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Proper Policing

Michael W. Robinson

American Military University

CMRJ295

January 24, 2024

Annotated Bibliography

Effective law enforcement and citizen justice require proper policing. This annotated bibliography supports the thesis that proper policing with an emphasis on better training police officers from inception to newer technologies has to hold police accountable for wrongdoing. From primary education to using new technologies to ensure accountability, police officer training is the main focus. The annotated entries discuss the pros and cons of police training and law enforcement improvements. This bibliography contributes to the discussion on improving policing practices, professionalism, ethics, and accountability in law enforcement.

Jonathan-Zamir, T., Litmanovitz, Y., & Haviv, N. (2022). What Works in Police Training? Applying an Evidence-Informed, General, Ecological Model of Police Training. Police Quarterly, 109861112211139. https://doi.org/10.1177/10986111221113975

This study by Jonathan-Zami et al. (2022) developed and implemented the evidence-based and ecological General Ecological Training (GET) paradigm for police training. A paradigm that combines scientific data with real-world expertise is proposed to fill a police training gap. The GET model comprises training transfer procedures in the individual officer, learning environment, and police organization domains. The authors say this paradigm is essential to police training intervention design and implementation. The article discusses the GET-based procedural justice (PJ) training module study. GET's statistically significant effect on recruits' procedural justice support implies it could be employed for police training. A systematic and evidence-based approach to police training overcomes the long-standing lack of a unified theoretical framework. One main strength of the study is the use of a thorough literature analysis and real-world application, where the article systematically develops the GET model. The authors present a complete police training guide using scientific and practical knowledge. However, one limitation is the necessity for further GET model testing and validation in various policing settings. The article's contribution to evidence-based and successful police training aligns with current law enforcement reform efforts. Researchers, politicians, and practitioners seeking police training improvements should consider this study. The GET model addresses practical and theoretical shortcomings in police training and suggests a more systematic and consistent approach.

Kleygrewe, L., Hutter, R. I. V., Koedijk, M., & Oudejans, R. R. D. (2023). Virtual reality training for police officers: a comparison of training responses in VR and real-life training. Police Practice and Research, 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/15614263.2023.2176307

This study by Kleygrewe et al. (2023) examines Virtual Reality scenario-based training (VR SBT) in police training and compares police officers' answers to RL SBT. A within-subject design was used with 237 Dutch National Police officers. VR and RL SBT test police officers' physical (heart rate, physical activity) and psychological (mental effort, perceived stress) reactions. RL SBT had a higher maximal heart rate and average physical activity, but VR SBT had more mental effort. The study shows that VR SBT gives training results comparable to or better than RL SBT. To understand police officers' VR training, it investigates VR experiences and participant factors that affect psychological responses. One major strength of the study lies in a large sample size of 237 police officers and a within-subject design. As a result, the study can directly compare responses to different training approaches. The study examines police officers' physical and psychological responses to dynamic and interactive VR SBT, filling a critical gap in the literature. However, due to practical limits, the RL SBT and VR SBT situations are distinct, participant experiences may vary, and each measure uses different sub-samples. This study sheds light on the efficacy and practicalities of integrating VR SBT into RL SBT in police training. The research shows that VR SBT can improve police training frameworks by combining participant characteristics and VR-specific experiences.

Kleygrewe, L., Oudejans, R. R. D., Koedijk, M., & Hutter, R. I. (Vana). (2022). Police Training in Practice: Organization and Delivery According to European Law Enforcement Agencies. Frontiers in Psychology, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.798067

Kleygrewe et al. (2022) studied the impact of police training on law enforcement agents in six European agencies. A number of participants—police instructors and coordinators—were interviewed in 21 semi-structured interviews for the qualitative study Assessing police training organization and Procedures' Strengths and Flaws. All agencies prioritize training organization and delivery, according to thematic analysis. Police executive boards and government departments manage time, facilities, equipment, and staff for training. Despite resource constraints, police teachers educate, create supportive learning environments, and include personal learning perspectives. The article stresses how police training moves from standardized to learner-centered environments that meet officers' dynamic challenges. This cross-cultural survey of European law enforcement institutions illuminates police training complexity. Its thorough examination of training organization and delivery from instructors' and coordinators' viewpoints is its strength. The study's qualitative approach and detailed training material analysis improve credibility. However, anonymizing participants and organizations may make contextual factors affecting training procedures harder to determine. Modern police require adaptive training, according to the study. It helps researchers, practitioners, and policymakers improve police training by sharing best practices and tackling common concerns. The authors' experience in human movement sciences, law enforcement, and crime studies from Dutch institutions supports their conclusions.

Kohlström, K. (2021). Professional development in the Swedish police organization: Police officers’ learning pathways. Human Resource Development Quarterly. https://doi.org/10.1002/hrdq.21450

Kohlström (2021) explores Swedish police officers' professional development, focusing on learning and situations. Thirteen police officers with over 6 years of experience had there interviews analyzed using content analysis. Participants' career choices, professional development, and early policing learning pathways are addressed in the study. Divergent police duties impact self-directed or information-based learning. Professional development requires formal education, manager-led learning, and workplace learning. This study illuminates organizational elements affecting police career progression in diverse jobs. The article's qualitative approach illuminates police officers' 6-year experiences. Learning pathways and content analysis enhance police professional development research. However, the small sample size and self-reporting biases are limitations. Despite these constraints, the study offers a new perspective on police officers' professional progress, emphasizing organization-specific methods. Police training, professional development, and gender studies benefit from this research. It reveals the Swedish police authority's organizational structure and strategic management practices that affect professional development. This study employs learning pathways to examine how individual motives, social circumstances, and organizational support affect police officers' professional development. Policymakers, HR professionals, and police leadership can use the insights to create effective police support systems.

Mancini, C., Metcalfe, C., & Robert Bradford Lehmann. (2023). Public Opinion Toward Diverse Types of Police Reform Post-2020: The Impact of Perceptions, Experiences, and Racial Resentment. Crime & Delinquency. https://doi.org/10.1177/00111287231202785

Mancini et al. (2023) examine how public opinion on police reform has evolved following tragedies like George Floyd's death. Accountability, monitoring, money diversion, and higher funding are discussed beyond 2020 in the police. Researchers use a 2021 national survey to examine reform support. The respondents supported most reforms. However, police perceptions, racial enmity, and socio-demographic characteristics affected support. The article adds that these findings make it essential to explore multiple elements impacting public opinion on police reform. This article's strength is its timely analysis of public opinion on police adjustments after catastrophic events. A comprehensive national poll and reform ideas reveal public opinion. However, respondent biases and insufficient qualitative opinions may constitute survey research problems. The study is relevant to criminology and criminal justice, especially police reform. It emphasizes public opinion and how personal experiences, racial anger, and demography impact reform support, adding to the literature. The findings can help policymakers, scholars, and practitioners implement evidence-based criminal justice reforms. This site contributes to police reform and prepares public opinion studies in this critical field.

Mehari, K. R., Rodgers, C. R. R., Blanton, M. A., & Turner, L. A. (2021). Evaluation of a police training on de-escalation with trauma-exposed youth. International Journal of Law, Crime and Justice, 66, 100491. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlcj.2021.100491

The article by Mehari et al. (2021) assesses a police training program for de-escalating traumatized teenagers. Officers learned about adolescent growth, trauma, and de-escalation through participatory action. A mixed methods study of 98 police officers and recruits assessed the workshop's effectiveness. After training, participants felt more confident, knowledgeable, and less anxious about working with adolescents. Participants' open-ended remarks indicated training satisfaction. The study shows that a brief intervention can increase officers' comprehension and ease with teenagers, raising essential questions about whether such training could minimize police use of force with youngsters. This study is significant because it addresses a critical law enforcement training gap, especially for traumatized children. The mixed methods approach uses quantitative knowledge self-efficacy measurements and qualitative participant insights for a thorough evaluation. The study illuminates targeted training programs' criminal justice and policing benefits. However, potential drawbacks include no control group and self-reported measurements that may be biased. Despite these limitations, the report calls for more significant research on the long-term effects of such training on force reduction and community-police relations. The work with law enforcement and developmental/clinical psychologists adds legitimacy and offers a holistic approach to policing traumatized youth.

Nick, G. A., Williams, S., Lekas, H.-M., Pahl, K., Blau, C., Kamin, D., & Fuller-Lewis, C. (2022). Crisis Intervention Team (CIT) Training and Impact on Mental Illness and Substance use-related Stigma among Law Enforcement. Drug and Alcohol Dependence Reports, 5, 100099. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dadr.2022.100099

Nick et al. (2022) study the impact of Crisis Intervention Team (CIT) training on law enforcement stigmatization of mental illness and substance use. The Drug and Alcohol Dependence Reports study employed pre- and post-training survey data from ninety-two 40-hour CIT-trained police officers. Pre-training, 76.1% of participants stigmatized mental illness and 83.7% substance-usage. Self-efficacy, communication, and community resource awareness reduced mental illness and substance use stigma after training. The study recommends implicit and explicit bias training before law enforcement and CIT training to prevent mental illness, and substance use stigma among police. Strengths of the study include its focus on a crucial yet underexplored area—stigmatizing attitudes among law enforcement officers towards individuals with mental health and substance use issues. After CIT training, pre-and post-training survey data permit longitudinal analysis of attitudes. The authors acknowledge the limitations of the limited sample size and lack of a law enforcement stigma instrument. The study highlights CIT training's stigma-reduction impacts and calls for more excellent law enforcement stigma research. The article illuminates the necessity for targeted training to combat stigma in law enforcement and the possibility of CIT training to achieve this goal. The findings suggest investigating stigma-related behavior change in law enforcement. This study may help mental health, law enforcement, and substance use researchers and practitioners develop treatments and training programs to better law enforcement-mental health and substance use interactions.

Potter, H. (2022, April 15). More Police, Better Training, More Accountability. Controlled F.O.R.C.E. https://controlledforce.com/more-police-better-training-more-accountability/#:~:text=Properly%20trained%20officers%20respond%20better

Potter (2022) proposes more police, better training, and more accountability for law enforcement. The author highlights that training improves police performance by improving response. The study stresses the need for adequate personnel, training, and accountability systems to improve officer reactions to different scenarios. The source's strengths are its concise presentation of vital information and advocacy for a comprehensive law enforcement strategy. Insufficient research and empirical evidence support the recommended method. A balanced and planned approach that includes police presence, training, and accountability to improve law enforcement is suggested. The article addresses law enforcement concerns like training, resource allocation, and accountability, making it topical. It aligns with discussions surrounding the challenges and reforms needed in policing. The source stresses the interconnectedness of law enforcement performance variables, supporting previous studies. The practitioner-focused article may inform field conversations and policies but lacks a research approach. As a practitioner, this source contributes to law enforcement reform by identifying essential elements for positive change. A brief review inspires further research into how police training, staffing, and accountability affect law enforcement concerns.

Sloan III, J. J., & Paoline III, E. A. (2021). “They need more training!” A national level analysis of police academy basic training priorities. Police Quarterly, 24(4), 109861112110133. https://doi.org/10.1177/10986111211013311

Sloan III and Paoline III (2021) examine police academy primary training objectives after Black individuals are killed and injured by police. The national-level study overcomes research limitations with secondary data from 591 U.S. police academies. Graduation contact hours and distribution vary widely among training areas. Despite variations, the data suggests a core curriculum with six key themes and connected topics, indicating standardized police recruit training. The article prioritizes training subjects and examines their effects on recruiting basic training, providing the framework for future research. In light of calls for more police training after Black citizen occurrences, the article shows its significance to the profession. From case studies to national-level research, the study adds to police academy training structure and content literature. This source illuminates police academy training's primary curriculum and differences, enabling informed conversations and program changes.

Zechner, O., Kleygrewe, L., Jaspaert, E., Schrom-Feiertag, H., Hutter, R. I. V., & Tscheligi, M. (2023). Enhancing Operational Police Training in High Stress Situations with Virtual Reality: Experiences, Tools and Guidelines. Multimodal Technologies and Interaction, 7(2), 14. https://doi.org/10.3390/mti7020014

Zechner et al. (2023) explore how VR might enhance operative police training, particularly DMA, in high-stress situations. Police training and industry experts advised SHOTPROS over three years. Its strength is the source's detailed review of VR's benefits—safety for high-risk training, avatars, tracking, and locomotion. Solutions are presented to link training didactics with technical possibilities. The research emphasizes the transferability of VR training outcomes to real-world police duties, making it applicable to other simulation-based training fields. This study examines VR's merits and cons in police training. The article stresses DMA in high-stress police enforcement training, showing relevance to the field. The source links to other studies by building on SHOTPROS project findings and including police officer and trainer criteria. Studies on stress perception, physiological responses, law enforcement, and first responder virtual training are also included. The study strategy includes requirement workshops with experienced police, human factor studies, and field experiments. Overall, this source enhances our understanding of how VR might benefit police training, establishing the framework for future research and use.

References

Kohlström, K. (2021). Professional development in the Swedish police organization: Police officers’ learning pathways. Human Resource Development Quarterly. https://doi.org/10.1002/hrdq.21450