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Recommendations for Solving the Problem of Low Reading Scores for Third Grade Students at David G. Sanchez Elementary in Texas

Ana I. Olivares

An Applied Research Study Presented in Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree

Doctor of Education in Educational Leadership

School of Education, Liberty University

2025

Recommendations for Solving the Problem of Low Reading Scores for Third Grade Students at David G. Sanchez Elementary in Texas

Aleman, M. K. (2021). The Relationship Between Summer Experiences and Family Involvement and Fourth-Graders’ Reading Achievement: A Secondary Data Analysis (Order No. 28928205). Available from ProQuest Central; ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global; Social Science Premium Collection. (2617309985). https://go.openathens.net/redirector/liberty.edu?url=https://www.proquest.com/dissertations-theses/relationship-between-summer-experiences-family/docview/2617309985/se-2

Aleman (2021) conducted a study to clarify how families support literacy development at home by configuring the home literacy environment, allocating leisure time, and maintaining regular familial involvement practices within the household. This research investigates the effects of family literacy. Support practices vary according to gender, previous reading achievement, race/ethnicity, and free and reduced lunch (FRL) status. This research examines the relationship between children's summer experiences, specifically family-child interactions, and their later reading achievement. This research investigates family engagement in the summer months, accounting for known predictors, and provides insights into the ways families support reading development in elementary-aged children during this time. Studies on student achievement gaps reveal that disparities are apparent at the onset of schooling and generally expand as time progresses. Students of diverse racial and ethnic backgrounds exhibit similar learning rates during the academic year; however, their learning trajectories alter over the summer, especially for predominantly low-income students, who show little to no learning gains during this time. The variations in learning patterns during summer are referred to as the summer learning loss phenomenon, which accounts for nearly 100 percent of the observed differences in student achievement. A substantial body of research on summer learning loss centers on establishing its presence and assessing interventions designed to alleviate its impact. Research on the mediating effects of family involvement in summer learning is limited, primarily due to a lack of suitable datasets. Family involvement encompasses various dimensions, including participation in school activities, interactions between adults and children within the home, and the structuring of children's recreational pursuits.

Andini, F., & Sapri, S. (2024). Development of Word Board Learning Media to Overcome Reading Difficulties of Third Grade Elementary School Students. Al-Adzka: Jurnal Ilmiah Pendidikan Guru Madrasah Ibtidaiyah, 14(2), 206–220. https://doi.org/10.18592/aladzkapgmi.v14i2.14720 Andini and Sapri (2024) assessed a study and the growth methodology known as Research and Development (R&D). The objective of this developmental research is to create a specific product and evaluate its effectiveness. The research incorporated the ADDIE model for the development study. The process consists of five steps: analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation. The objective of the study is to develop an effective word board-based learning tool aimed at assisting Indonesian third-graders experiencing difficulties in reading. Indonesian third-graders exhibit a lack of interest in reading, which adversely affects their reading proficiency. Experts developed the term "board media" to assist students experiencing difficulties with reading. This word board media effectively incorporates letter recognition and utilizes a vibrant color scheme. The letters have been modified to meet student requirements, and the media emphasizes the details of the images to facilitate comprehension and retention among students. The objective of the study is to develop effective word board learning materials to assist Indonesian third-graders experiencing difficulties in reading. Reading is a crucial factor for academic success. Each student develops and evolves at an individual rate. Certain individuals may experience learning difficulties, such as challenges in reading comprehension. Students experiencing reading difficulties do not exhibit the expected developmental progress for their age, resulting in a divergence from their peers. Reading difficulties can affect anyone and are typically attributed to various factors. Reading skills are essential for effective learning; thus, comprehension of the material is necessary. Text and writing serve as primary mediums for knowledge acquisition.

Arnaud, L. M., & Gutman, S. A. (2020). Effectiveness of an Occupational Therapy Reading Program for Low Socioeconomic First and Second Graders in an Urban Elementary School: A Pilot Randomized Controlled Study. Journal of Occupational Therapy, Schools, & Early Intervention, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/19411243.2020.1732260

Arnaud & Gutman (2020) evaluated the efficacy of an occupational therapy reading program for first and second graders in an underprivileged urban elementary school. The program focused on core reading abilities and increased reading participation. The study presented historical background that claimed that a child's ability to participate in their occupational position as students depends on their ability to read, and success in this role is a requirement for success in a wide range of adult vocations in the future. By the conclusion of the third grade, a student who is not proficient in reading has a fourfold increased risk of dropping out of high school, which usually results in a series of deficits and social exclusion. High school dropouts have a threefold higher unemployment rate than college graduates, and those who do find work make more than 60 percent less money overall than their college-educated counterparts. The study included that approximately “75%” of state jail convicts lack a high school diploma, while “85%” of juveniles facing court trials are functionally illiterate (p. 302). The study included first and second grade pupils from a charter elementary school in a low-income area of a large northeastern metropolitan metropolis. Participants in the study were English speakers who had been identified by their teachers as reading below grade level in the fifth month of the school year. In order to provide evidence for occupational therapy, the study sought to find that reading takes mental work, which can make kids who aren't quite at the teaching level feel confused, easily distracted, and like they're not good at it.

Aurora & Farkas (2022). Paraprofessional Instructional Assistants Raise the Reading Performance of Latina/o First Graders in a Low-Income District. Remedial and Special Education, 074193252211349. https://doi.org/10.1177/07419325221134919

Aurora and Farkas (2022) conducted a study in which they analyzed the efficacy of a technique that was aimed at eliminating inequities by employing paraprofessional instructional assistants to give support. Students, particularly those who come from households where Spanish is one of the primary languages spoken, receive additional literacy education. By hiring roughly 25 part-time teacher assistants who were bilingual in English and Spanish, a district in Southern California that is largely Latina/o was able to improve the instructional support provided to a number of schools during the 2018–2019 school year. Employing, training, and supervising paraprofessionals who are able to provide supplemental teaching to kids who are struggling to read and who are English language learners (EL) is a cost-effective method of providing support to teachers who are working with a large number of students who are learning to read. The program that was evaluated in this study was one in which a district provided instructional aids to all of the first-grade teachers working in the schools with the lowest academic performance. Over the course of two different research designs, we utilized matched comparison schools in order to evaluate the impact of the program on reading. Following the implementation of the program, a comparative interrupted time-series design was utilized to compare the average school-level test scores of treated schools and comparison schools before and after the program was implemented. The findings of this study are positive, despite the fact that there are certain limitations as well. Supplemental reading instruction should be offered on a wide scale by the district, and they should be delivered by bilingual educators. Paraprofessionals have the potential to improve student performance in a manner that is relatively inexpensive.

Chan, J., Adlof, S. M., Duff, D., Mitchell, A., Ragunathan, M., & Ehrhorn, A. M. (2022). Examining the Associations Between Parent Concerns and School-Age Children’s Language and Reading Abilities: A Comparison of Samples Recruited for In-School Versus Online Participation. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 53(2), 431–444. https://doi.org/10.1044/2021_lshss-21-00080

The purpose of the research that was carried out by Chan et al. (2022) was to investigate the connection that exists between the level of concern that parents have for their children's oral language, reading, and other relevant skills and the level of achievement that the children achieve on standardized language and literacy tests. With the specific goal of determining whether or not there were any differences in the relationships between children who were recruited for participation in in-school events and those who were recruited for online engagement activities. Both researchers and medical professionals were impacted by the sudden shift toward working from home that was brought about by COVID-19 limitations. Clinicians were required to quickly acquire or develop innovative methods for conducting assessments and giving therapies remotely, most commonly through the use of the Internet. Each of the children who participated in this study had developmental language disorder (DLD) and/or dyslexia, as well as children who did not have that disease. The data for this study originated from a larger, longitudinal experiment that focused on both groups of children. The "in-school" sample, which consisted of 133 persons, completed their evaluations in person before the schools closed. On the other hand, the "online" sample, which consisted of 84 individuals recruited through advertisements, completed their evaluations online by using the internet. The possible implications that recruitment strategies and assessment modalities (for example, in-person versus tele-assessment) may have on enrollment in therapeutic services and research projects are something that researchers and clinicians need to be aware of. It is crucial for them to be aware of these potential consequences. It is possible that the low rates of identification of children who meet the criteria for developmental language disorder (DLD) are partially attributed to the fact that language tests are initiated by parental worries regarding oral language. This is a notion that can be considered.

Collins, A. A., Lindström, E. R., & Sandbank, M. (2021). The influence of language knowledge and test components on reading comprehension scores. Annals of Dyslexia, 71. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11881-020-00212-y

Collins et al. (2021) examined the reliability of reading comprehension scores across various text genres and response formats among readers with differing levels of language proficiency. The study involved 78 fourth-grade students from an urban elementary institution. A randomized and counterbalanced, a 3 × 2 study design examined three response formats and two text genres within the Qualitative Reading Inventory (QRI-5) reading comprehension test. Standardized assessments of language proficiency derived from the Woodcock Johnson III Tests of Achievement. The study aimed to identify specific reading comprehension deficits (S-RCD) that are challenging due to various contributing factors affecting this diagnosis. Prior research has investigated reader characteristics that lead to varying profiles of S-RCD, enhancing the understanding of these factors. Their study examined the role of language knowledge, test components, and their interactions in explaining variance in reading comprehension scores. The study estimates the influence of reader and test components to enhance understanding of the differences in S-RCD profiles across tests due to potential interactions between readers and tests. A prior study utilized a framework to conceptualize variance in reading comprehension scores. The model posits that a reader's foundational skills, such as decoding, and cognitive competencies, including working memory, influence reading comprehension. Variations in these skills are indicative of performance on assessments. The investigations seek to identify the strengths and weaknesses of students with S-RCD, ultimately enhancing the accuracy of identification and intervention strategies. Empirical simulations of these methods demonstrate significant specificity in differentiating between students with and without learning disabilities in specific academic domains. Conflicting evidence indicates that inconsistent diagnoses persist when employing varying methods and contrasting tests.

Gay, B., Sonnenschein, S., Sun, S., & Baker, L. (2020). Poverty, Parent Involvement, and Children’s Reading Skills: Testing the Compensatory Effect of the Amount of Classroom Reading Instruction. Early Education and Development, 32(7), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2020.1829292

Gay et al. (2020) investigated whether the strength of the link between low-income parents' involvement and their children's reading skills in first grade varied according to the amount of reading training the children received at school. The home and school environments are critical for the development of young children's reading skills because they are the first locations they are exposed to reading activities, materials, and instruction. Reading practice and exposure to reading materials can help you learn and enhance your reading ability. Parents' educational involvement, also known as parent involvement, and the quantity of reading instruction that children receive at school give opportunities for them to practice reading and be exposed to reading resources. One of the most essential methods for children to learn the value of education and enhance their reading skills is through parental involvement. Unfortunately, some low-income parents are unable to participate in their children's education, which may negatively affect their reading abilities. Students who received less than two hours of classroom instruction and reading were associated with poor parental participation. Furthermore, in reading tests, pupils from low-income homes did lower than those from impoverished families. The study looked at the relationship between parental involvement, school reading teaching, and children's reading abilities. The amount of reading instruction influenced the link between parental involvement and children's reading ability. More than two hours of instruction per day had no effect on the connection between parental educational involvement and children's reading ability. Their study found that parental involvement can have a positive influence on students' reading abilities, but the effect may vary depending on what happens in the classroom.

Hiebert, E. H. (2022). When Students Perform at the Below Basic Level on the NAEP: What Does It Mean and What Can Educators Do? The Reading Teacher, 75(5). https://doi.org/10.1002/trtr.2082

Hiebert (2022) examined students who score below the basic level, highlighting that they are often perceived through a deficit perspective. However, the number of words read correctly per minute by students in the three sub-groups suggests their ability to recognize a specific quantity of words. Research in early reading emphasizes the significance of linking word recognition instruction to the vocabulary found in texts that students engage with. The selection of texts in RTI interventions has often been neglected relative to the focus on instructional language. Texts are often categorized by "grade-level," yet the influence of vocabulary on these classifications is unclear. Readers who perform below expected levels often encounter difficulties with vocabulary. Contemporary pedagogical methods for teaching reading in English to children utilize either a quantitative framework, positing that vocabulary is of lesser importance than sentence length, or a qualitative framework, which regards both word count and sentence length as essential indicators of text complexity. Prior research emphasizes the necessity of regular evaluations of oral reading fluency to assess students' word recognition abilities in reading passages. Oral reading assessments were administered to a sample of students representing the 36% of fourth graders who scored below basic in silent reading comprehension on a reading assessment. The study indicated that numerous students achieving below the basic level encountered difficulties in fluency, word reading, and phonological decoding, underscoring the need for targeted support in these domains. It is advisable to investigate the accuracy and efficiency of reading skills instruction provided in elementary schools.

Klauda, S. L., Taboada Barber, A., & McAllen, E. B. (2020). Reading Motivation in Spanish-Speaking Dual Language Learners: Comparing Two Types of Student Report. Reading Psychology, 41(6), 605–630. https://doi.org/10.1080/02702711.2020.1783144

A study was carried out by Klauda et al. (2020) in which they utilized a mixed-methods approach to investigate the reading motivations of dual language learners (DLLs) who were enrolled in grades three through five at a suburban Title I school. The majority of the student body at the institution was comprised of Hispanics. In order to evaluate the intrinsic motivations (involvement and curiosity), extrinsic motivations (competition and recognition), and self-efficacy for reading, twenty-one students participated in self-report surveys and interviews. Based on the results of the survey and interviews, it was determined that students experienced these motivations to varying degrees of intensity. On the other hand, the scores obtained through interviews for competition were substantially lower than the scores obtained from surveys and other reasons. Hispanic DLLs from a suburb who are bilingual in Spanish and English number twenty-one in total. In a state located in the middle of the Atlantic, a Title I public grade school participated. Over ninety percent of the pupils at the school were of Hispanic descent, and more than ninety percent of those students were eligible for free or reduced-price meals. According to research, students who are more driven to read obtain higher reading results across the board, regardless of their grade level, ethnicity, or culture. Reading actively helps students improve in ways that go beyond academic achievement. These improvements include a deeper understanding of the subject matter, a stronger socioemotional understanding, and the inspiration to make moral and adaptive decisions. There is a dearth of research being conducted on the subject of the reading motivation of some student populations, such as Dual Language Learners (DLLs) in the United States. The existing research on DLLs' reading motivations, which is a combination of qualitative and mixed-methods research, demonstrates the wide range of their reading-related experiences and perspectives, as well as the variety of possible avenues for boosting their enthusiasm for reading and highlighting the importance of thoroughly understanding personal experiences.

Kuhfeld, M., Lewis, K., & Peltier, T. (2022). Reading achievement declines during the COVID-19 pandemic: Evidence from 5 million U.S. students in grades 3–8. Reading and Writing, 36(2). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-022-10345-8

Kuhfeld et al. (2022) examined the variations in the pandemic's impact across different grade levels. This holds significant importance for studies examining reading outcomes, considering the typical progression of reading skills. Reading comprehension consists of two primary elements: decoding and language comprehension. Although it has been four years now since the COVID-19, K-12 pandemic education was severely disrupted in schools. The COVID-19 pandemic has caused a lot of problems for kids' academic progress. The study looked at how approximately 5 million U.S. kids in grades 3–8 did on reading tests during the first two years of the pandemic to see how their grades changed. Students in grades 3–8 had average reading test scores that were lower in the fall of 2021 than their peers in the same grade in the fall of 2019. Students in grades 3–5 experienced the biggest changes. Reading test scores dropped the most for students of color who went to kindergarten schools with many poor kids. The study results show that many kids in upper elementary school are likely to have reading problems and will need specialized help to build and improve their basic reading skills. The study showed that the COVID-19 pandemic had caused a significant disruption to students' lives and educational experiences, resulting in notable declines in reading performance according to the data. It was noted that not only declines were most significant among elementary students but the research has also indicated a significant widening of achievement gaps by student race and ethnicity in low-income school districts and decreased parental involvement.

Lara-Cinisomo, S., Taylor, D. B., & Medina, A. L. (2020). Summer Reading Program with Benefits for At-Risk Children: Results from a Freedom School Program. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/10573569.2019.1627968

In a study that was conducted by Lara-Cinisomo et al. (2020), the researchers wanted to evaluate whether or not a summer program for low-income children that was carried out by a local non-profit organization in one city and was called Children's Defense Fund Freedom Schools increased the reading competence of children who were considered to be at risk. An informal reading inventory was used in this study to measure reading at two different reading levels. The assessments were administered as a pre-test and a post-test without any control. Children who originate from homes with poor incomes and members of racial or ethnic minorities are more likely to experience reading loss during the summer or to have a decline in their reading proficiency as a result of skipping school. The objective of this research was to determine whether or not a summer reading program lasting for six weeks would be beneficial to children in terms of maintaining or improving their reading ability. children from kindergarten through eighth grade who were Hispanic and African American were evaluated. There were fourteen of these children. This study aimed to determine whether or not a summer reading program that lasted for six weeks enhanced the reading skills of children who were members of racial minority groups and had poor incomes. According to the findings, reading performance had a considerable improvement in both the independent (base) and frustrated (ceiling) categories. A further finding made by the researchers was that the grouping variable of the program, which was the mean changes in independent reading scores over time per child level, had a substantial interaction influence. To be more specific, we found that children who graduated from higher levels demonstrated more growth. In addition, the data demonstrated that, in contrast to kids who had not been retained, children who had repeated a grade showed a significant improvement in their mean levels of irritation when reading over the course of time.

Leve, L. D., Harold, G. T., Neiderhiser, J. M., Natsuaki, M. N., Shaw, D. S., Ganiban, J. M., & Reiss, D. (2022b). The Potential of Children’s Rearing Environment to Overcome Genetic Propensity for Low Reading Achievement. Mind, Brain, and Education, 16(4), 352–359. https://doi.org/10.1111/mbe.12332

Leve et al. (2022b) provide a historical reflection that psychological and educational research has long focused on understanding the genetic and environmental elements that contribute to childhood reading achievement. It is important for research and social policy to comprehend if genetic and environmental factors work together to influence childhood reading achievement. Research indicates that genetics play a role in children's reading abilities, but environmental interventions can also improve reading outcomes. Correlational and mean-level analytic methodologies are rarely used in achievement research, which might lead to misinterpretation of results. The study comprised 344 adopted first-graders and their biological and adoptive parents. Adoptees' reading scores showed a correlation with their biological parents but not with their adoptive parents, indicating genetic factors. In order to measure to see how well both children and parents read, both took part of a study and were given three reading-related subtests from the Woodcock-Johnson Achievement—III. When there were scores for both biological parents and adoptive parents, the mean of the two scores was used for those factors. This study used the parent-offspring adoption paradigm to support previous findings that children's reading achievement is both genetically impacted and modifiable. While behavioral and molecular genetic studies have shown that reading has a genetic component, and intervention studies have demonstrated the malleability of reading achievement, these two aspects of children's reading achievement are often not studied together. In summary, the study demonstrated that adoptees' reading scores were connected with those of their biological parents, despite not having been reared by them, confirming earlier studies that suggested a hereditary component to children's reading achievement.

Mancilla-Martinez, J., Hwang, J. K., Oh, M. H., & Pokowitz, E. L. (2020). Patterns of Development in Spanish–English Conceptually Scored Vocabulary Among Elementary-Age Dual Language Learners. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 63(9), 3084–3099. https://doi.org/10.1044/2020_jslhr-20-00056

Mancilla-Martinez et al. (2020) researched the phenomenon of dual language learners (DLLs) of primary school age in the United States. These DLLs come from households where Spanish is spoken, and they are sometimes regarded to be at risk for having a restricted vocabulary in both Spanish and other languages. The goal of this longitudinal study was to evaluate patterns of language responses on conceptually scored measures, as well as to investigate the development of receptive and expressive vocabulary in DLLs who hailed from Spanish-speaking parents with low incomes. The study was conducted over time. Dual language learners (DLLs) are children who come from households where a language other than English is spoken. In this context, such children are referred to as dual language learners. Because students are exposed to information in more than one language, the language environments in which they are immersed are fundamentally distinct from those in which monolingual children are immersed. Those who are monolingual, for instance, only hear and use one language in all situations, whereas those who are dual-language learners (DLLs) hear and use more than one language, to varying degrees, in all situations. As a consequence of this, the vocabulary knowledge of DLLs is dispersed throughout all of the several languages that they speak. The findings call into question deficit-driven viewpoints regarding the vocabulary skills of DLLs and bring to light the significance that conceptually scored vocabulary tests play in the evaluation of vocabulary skills. Vocabulary development among DLLs is becoming an increasingly significant factor in order to more properly account for the language capabilities that primary-age DLLs of elementary age give to the process of learning.

Moir, T., Boyle, J., & Woolfson, L. M. (2019). Developing higher‐order reading skills in mainstream primary schools: A metacognitive and self‐regulatory approach. British Educational Research Journal, 46(2). https://doi.org/10.1002/berj.3584

Moir et al. (2019) carried out a study that led to the discovery of a high-impact intensive intervention that was able to improve reading comprehension (RC) outcomes for all of the children who were a part of the intervention group in this sample. The current study lends credence to previous studies that demonstrate that students who receive explicit instruction in metacognitive approaches experience significant improvements in their RC. There is a significant gap in literacy proficiency between the ages of 8 and 11, which is referred to as the "4th-grade slump." The study included previous studies that indicate this gap. In particular, children who come from disadvantaged neighborhoods and have a low socioeconomic status (SES) are particularly susceptible to this deterioration. This vulnerable age group was the primary target of the local authorities' efforts to close the reading gap, which was in line with the priorities of the national government. Taking into consideration the fact that the current study discovered results that were statistically significant concerning the amount of time spent reading at home, it is plausible to suggest that the intervention has the potential to positively influence reading habits and retain increased reading ability. Reading requires a wide range of physical, cognitive, and perceptual skills, ranging from low-level visual perception to higher-order systems, in order to generate meaning and interpret text. These skills are necessary for reading. The act of reading is a complicated process that is dependent on these abilities. It is required to make effective use of both lower-order (recalling processes, structures, and contexts) and higher-order (evaluating, synthesising, and making critical judgments about information) comprehension methods in order to be a strong comprehender. This is because it is necessary to be able to comprehend information effectively.

Neslihan Tuğçe Özyeter, & Ömer Kutlu. (2024). Determining the Factors Playing a Role in Low Reading Achievement. TED EĞİTİM ve BİLİM, 0(0). https://doi.org/10.15390/eb.2024.12657

Neslihan Tuğçe Özyeter & Ömer Kutlu (2024) identified the characteristics of pupils in the fifth grade who have low reading achievement as well as the causes underlying this low reading achievement is the primary objective of this study. A correlational model, which is one of the quantitative research approaches, as well as convenience sampling and criterion sampling procedures, were utilized throughout this research project, which involved 944 students. Studying reading comprehension is important because it helps with other learning and is a skill that everyone needs, even if they do not go to school. Reading is organizing information with the help of what you already know for a specific reason. This shows how hard this skill is. The study stressed that the ability to understand what you read has a good effect on learning throughout your life. After looking at a lot of research, it is clear that there are strong and positive links between how well kids understand what they read and how well they do in school.A person's success in school and everyday life is affected by their ability to understand what they reads. This is because reading comprehension helps with both intellectual knowledge. People who are good at understanding what they read help society's academic growth and economic well-being. It is important to look at poor achievement in children because they are the future of society, and societies that do not teach reading well may not make progress or create cultural and economic wealth. Finding out why kids this age are not doing well in school will help find ways to fix the problem. This means that kids who are not good at understanding what they read could get better, which is good for society's future.

Pittman, R. T., Zhang, S., Binks‐Cantrell, E., Hudson, A., & Joshi, R. M. (2019). Teachers’ knowledge about language constructs related to literacy skills and student achievement in low socio‐economic status schools. Dyslexia, 26(2). https://doi.org/10.1002/dys.1628

The purpose of the study that Pittman et al. (2019) carried out was to determine the level of literacy knowledge that had by 150 urban primary school children. When it comes to assisting children in developing their reading skills, the comprehension of teachers is of utmost importance. For years, students in schools across the United States, from kindergarten to the twelfth grade, have not been able to read at a level that is considered proficient. The most recent findings from the National Assessment of Educational Progress were incorporated into the study. These findings indicate that just 36 percent of eighth graders and 37 percent of fourth graders are able to read well. When it comes to communities with low incomes, this proportion might go as high as 66%. Eleven low-income schools located in one of the largest towns in the country were involved in the study. These schools sent their teachers to collaborate with one another. A typical examination was designed to evaluate the level of comprehension that teachers have regarding phonological awareness, phonemic awareness, the alphabetic principle/phonics, and morphology, as well as their knowledge of how to instruct these fundamental skills. In order to discover the hidden meanings that were buried behind the survey results, the research utilized exploratory factor analysis and hierarchical linear modeling on the factor scores of each significant meaning. The findings demonstrated that teachers working in schools with low socioeconomic status lacked the specific information they required to assist pupils who are having difficulty reading (also known as reading difficulties). Reading is a skill that involves an awareness of fundamental language principles, and the purpose of this study is to evaluate how well primary school instructors at schools with low socioeconomic status are equipped to teach reading. Basic reading skills are a challenge for many pupils, particularly those who come from families with low socioeconomic status.

Psyridou, M., Tolvanen, A., de Jong, P. F., Lerkkanen, M.-K., Poikkeus, A.-M., & Torppa, M. (2021). Developmental profiles of reading fluency and reading comprehension from grades 1 to 9 and their early identification. Developmental Psychology, 57(11), 1840–1854. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000976

Psyridou et al. (2021) reported that there is a range of developmental profiles of reading fluency and reading comprehension that can be recognized across grades 1 to 9 (ages 7 to 16). The goal of this study is to determine whether these developmental profiles of reading fluency and reading comprehension can be discovered. The prediction of membership in the developmental profiles can be accomplished through the utilization of kindergarten-age assessments, which include cognitive capabilities, parental measures, and gender. As an illustration, the following are some examples of innovative contributions to the corpus of literature that already exists: To begin, the latent profile analysis takes into account both reading fluency and reading comprehension; second, the developmental period is extended over a longer period of time than it was in the past; and third, the profiles are identified through the utilization of a methodology that eliminates the possibility of measurement error and does not make use of specific cut-off points in the process of group assessment. All of these factors contribute to the overall process of identifying the profiles. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the developmental trends of reading fluency and reading comprehension in students who were in grades 1 through 9 (ages 7 to 15) in Finland. The sample size for this study was quite big, consisting of 2,518 persons. In addition, early determinants of the profiles including kindergarten cognitive skills (phonological awareness, letter knowledge, and letter recognition, rapid automized naming (RAN), number counting, word reading, vocabulary, and listening comprehension), parental factors (degree of education, reading challenges), and gender are all factors that can influence a child's ability to participate in these activities. These factors include phonological awareness, letter knowledge, and letter recognition.

Scammacca, N., Fall, A.-M., Capin, P., Roberts, G., & Swanson, E. (2020). Examining factors affecting reading and math growth and achievement gaps in grades 1–5: A cohort-sequential longitudinal approach. Journal of Educational Psychology, 112(4), 718–734. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000400

Scammacca et al. (2020) conducted a study that found that students beginning the school year with low scores in math and reading assessments acquire knowledge and skills more rapidly than those starting with higher scores. Nonetheless, the students with lower scores do not exhibit sufficient growth rates to attain parity with their higher-scoring counterparts. Consequently, achievement gaps persist over time. To enhance the performance of underperforming students, educational interventions must significantly accelerate growth to effectively address achievement gaps. Efforts to close achievement gaps have been a priority for America's education system for decades. Since 2000, major initiatives such as the No Child Left Behind legislation and the Race to the Top program have focused federal resources on low-achieving students. However, achievement gaps still exist between higher and lower-income students, as well as between White and ethnic minority students. Recent research indicates that achievement gaps based on socioeconomic status (SES) have grown over decades and exist prior to formal education. Research indicates that children from low socioeconomic status families have lower initial achievement and slower growth rates. Despite improvements, achievement discrepancies persist in America's education system, particularly among pupils from higher and lower affluent families. To close these disparities, it is important to understand pupils' reading and math growth beyond traditional schooling. In addition, how growth varies depending on baseline proficiency, grade level, and demographic parameters. Cohorts of children who were in Grades 1–4 in the 2015–2016 school year were followed into the next academic year, when they were in Grades 2–5; this study utilized a cohort-sequential design. Because it allows for the connecting of cohorts and the determination of whether or not there is a similar growth trajectory over time, a cohort-sequential design offers the possibility of studying student progress longitudinally across the elementary grades.

Vaknin‐Nusbaum, V., & Tuckwiller, E. D. (2022). Reading motivation, Well‐being and Reading Achievement in Second Grade Students. Journal of Research in Reading, 46(1). https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9817.12414

Vaknin-Nusbaum and Tuckwiller (2022) used a sample size of 268 second graders learning to read in Hebrew was utilized to examine the relationships among reading motivation, school-based well-being as a covitality, and literacy achievement. Literacy skills were assessed through language and reading tests, while well-being and reading motivation were evaluated using questionnaires specifically designed or modified for young elementary school students. Reading motivation is defined as the attitudes, beliefs, and ambitions that drive an individual to engage in reading activities. Environmental factors, including home and classroom literacy, significantly influence reading motivation. The researchers employed expectation-value theory (EVT) as a theoretical framework to examine the relationships between reading and motivation. The successful process of reading acquisition significantly influences the ability to absorb and acquire new information from text, thereby serving as a reliable predictor of literacy performance in higher-grade levels and across various subject areas. This dependence on cognitive and linguistic elements constitutes an additional factor. Reading motivation is linked to the reading acquisition process, encompassing elements such as vocabulary and comprehension of word structure. Research indicates that elevated motivation and subjective well-being can predict engagement in challenging academic environments and subsequent achievement. Research in this area has revealed conflicting results among primary school students. The students at the school expressed a necessity for further investigation into this subject. This is particularly significant for young children in the foundational years of early elementary school, as they are acquiring essential academic skills, including reading.

Winsler, A., Rozell, N., Tucker, T. L., & Norvell, G. (2023). Earlier mastery of English predicts 5th Grade academic outcomes for low-income dual language learners in Miami, USA. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1017/s136672892300007x

Winsler et al. (2023) investigated on how dual language learners (DLLs) students do better in school when they learn English earlier. Early education presents particular obstacles for children from varied linguistic and cultural backgrounds who speak a language other than the language of instruction in public schools. They must learn academic content while also mastering the instructional language. In the United States, English is the primary language of teaching in public schools, with only a few two-way language immersion programs. The study states that there are approximately five million "dual language learners" (DLLs) in the United States. DLLs are pupils who are learning English at school but speak a language other than English at home. The study included that in recent years, there has been a significant growth in the number of DLLs in public schools in the United States. Currently, 32% of children under the age of eight are DLLs, with Spanish being the primary home language for 59% of them. Before they can figure out how the grade at which students learn English affects their later academic performance, we need to take into account some other factors that are linked to both learning English well and doing well in school later on. While most of the research has been done on English proficiency as a predictor of academic success. Although there are not many large-scale, prospective, longitudinal studies that look at how trajectories for English acquisition link to school-based outcomes, which take into account relevant covariates. The study investigated the grade in which the DLLs of N = 17,548 students.

References

Hiebert, E. H. (2022). When Students Perform at the Below Basic Level on the NAEP: What Does It Mean and What Can Educators Do? The Reading Teacher, 75(5). https://doi.org/10.1002/trtr.2082

Neslihan Tuğçe Özyeter, & Ömer Kutlu. (2024). Determining the Factors Playing a Role in Low Reading Achievement. TED EĞİTİM ve BİLİM, 0(0). https://doi.org/10.15390/eb.2024.12657