists’ Practices in Keeping a Session ‘OnTrack’ in the Face of Clients’‘Off-Track’ Talk.” Communication and Medicine 7:11–21. Antaki, Charles, Chris Walton, and W. M. L. Finlay. 2007. “How Proposing an Activity to a Person with an Intellectual Disability Can Imply a Limited Identity.” Discourse and Society 18(4):393–40. Arminen, Ilkka, and Alexandra Weilenmann. 2009. “Mobile Presence and Intimacy-Reshaping Social Actions in Mobile Contextual Configuration.” Journal of Pragmatics 41(2009): 1905–23. Atkinson, J. Maxwell, and Paul Drew. 1979. Order in Court: The Organization of Verbal Interaction in Judicial Settings. London: Palgrave Macmillan.

Citation: Sheldon, P. (2017). Emergency Alert Communications on College Campuses: Understanding Students’ Perceptions of the Severity of a Crisis and Their Intentions to Share the Alert With Parents and Friends. Western Journal of Communication, 82(1), 100–116. doi: 10.1080/10570314.2017.1308005

Main Points:

Technology has become domesticated so emergency systems will need to catch up to a more technological advanced society. College students have proven that text messages are the best way to share the news about something severe like a school shooting. Schools use social media to promote events and PSA so emergency alerts were not taken as serious as the text messages were. Improvements to technology and the alerts could help protect students on campus.

Research Questions/Purpose:

The purpose of this study is to see what platform college students would use to share emergency alerts, to assess the perceived severity, and the likelihood to share the information. ”Research Question 1: How do university alert messages sent through a text message vs. social media influence students’ perceptions of the seriousness of a crisis? Research Question 2a: How do students share university alert messages with other people (in terms of the frequency of secondary crisis communication and a preferred channel)? Research Question 2b: Who do students share the alert messages with? Research Question 2c: Which media do students use to share the alert messages?” The researchers looked at preceding studies and have hypothesized that the severity of the alert will be the deciding factor if students will share it or not.

Methods:2 by 2 subject experiment

Sample: 162 students (83 women and 89 men).

Variables: Dependent- secondary crisis communication and perceived severity.

Procedure: Researchers created hypothetical staged events and showed screenshots that looked like a real alert that would be sent during an emergency. There were four different scenarios presented such as text/social media shooting alert and text /social media tornado alert. Participants were then instructed to answer a questionnaire telling which method they prefer, severity of the alert, and which form would they use to spread the information.

Results:

Statistical Test: They tested the dependent variables using Repeated measures multivariate analysis of variance assessing the stimuli. They then looked at the frequencies to get a better explanation for the results.

Findings: Researchers found that the severity of the threat was the deciding factors of what platform they would use to share the alert. The more serious scenarios were more likely to be shared by text then by social media. The school shooting alert was significantly was sever than the tornado warning. The least serious alert was the social media tornado alert. Text alerts about both scenarios were taken more seriously than alerts received through social media.

Discussion/Interpretation:

Texting is faster than logging into social media and is more personal. Therefore, text messages are taken more seriously than a social media post. There are other factors the contribute the perceived severity such as previous experience for the events in question. Some people have experienced tornado warnings alerts more frequently than others, so their level of severity was decreased for tat one.

Problems:

The study was based off of scenarios, so it is hard to see what the participants real reaction. Testing it in a real event would help improve external validity. Due to some participants having experience with these scenarios, showing an alert message that tells its severity would help test the reaction more (instead of letting the participant guess the level of severity).

Take home message:

The alert that had the highest severity was went through text message because this is a society that use our phones frequently and have them readily available. Texting is faster and more convenient a for social media you have to log in and scroll down the feed. Word of mouth is the most valued form of spreading information and next is through the phone. Although natural disasters have the ability to kill more people, the participants were more worried about the school shooter. People only think something is severe if it involves them or ill affect them in any way.

Notable Quotes:

“The telephone is the second richest medium and is clearly preferred as a secondary communication tool when there is an alert about a shooting”

Additional References: Abbasi, M. A., Kumar, S., Filho, J. A. A., & Liu, H. (2012). Lessons learned in using social media for disaster relief - ASU crisis response game. In SBP’s 12 Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Social Computing, Behavioral-Cultural Modeling and Prediction (pp. 282–289), College Park, MD. Armour, G. (2010). Communities communicating with formal and informal systems: Being more resilient in times of need. Bulletin of the American Society for Information Science & Technology, 36(5), 34–38. Austin, L., Fisher Liu, B., & Jin, Y. (2012). How audiences seek out crisis information: Exploring the social-mediated crisis communication model. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 40 (2), 188–207. doi:10.1080/00909882.2012.654498 Ball-Rokeach, S. J., & DeFleur, M. L. (1976). A dependency model of mass-media effects. Communication Research, 3(1), 3–21. doi:10.1177/009365027600300101 Baron, G., & Philbin, J. (2009). Social media in crisis communication: Start with a drill. Public Relations Tactics, 16(4), 12.

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