Help with disc (2) due in 16 hours

Sphinx and pyramid in Giza, Egypt

Ancient Egypt

c. 3100 B.C. Narmer unites Egypt

c. 2540 B.C. Great Pyramid at Giza built

c. 1500 B.C. Queen Hatshepsut reigns

728 B.C. Piye of Kush defeats Egyptians

3500 B.C. 2500 B.C. 1500 B.C. 500 B.C.3500 B.C. 2500 B.C. 1500 B.C. 500 B.C.

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Chapter Preview While the people of Mesopotamia fought wars, people

along Africa’s Nile River formed rich and powerful civiliza- tions. Read this chapter to learn how the people of Egypt and Kush built large monuments that still stand today.

View the Chapter 2 video in the World History: Journey Across Time Video Program.

The Nile Valley The fertile land along the great Nile River supported the Egyptian civilization.

Egypt’s Old Kingdom During the Old Kingdom period, Egyptians built cities, great pyramids, and a strong kingdom.

The Egyptian Empire Many changes occurred during Egypt’s Middle and New Kingdoms. It expanded into a great empire as art, literature, and architecture blossomed.

The Civilization of Kush South of Egypt a new civilization arose called Kush. Kushites adopted Egyptian ways and eventually conquered Egypt itself.

Chapter Overview Visit jat.glencoe.com for a preview of Chapter 2.

Organizing Information Make this foldable to help you organize the key events and ideas from ancient Egypt and Kush.

Reading and Writing As you read the chapter, take notes under the appropriate tabs. Write main ideas and key terms under the “what” tab.

Step 1 Stack two sheets of paper so that the front sheet is one inch higher than the back sheet.

Step 2 Fold down the top edges of the paper to form four tabs. Align the edges so that all of the layers or tabs are the same distance apart.

Step 3 Crease the paper to hold the tabs in place, then staple them together. Cut the top three thicknesses to create a layered book.

Step 4 Label the booklet as shown and take notes on the inside.

This makes all the tabs the same size.

Kush where? when? what?

Egypt where? when? what?

Staple together along

the fold.

CHAPTER 2 Ancient Egypt 35

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36

What Do You Predict? A prediction is a guess based on what you already know.

Making predictions before you read can help you understand and remember what you read.

How do you make predictions? Read the Main Ideas below. They were taken from the opening page of Section 2 on page 47. Use these main ideas to make predictions about what you will read in this chapter.

Predicting

Predict what the term “all-powerful” means.• Egypt was ruled by all-powerful

pharaohs.

• The Egyptians believed in many gods and goddesses and in life after death for the pharaohs.

• The Egyptians of the Old Kingdom built huge stone pyramids as tombs for their pharaohs.

—from page 47

Can you predict what tools the Egyptians used to build the pyramids?

What does “life after death” mean?

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Read to WriteMaking Predictions Read the Main Ideas below from Section 1 of

this chapter.

Select one blue sub- head in this chapter. Without reading the text under that subhead, write a paragraph that you think might appear there. Check the facts in your paragraph to see if they are correct.

37

Make at least one prediction about each of the main ideas. Write down each prediction. Then, as you read this section, decide if your predictions were correct.

• The Egyptian civilization began in the fertile Nile River valley, where natural barriers discouraged invasions.

• The Egyptians depended on the Nile’s floods to grow their crops.

• Around 3100 B.C., Egypt’s two major kingdoms, Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt, were combined into one.

• Egyptian society was divided into social groups based on wealth and power.

—from page 38

Before you read the chapter, skim the questions on pages 74–75 in the Chapter Assessment and Activities. Choose three questions and predict what the answers will be.

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What’s the Connection? In Chapter 1, you learned about

the early civilization in Mesopotamia. At about the same time, another civilization was forming near the Nile River. We call this civilization ancient Egypt.

Focusing on the • The Egyptian civilization began in

the fertile Nile River valley, where natural barriers discouraged invasions. (page 39)

• The Egyptians depended on the Nile’s floods to grow their crops. (page 41)

• Around 3100 B.C., Egypt’s two major kingdoms, Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt, were combined into one. (page 43)

• Egyptian society was divided into social groups based on wealth and power. (page 45)

Locating Places Egypt (EE • jihpt) Nile River (NYL) Sahara (suh • HAR • uh)

Meeting People Narmer (NAR • muhr)

Building Your Vocabulary cataract (KA • tuh • RAKT) delta (DEHL • tuh) papyrus (puh • PY • ruhs) hieroglyphics (HY • ruh • GLIH • fihks) dynasty (DY • nuh • stee)

Reading Strategy Organizing Information Create a diagram to describe Egyptians’ irrigation systems.

c. 5000 B.C. Agriculture begins along Nile River

c. 4000 B.C. Egypt is made up of two kingdoms

c. 3100 B.C. Narmer unites Egypt

N ile

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Memphis

5000 B.C. 4000 B.C. 3000 B.C.5000 B.C. 4000 B.C. 3000 B.C.

38 CHAPTER 2 Ancient Egypt

Irrigation

The Nile Valley

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Settling the Nile The Egyptian civilization began in the

fertile Nile River valley, where natural barriers dis- couraged invasions. Reading Focus Did you know that the Nile River is longer than the Amazon, the Mississippi, and every other river in the world? Read on to find out when ancient peoples first moved to its fertile banks.

Between 6000 B.C. and 5000 B.C., hunters and food gatherers moved into the green Nile River valley from less fertile areas of Africa and southwest Asia. They settled down, farmed the land, and created several dozen villages along the riverbanks. These people became the earliest Egyptians.

A Mighty River Although Egypt (EE • jihpt) was warm and sunny, the land received little rainfall. For water, the Egyptians had to rely on the Nile River (NYL). They drank from it, bathed in it, and used it for farming, cook- ing, and cleaning. The river provided fish and supported plants and animals. To the Egyptians, then, the Nile was a precious gift. They praised it in a song: “Hail O Nile, who comes from the earth, who comes to give life to the people of Egypt.”

Even today, the Nile inspires awe. It is the world’s longest river, flowing north from the heart of Africa to the Mediterranean Sea. This is a distance of some 4,000 miles (6,437 km). Traveling the length of the Nile would be like going from Atlanta, Georgia, to San Francisco, California, and then back again.

The Nile begins as two separate rivers. One river, the Blue Nile, has its source in the mountains of eastern Africa. The other, the White Nile, starts in marshes in central Africa. The two rivers meet and form the Nile just south of Egypt. There, nar- row cliffs and boulders in the Nile

form wild rapids called cataracts (KA • tuh • RAKTS). Because of the cataracts, large ships can use the Nile only for its last 650 miles (1,046 km), where it flows through Egypt.

A Sheltered Land In Egypt, the Nile runs through a narrow, green valley. Look at the map below. You can see that the Nile looks like the long stem of a flower. Shortly before the Nile reaches the Mediterranean Sea, it divides into different branches that look like the flower ’s blossom. These branches fan out over an area of fertile soil called a delta (DEHL • tuh).

100 km0 Azimuthal Equidistant projection

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ARABIAN DESERT

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NUBIA

Giza

Memphis

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Ancient Egypt c. 3100 B.C.

Egyptian civilization developed in the narrow strip of fertile land along the Nile River. 1. What physical features border the Nile River

to the east and west? 2. About how far is it from the first cataract

to the second cataract? Find NGS online map resources @ www.nationalgeographic.com/maps

39

Nile Valley KEY

Motion In

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On both sides of the Nile Valley and its delta, deserts unfold as far as the eye can see. To the west is a vast desert that forms part of the Sahara (suh • HAR • uh), the largest desert in the world. To the east, stretching to the Red Sea, is the Eastern Desert. In some places, the change from green land to bar- ren sand is so abrupt that a person can stand with one foot in each.

The ancient Egyptians called the deserts “the Red Land” because of their burning heat. Although these vast expanses could not support farming or human life, they did serve a useful purpose: they kept out- side armies away from Egypt’s territory.

Other geographic features also pro- tected the Egyptians. To the far south, the Nile’s dangerous cataracts blocked enemy boats from reaching Egypt. In the north, the delta marshes offered no harbors for invaders approaching from the sea. In this regard, the Egyptians were luckier than the

people of Mesopotamia. In that region, few natural barriers protected the cities. The Mesopotamians constantly had to fight off attackers, but Egypt rarely faced threats. As a result, Egyptian civilization was able to grow and prosper.

Despite their isolation, the Egyptians were not completely closed to the outside world. The Mediterranean Sea bordered Egypt to the north, and the Red Sea lay beyond the desert to the east. These bodies of water gave the Egyptians a way to trade with people outside Egypt.

Within Egypt, people used the Nile for trade and transportation. Winds from the north pushed sailboats south. The flow of the Nile carried them north. Egyptian vil- lages thus had frequent, friendly contact with one another, unlike the hostile relations between the Mesopotamian city-states.

Summarize What was Egypt’s physical setting like?

40 CHAPTER 2 Ancient Egypt

Today, the Nile River valley makes up only about 3 percent of Egypt’s land, yet most Egyptians live and work in the area. How did the deserts surrounding the Nile Valley help protect Egypt?

John Lawrence/Getty Images

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The River People The Egyptians depended on the Nile’s

floods to grow their crops. Reading Focus When you hear about floods, do you picture terrible damage and loss of life? Read on to learn why the Egyptians welcomed, rather than feared, the flooding of the Nile.

In Chapter 1, you learned that the peo- ple of Mesopotamia had to tame the floods of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers in order to farm. They learned to do so, but the unpredictable rivers loomed as a constant threat.

Regular Flooding Like the Mesopotamians, the Egyptians also had to cope with river floods. However, the Nile floods were much more dependable and gentle than those of the Tigris and the Euphrates. As a result, the Egyptians were able to farm and live securely. They did not worry that sud- den, heavy overflows would destroy their homes and crops, or that too little flooding would leave their fields parched.

Every spring, heavy rains from central Africa and melting snows from the high- lands of east Africa added to the waters of the Nile as it flowed north. From July to October, the Nile spilled over its banks. When the waters went down, they left behind a layer of dark, fertile mud. Because of these deposits, the Egyptians called their land Kemet (KEH • meht), “the Black Land.”

How Did the Egyptians Use the Nile? The Egyptians took advantage of the Nile’s floods to become successful farmers. They planted wheat, barley, and flax seeds in the wet, rich soil. Over time, they grew more than enough food to feed themselves and the animals they raised.

One reason for their success was the wise use of irrigation. Egyptian farmers first dug basins, or bowl-shaped holes, in the earth to trap the floodwaters. The farm- ers then dug canals to carry water from the basins to fields beyond the river ’s reach. The Egyptians also built dikes, or earthen banks, to strengthen the basin walls.

In time, Egyptian farmers developed other technology to help them in their work. For example, they used a shadoof (shuh • DOOF), a bucket attached to a long pole, to lift water from the Nile to the basins. Many Egyptian farmers still use this device today.

Hymn to the Nile

This passage is part of a hymn written around 2100 B.C. It shows how important the Nile River was to the people of ancient Egypt. “You create the grain, you bring forth the barley, assuring perpetuity [survival] to the temples. If you cease your toil and your work, then all that exists is in anguish.”

—author unknown, “Hymn to the Nile”

How does this hymn show that the ancient Egyptians thought of the Nile as a god?

A shadoof

CHAPTER 2 Ancient Egypt 41 Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY

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Early Egyptians also developed geome- try to survey, or measure, land. When floods washed away boundary markers dividing one field from the next, the Egyptians surveyed the fields again to see where one began and the other ended.

Egyptians used Papyrus (puh • PY • ruhs), a reed plant that grew along the Nile, to make baskets, sandals, and river rafts. Later, they used papyrus for papermaking. They did this by cutting strips from the stalks of the plant. Then they soaked them in water, pounded them flat, dried them, and then joined them together to make paper.

What Were Hieroglyphics? The Egyptians used their papyrus rolls as writing paper. Like the people of Mesopotamia, the Egyptians developed their own system of writing. Originally, it was made up of thou- sands of picture symbols. Some symbols

stood for objects and ideas. To communicate the idea of a boat, for example, a scribe would draw a boat. Later, Egyptians created symbols that stood for sounds, just as the letters of our alphabet do. Combining both picture symbols and sound symbols created a complex writing system that was later called hieroglyphics (HY • ruh • GLIH • fihks).

In ancient Egypt, few people could read and write. Some Egyptian men, however, went to special schools located at Egyptian temples to study reading and writing and learn to become scribes. Scribes kept records and worked for the rulers, priests, and traders. Scribes also painstakingly carved hieroglyphics onto stone walls and monuments. For everyday purposes, scribes invented a simpler script and wrote or painted on papyrus.

Identify What crops did the ancient Egyptians grow?

From Farming to Food Harvesting wheat and turning it into bread was vital to the ancient Egyptians. Some people were full-time farmers, but many others were drafted by the government

Tomb painting showing wheat being harvested

Tomb painting showing Egyptian man and woman plowing and planting

42

wooden sickles and women gathered it into bundles. Animals trampled the wheat to separate the kernels from the husks. The grain was then thrown into the air so the wind would carry away the lightweight seed coverings. Finally, the grain was stored in silos for later use.

to help during busy seasons.

The process began as men cut the wheat with

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A United Egypt Around 3100 B.C., Egypt’s two major

kingdoms, Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt, were com- bined into one. Reading Focus What types of services does your local government provide? Read on to find out about the government in ancient Egypt.

In Egypt, as in Mesopotamia, skillful farming led to surpluses—extra amounts— of food. This freed some people to work as artisans instead of farmers. They wove cloth, made pottery, carved statues, or shaped copper into weapons and tools.

As more goods became available, Egyptians traded with each other. Before long, Egyptian traders were carrying goods beyond Egypt’s borders to Mesopotamia. There they may have picked up ideas about writing and government.

The Rise of Government The advances in farming, crafts, and trade created a need for government in Egypt. Irrigation systems had to be built and maintained, and surplus grain had to be stored and passed out in times of need. In addition, disputes over land ownership had to be settled. Gradually, government emerged to plan and to direct such activities.

The earliest rulers were village chiefs. Over time, a few strong chiefs united groups of villages into small kingdoms. The strongest of these kingdoms eventually overpowered the weaker ones. By 4000 B.C., Egypt was made up of two large kingdoms. In the Nile delta was Lower Egypt. To the south, upriver, lay Upper Egypt.

Egypt’s Ruling Families About 3100 B.C., the two kingdoms became one. Credit for this goes to Narmer (NAR • muhr), also known

Connecting to the Past 1. How did the government ensure that enough people were

available to harvest the wheat?

2. Why do you think seeds, fruit, and other additives were reserved for the wealthy?

Turning grain into bread was a long process. Women ground the grain into flour, then men pounded it until it became very fine. For the wealthy, seeds, honey, fruit, nuts, and herbs were added to the dough for flavor. Unfortunately, it was almost impossible to keep small stones and sand out of the flour. As a result, many Egyptians developed tooth decay as these particles wore down their tooth enamel.

A replica of an ancient Egyptian bakery

Wheat being harvested today

43

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44 CHAPTER 2 Ancient Egypt

as Menes (MEE • neez). As king of Upper Egypt, he led his armies north and took con- trol of Lower Egypt.

Narmer ruled from Memphis, a city he built on the border between the two king- doms. To symbolize the kingdom’s unity, Narmer wore a double crown: the helmet- like white crown represented Upper Egypt, and the open red crown represented Lower Egypt.

Natural Defenses Flat mud plains; few natural defenses

Unpredictable, and a constant threat to the people

Rivers

Floods

Economy

Tigris and Euphrates Rivers

Farming and trade

Many defenses: Nile delta, Sahara, Eastern Desert, and cataracts

Dependable and regular; not feared

Nile River

Farming and trade

Government City-state led by kings and priests; eventually empires formed

Villages led by chiefs, then united into kingdoms; kingdoms later united and ruled by pharaohs

Work of Artisans Metal products, pottery, cloth Metal products, pottery, cloth

Advances • Cuneiform writing • Number system based on 60 • 12-month calendar • Wagon wheel, plow, sailboat

• Hieroglyphic writing • 365-day calendar • Number system based on 10, and fractions • Medicine and first medical books

Mesopotamia Egypt

Comparing Mesopotamia to EgyptComparing Mesopotamia to Egypt

Narmer’s united kingdom held together long after his death. Members of his family passed the ruling power from father to son to grandson. Such a line of rulers from one family is called a dynasty (DY • nuh • stee). When one dynasty died out, another took its place.

Over time, ancient Egypt would be ruled by 31 dynasties, which together lasted about 2,800 years. Historians group Egypt’s dynasties into three main time periods called kingdoms. The earliest period, the Old Kingdom, was followed by the Middle Kingdom and then the New Kingdom. Each marked a long period of strong leadership and stability.

Define What is a dynasty?

The civilizations of both Mesopotamia and Egypt depended on rivers for fertile lands and irrigation. 1. Which civilization had greater natural

defenses? Explain. 2. Compare Use the chart to compare the

governments of the two civilizations.

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Early Egyptian Life Egyptian society was divided into

social groups based on wealth and power. Reading Focus Did you play with dolls or balls when you were young? Egyptian children did too. Keep reading for more details about the Egyptians’ daily life.

If you made a diagram of the different social groups in ancient Egypt, you would find that they make a pyramid shape. At the top was the king and his family. Beneath that level was a small upper class of priests, army commanders, and nobles. Next came a larger base of skilled middle-class people, such as traders, artisans, and shopkeepers. At the bottom was the largest group— unskilled workers and farmers.

Egypt’s Social Classes Egypt’s upper class was made up of nobles, priests, and other wealthy Egyptians who worked as the government officials. They lived in cities and on large estates along the Nile River. They had elegant homes made of wood and mud bricks, with beautiful gardens and pools filled with fish and water lilies. Wealthy fam- ilies had servants to wait on them and to per- form household tasks. The men and women dressed in white linen clothes and wore heavy eye makeup and jewelry.

Egypt’s middle class included people who ran businesses or produced goods. They lived in much smaller homes and dressed more simply. Artisans formed an important group within the middle class. They produced linen cloth, jewelry, pottery, and metal goods.

CHAPTER 2 Ancient Egypt 45

Pharaoh

Farmers and herders

Unskilled workers

Priests and nobles

Traders, artisans, shopkeepers, and scribes

Ancient Egyptian society was highly structured. At the top was the pharaoh and his family. At the bottom was the group with the least wealth—unskilled workers. What group was just below the pharaoh in Egyptian society?

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1. What is papyrus and how did the Egyptians use it?

2. What rights did women have in ancient Egypt?

Critical Thinking 3. Cause and Effect Draw a

diagram to show three things that led to the growth of gov- ernment in ancient Egypt.

4. Geography Skills How did the geography of the Nile River valley lead to the growth of a civilization there?

5. Describe Describe the Egyptian writing system.

6. Analyze What was the signif- icance of Narmer’s double crown?

7. Predicting Use what you have learned in this section to write a paragraph predicting what life might have been like on an ancient Egyptian farm.

Growth of Government in Ancient Egypt

What Did You Learn?

Study Central™ Need help with the material in this section? Visit jat.glencoe.com

46 CHAPTER 2 Ancient Egypt46 CHAPTER 2 Ancient Egypt46 CHAPTER 2 Ancient Egypt

Farmers made up the largest group of early Egyptians. Some rented their land from their ruler, paying him with a hefty portion of their crops. Most, however, worked the land of wealthy nobles. They lived in vil- lages along the Nile, in one-room huts with roofs made of palm leaves. They had a sim- ple diet of bread, beer, vegetables, and fruit.

Many of Egypt’s city dwellers were unskilled workers who did physical labor. Some unloaded cargo from boats and car- ried it to markets. Others made and stacked mud bricks for buildings. Workers lived in crowded city neighborhoods. They had small mud-brick homes with hard-packed dirt floors and a courtyard for the family’s animals. On the flat rooftops, families talked, played games, and slept. Women worked on the rooftops, drying fruit, mak- ing bread, and weaving cloth.

Family Life In ancient Egypt, the father headed the family. However, Egyptian women had more rights than females in most other early civilizations. In Egypt, women could own and pass on property. They could buy and sell goods, make wills, and obtain divorces. Upper-class women were in charge of temples and could per- form religious ceremonies.

Few Egyptians sent their children to school. Mothers taught their daughters to sew, cook, and run a household. Boys learned farming or skilled trades from their fathers. Egyptian children had time for fun, as well. They played with board games, dolls, spinning tops, and stuffed leather balls.

Identify Who made up the largest group in Egyptian society?

Reading Summary Review the • The deserts on either side of the

Nile Valley, along with the Nile cataracts and delta marshes, pro- tected Egypt from invaders.

• The Egyptians became successful farmers using the Nile River’s floods and irrigation.

• About 3100 B.C., Narmer united Lower Egypt and Upper Egypt.

• Egypt’s society was divided into upper-class priests and nobles, middle-class artisans and mer- chants, and lower-class workers and farmers.

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What’s the Connection? In Section 1, you learned that

Egyptian dynasties are divided into the Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom, and New Kingdom. In Section 2, you will learn about the Egyptians’ leaders, religion, and way of life in the Old Kingdom.

Focusing on the • Egypt was ruled by all-powerful

pharaohs. (page 48)

• The Egyptians believed in many gods and goddesses and in life after death for the pharaohs. (page 49)

• The Egyptians of the Old Kingdom built huge stone pyramids as tombs for their pharaohs. (page 50)

Locating Places Giza (GEE • zuh)

Meeting People King Khufu (KOO • foo)

Building Your Vocabulary pharaoh (FEHR • oh) deity (DEE • uh • tee) embalming (ihm • BAHM • ihng) mummy (MUH • mee) pyramid (PIHR • uh • MIHD)

Reading Strategy Organizing Information Use a graphic organizer like the one below to identify the different beliefs in Egypt’s religion.

Egypt’s Old Kingdom

c. 2600 B.C. Old Kingdom period begins

c. 2540 B.C. Great Pyramid at Giza built

c. 2300 B.C. Old Kingdom declines

N ile

R.

Memphis Giza

2600 B.C. 2400 B.C. 2200 B.C.2600 B.C. 2400 B.C. 2200 B.C.

CHAPTER 2 Ancient Egypt 47

Egyptian beliefs

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Old Kingdom Rulers Egypt was ruled by all-powerful

pharaohs. Reading Focus Would you want your student body president or your sports team captain to have unlimited authority? Think what it would be like to have such a leader as you read about the rulers of ancient Egypt.

Around 2600 B.C., the period known as the Old Kingdom began in Egypt. The Old Kingdom lasted until about 2300 B.C. During those years, Egypt grew and prospered. The Egyptians built cities and expanded trade, and their kings set up a strong government.

The Egyptian kings, or pharaohs (FEHR • ohs) as they were called, lived with their fami- lies in grand palaces. In fact, the word pharaoh originally meant “great house.” The pharaoh was an all-powerful ruler who guided Egypt’s every activity. His word was law, and it had to be obeyed without question.

Pharaohs appointed many officials to carry out their wishes. These officials saw to it that irrigation canals and grain store- houses were built and repaired. They made

sure that crops were planted as the pharaoh directed. They also controlled trade and col- lected tax payments of grain from farmers.

Why did Egyptians willingly serve the pharaoh? One reason was that they believed the unity of the kingdom depended on a strong leader. Another was that they consid- ered the pharaoh to be the son of Re (RAY), the Egyptian sun god. As a result, his subjects paid him the greatest respect. Whenever he appeared in public, people played music on flutes and cymbals. Bystanders along the road had to bow down and “smell the earth,” or touch their heads to the ground.

The Egyptians thought their pharaoh was a god on earth who controlled Egypt’s welfare. He carried out certain rituals that were thought to benefit the kingdom. For example, he drove a sacred bull around Memphis, the capital city. The Egyptians believed this ceremony would keep the soil rich and ensure good crops. The pharaoh was also the first to cut ripe grain. Egyptians believed this would bring a good harvest.

Analyze Why did the pharaohs hold so much power?

The Great Sphinx, a huge statue with the head of a man (perhaps a pharaoh) and the body of a lion, stands guard outside the tomb of a pharaoh. What did the word pharaoh mean, and why was it used for Egypt’s rulers?

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Egypt’s Religion The Egyptians believed in many gods

and goddesses and in life after death for the pharaohs. Reading Focus Have you seen mummies in horror movies? Maybe you’ve even wrapped yourself in strips of cloth to be a mummy for a costume party. Keep read- ing to find out how the ancient Egyptians made mum- mies, and why.

Religion was deeply woven into Egyptian culture. Like the people of Mesopotamia, the ancient Egyptians wor- shiped many deities (DEE • uh • teez), or gods and goddesses. The Egyptians believed these deities controlled the forces of nature and human activities.

The main Egyptian god was the sun god Re. This was probably because of Egypt’s hot, sunny climate and the importance of the sun for good harvests. Another major god was Hapi (HAH • pee), who ruled the Nile River. The most important goddess was Isis (EYE • suhs). She represented the loyal wife and mother, and she ruled over the dead with her husband Osiris (oh • SY • ruhs).

Life After Death Unlike the Mesopota- mians, who imagined a gloomy life after death, the Egyptians took a hopeful view. They believed that life in the next world would be even better than life on Earth. Following a long journey, the dead would reach a place of peace and plenty.

One of the most important manuscripts written in ancient Egypt was the Book of the Dead. This was a collection of spells and prayers that Egyptians studied to obtain life after death. They believed that the god Osiris would meet newcomers at the entrance to the next world. If they had led good lives and knew the magic spells, Osiris would grant them life after death.

For centuries, Egyptians believed that only the pharaohs and an elite few could enjoy the afterlife. They also believed that the pharaoh’s spirit needed a body to make the journey to the afterlife. If the pharaoh’s body decayed after death, his spirit would be forced to wander forever. It was vital that a pharaoh’s spirit reach the next world. There, the pharaoh would continue to care for Egypt.

To protect the pharaoh’s body, the Egyptians developed a process called embalming (ihm • BAHM • ihng). First, priests removed the body’s organs. A special salt, natron, was then applied to the body, and it was stored for a number of days to dry. After this, the body was filled with spices and per- fumes, then stitched closed. Next, it was cleaned with oils and tightly wrapped with

CHAPTER 2 Ancient Egypt 49

During the embalming process, the pharaoh’s body was placed on a special table. The chief embalmer was dressed as Anubis, the god of mummification. Why did the Egyptians embalm the pharaoh’s body?

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Egypt’s ReligionEgypt’s Religion

long strips of linen. The wrapped body was known as a mummy (MUH • mee). It was put in several wooden coffins, one fitting inside the other. The pharaoh was then ready for burial in a tomb.

Egyptian Medicine In the course of embalming the dead, the Egyptians learned much about the human body. Egyptian doc- tors used herbs and drugs to treat many dif- ferent illnesses. They grew skilled at sewing up cuts and setting broken bones.

Some doctors focused on treating par- ticular parts of the body, becoming the first specialists in medicine. Egyptians also wrote the world’s first medical books on scrolls of papyrus.

Identify Who were some of the Egyptians’ main gods and goddesses?

The Pyramids The Egyptians of the Old Kingdom built

huge stone pyramids as tombs for their pharaohs. Reading Focus Do you think the Statue of Liberty or the White House will still be here in 4,000 years? The giant pyramids of Egypt have stood for about that long. Read to find out how and why they were built.

No ordinary tomb would do for a pharaoh of Egypt. Instead, the Egyptians built mountainlike pyramids (PIHR • uh • MIHDS) entirely of stone. These gigantic struc- tures, the size of several city blocks, protected the bodies of dead pharaohs from floods, wild animals, and grave robbers. The pyra- mids also held supplies that the pharaoh might need in the spirit world, including clothing, furniture, jewelry, and food.

In this painting, the god Osiris (seated at right) watches as other animal-headed gods weigh a dead man’s soul and record the results. The scales have balanced, so the dead man may enter the underworld. What was the Book of the Dead?

50 CHAPTER 2 Ancient Egypt

Osiris

(t)The British Museum, (b)Musee du Louvre, Paris/Explorer/SuperStock

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How Was a Pyramid Built? It took thou- sands of people and years of backbreaking labor to build a pyramid. Most of the work was done by farmers during the Nile floods, when they could not tend their fields. In addition, surveyors, engineers, carpenters, and stonecutters lent their skills.

Each pyramid sat on a square base, with the entrance facing north. To determine true north, the Egyptians studied the heav- ens and developed principles of astron- omy. With this knowledge, they invented a 365-day calendar with 12 months grouped into 3 seasons. This calendar became the basis for our modern calendar.

To determine the amount of stone needed for a pyramid, as well as the angles necessary

for the walls, the Egyptians made advances in mathematics. They invented a system of written numbers based on 10. They also cre- ated fractions, using them with whole num- bers to add, subtract, and divide.

After the pyramid site was chosen, workers went wherever they could find stone—sometimes hundreds of miles away. Skilled artisans used copper tools to cut the stone into huge blocks. Other workers tied the blocks to wooden sleds and pulled them to the Nile over a path “paved” with logs. Next, they loaded the stones onto barges that were floated to the building site. There, workers unloaded the blocks and dragged or pushed them up ramps to be set in place.

Ancient Egyptians buried their kings within large stone buildings called pyramids.

Air Shaft

King's Burial Chamber The king's mummified body was placed in a room at the pyramid's center.

Grand Gallery This tall, sloping hall held large granite blocks that sealed the tomb.

Queen's Burial Chamber This chamber held a statue of the king, not the queen's body.

Entrance

Underground Burial Chamber Sometimes kings were buried here instead.

Queen's Pyramids These smaller pyramids are believed to be tombs for the king's wives.

Mastaba These tombs surrounding the pyramids held royal family members and other nobles.

Valley Temple This temple may have been used for rituals before the king was buried.

Inside a PyramidInside a Pyramid

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Reading Summary Review the • The all-powerful rulers of Egypt,

called pharaohs, were believed to be related to Egypt’s main god.

• The Egyptians believed in many gods and goddesses. They also believed in life after death for the pharaoh, whose body would be mummified before burial.

• The pyramids, built as huge stone tombs for the pharaohs, required many years and thousands of workers to construct.

1. How was stone for a pyramid transported to the building site?

2. What did Egyptians learn from embalming bodies?

Critical Thinking 3. Organize Information Draw

a diagram like the one below. Fill in details about the pharaohs of the Old Kingdom and their duties.

4. Math/Science Link How did the building of the pyramids lead to advances in science and mathematics?

5. Compare and Contrast How did the Egyptians’ reli- gious beliefs compare to those of the Mesopotamians?

6. Persuasive Writing Suppose you are an Egyptian pharaoh who wants a pyramid built to house your tomb. Write a letter to the farmers and workers in your kingdom explaining why it is their duty to build the pyra- mid for you.

What Did You Learn?

Study Central™ Need help with the material in this section? Visit jat.glencoe.com

52 CHAPTER 2 Ancient Egypt

The Great Pyramid About 2540 B.C., the Egyptians built the largest and grandest of the pyramids known as the Great Pyramid. It is located about 10 miles from the mod- ern city of Cairo. This pyramid, built for King Khufu (KOO • foo), is one of three still standing in Giza on the west bank of the Nile. It rises nearly 500 feet (153 m) above the desert, covers an area about the size of nine football fields, and contains more than 2 million stone blocks. Each block weighs an average of 2.5 tons.

The Great Pyramid was the tallest struc- ture in the world for more than 4,000 years. It is equal to the size of a 48-story building and is the largest of about 80 pyramids found in Egypt. The Great Pyramid is truly a marvel because the Egyptians built it without using beasts of burden, special tools, or even the wheel.

Explain What was the pur- pose of pyramids?

The pyramid shown above is that of King Khafre, son of Khufu. Although smaller than the Great Pyramid, Khafre’s pyramid was built on higher ground so as to appear taller. About how tall is the Great Pyramid?

Pharaohs

John Heaton/CORBIS

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53

In this story, a prince must avoid three types of animals because it was predicted that one of them would kill him. The people who love him try to prevent him from coming into contact with the animals, but the prince does not want to live in fear.

Before You Read The Scene: This story takes place in ancient times in Egypt and in an area that is now Iraq.

The Characters: The first characters introduced are the king of Egypt, his son, and the seven Hathor goddesses, who predict the prince’s death. When the prince travels, he meets Chief of Naharín and his daughter.

The Plot: For many years, the king of Egypt protects his son from the death that was predicted for him. The prince convinces his father to let him travel. He meets a princess, and together they try to prevent his fate.

Vocabulary Preview destiny: an already-determined course of events

ferried: carried by boat

enchant: to cast a spell on something

fugitive: a person who runs away or escapes

folly: a foolish action

vessel: a container

exalting: praising

Translated by Lise Manniche

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º

1seven Hathor goddesses: goddesses who visited newborn children to discover their fates

As You Read This is one of the world’s oldest known fairy tales. It was written in hieroglyphics more than 3,000 years ago. The places in the tale are real, and the prince and princess may have been based on real people, as well. The ancient Egyptians often made important people the main characters in their stories.

There once was a king of Egypt who had no sons at all. So the king asked the gods of his time for a son and they decided that he should have one. . . .

The seven Hathor goddesses1 came to decide the boy’s fate and they declared, “He is destined to be killed by a crocodile or a snake or a dog.”

The people who were at the boy’s side heard this. They reported it to the king and his heart grew sad.

The king had a house of stone built for the boy at the edge of the desert, supplied with servants and with all sorts of good things from the palace, for the child was not to go outside. There the boy grew up.

One day he climbed up to the roof of the house and saw a dog following a man, who was walking along the road.

“What is that?” he asked his servant.

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“It’s a dog,” the servant replied. “Let me have a dog like that,” the boy

said. The servant reported this to the king

and the king said, “His heart is sad. Let him have a bounding little puppy.”

So they gave the boy a dog. In time, the young prince grew

restless and he sent a message to his father, saying, “Why should I stay here doing nothing? After all, my destiny has been determined. Allow me to do as I wish until I meet my fate.”

The king replied saying “Let a chariot2 be prepared for him, equipped with all sorts of weapons, and assign a servant to accompany him.”

So they did as the king commanded and gave him all that he needed. Then they ferried him across the Nile to the east bank and said to him, “Now go as you wish.”

And the dog was with him. The prince traveled as he pleased

northwards across the desert, living on the best of all desert game.

Thus he came to the realm of the Chief of Naharín,3 who had no children— except one daughter. He had built a house for her with a window seventy cubits4

from the ground. The Chief of Naharín then sent for

all the sons of all the chiefs of Kharu,5

saying, “He who can jump up to the

window of my daughter shall have her for his wife.”

The sons of all the chiefs had been trying to reach the window each day for many days when the prince passed by them.

They took the prince to their house, and they bathed him, they rubbed him with oil, and they bandaged his feet. They gave fodder6 to his horses and food to his servant. They did everything for the young man.

And to start a conversation, they said, “Where do you come from, you handsome youth?”

“I am the son of a chariot officer from Egypt. My mother died and my father took another wife. My stepmother grew to hate me and I have fled her.”

They welcomed him and kissed him.

2chariot: a two-wheeled, horse-drawn car 3Naharín: an area east of the Euphrates River in present-day Iraq

4cubits: units of length based on the length of the arm from the elbow to the fingertips

5Kharu: an area in present-day Syria

6fodder: food for cattle, horses, and sheep

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D

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Several days later the prince asked the youths, “What are you doing here in Naharín?”

“The past three months we have spent each day jumping, for the Chief of Naharín will give his daughter to the one who reaches her window,” they said.

“Oh, if only I could enchant my feet, I would jump with you,” said the prince.

The youths went off to jump, as it was their daily custom, while the prince stood at a distance, watching.

From her window the daughter of the Chief of Naharín gazed at him.

At last, when many days had passed, the prince joined the sons of the chiefs.

He jumped and he reached the window of the daughter of the Chief of Naharín.

She embraced him and she kissed him.

A messenger went to inform her father. “One of the young men has reached

the window of your daughter,” the messenger said.

“Whose son is it?” the Chief of Naharín inquired.

“He is the son of a chariot officer from Egypt. He has fled from his stepmother.”

The Chief of Naharín grew very angry. “Am I to give my daughter to a fugitive from Egypt? Send him home!”

“You must go back where you came from,” the messenger said to the prince.

But the princess clung to the prince, and she swore, “As Re lives, if they take him from me, I will not eat, I will not drink, I will die within the hour!”

When the messenger had reported everything she had said to her father, her father sent men to kill the prince then and there.

Again the princess swore, “As Re lives, if they kill him, I shall die before sunset. I will not live an hour more than he!”

They repeated this to her father, and the Chief of Naharín had the prince and his daughter brought before him.

The young man impressed the Chief, who welcomed him and kissed him and said, “Now you are like my own son. Tell me about yourself.”

“I am the child of a chariot officer from Egypt,” said the young man, “My mother died and father took another wife. She grew to hate me, and I have fled from her.”

The Chief of Naharín gave his daughter to the prince, and he gave him a house and fields and herds and everything they needed.

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When they had lived together for some time, the young man told his wife, “I know my fate. I shall be killed by one of three: a crocodile or a snake or a dog.”

“Then,” she said, “the dog that follows you everywhere must be killed.”

“That would be folly,” he replied. “I will not have the dog killed for I have had it ever since it was a puppy.”

So his wife began to watch over him closely, and she did not allow him to go out alone.

It so happened that on the very day the prince had arrived in Naharín, the crocodile, his fate, began to follow him. It caught up with him in the town where the prince lived with his wife.

But there in the lake was a giant who would not let the crocodile out, and so the crocodile refused to let the giant out. For three whole months they had been fighting all day long, beginning each day at sunrise.

The prince spent many pleasant days in his house, and in the evenings when the breeze died down, he went to bed. One evening when sleep had overcome him, his wife filled a vessel with wine and another with beer. Then she sat down beside him, but she did not sleep.

A snake came out of its hole intending to bite the prince, but the vessels tempted it and the snake drank from them, got drunk and rolled over on its back to sleep.

His wife chopped the snake in three pieces with her axe. Then she roused her husband and said to him, “See, your god has placed one of your fates in your hands. He is protecting you.”

The prince made offerings to his god Re, adoring him and exalting his power each day that passed.

After some time, the prince went for a stroll around his estate. His wife stayed at home, but his dog followed him.

Suddenly the dog turned on him and the prince fled from it.

He ran to the edge of the lake and jumped into water to escape the dog, but there the crocodile seized him and dragged him off to find the giant.

K

L

M

M

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58

“I am pursuing you, for I am your fate,” said the crocodile. “Listen, for three whole months I have been fighting with the giant. I will let you go now if you will take my side and kill the giant when he returns to fight.”

So the prince waited by the water all that night, and when dawn broke and a second day began, the giant returned.

The giant began to fight the crocodile at once, but the prince stepped forward with his scimitar7 in his hand. He cut out the heart of the giant and the giant died.

At that very moment the dog sneaked up behind the prince. It attacked him and tore him to bits and spread the pieces all about.

When the prince failed to return, his wife set out to look for him. After seven days and seven nights in search for him, she came upon his remains.

She collected all the pieces of her husband’s body and put them back together again—except for his heart. That she placed in a lotus flower which was blooming on the water.

Lo and behold, the prince reappeared as he had been before. From that day on the prince and princess lived together happily

until they crossed over to the fields of the blessed.

º

1. How did the prince’s father and wife try to protect him?

2. How would this story be different if it were told from the point of view of the prince?

3. Evaluating Information Do you think the prince paid enough attention to the goddesses’ warning? Why or why not? Support your opinion with examples.

4. Drawing Conclusions Why do you think the prince lied to the Chief of Naharín about his parents?

5. Read to Write Suppose you are the prince, captive in the stone house, or the princess, captive in the tower. Write three diary entries about your daily life, your feelings about being kept away from society, and your hopes for the future.

Responding to the Reading

7scimitar (SIH • muh • tuhr): a long sword with a curved blade

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c. 2050 B.C. Middle Kingdom begins

c. 1500 B.C. Queen Hatshepsut reigns

c. 1279 B.C. Ramses II takes the throne

N ile

R .

Memphis

Thebes

2400 B.C. 1600 B.C. 800 B.C.2400 B.C. 1600 B.C. 800 B.C.

CHAPTER 2 Ancient Egypt 59

What’s the Connection? During the Old Kingdom,

Egyptians established their civilization. During the Middle Kingdom and the New Kingdom, Egypt’s powerful pharaohs expanded the empire by conquering other lands.

Focusing on the • The Middle Kingdom was a golden age

of peace, prosperity, and advances in the arts and architecture. (page 60)

• During the New Kingdom, Egypt acquired new territory and reached the height of its power. (page 61)

• Akhenaton tried to change Egypt’s religion, while Tutankhamen is famous for the treasures found in his tomb. (page 64)

• Under Ramses II, Egypt regained territory and built great temples, but the empire fell by 1150 B.C. (page 65)

Locating Places Thebes (THEEBZ)

Meeting People Ahmose (AHM • OHS) Hatshepsut (hat • SHEHP • soot) Thutmose III (thoot • MOH • suh) Akhenaton (AHK • NAH • tuhn) Tutankhamen

(TOO • TANG • KAH • muhn) Ramses II (RAM • SEEZ)

Building Your Vocabulary tribute (TRIH • byoot) incense (IHN • SEHNS)

Reading Strategy Categorizing Information Create a diagram to show the major accomplishments of Ramses II.

Ramses

Egyptian Empire

The

059-067 Ch2 S3-824133 10/14/04 5:17 PM Page 59

The Middle Kingdom The Middle Kingdom was a golden age

of peace, prosperity, and advances in the arts and architecture. Reading Focus Have you heard older people talk about enjoying their “golden years”? Countries can also experience such happy, productive times. In the fol- lowing paragraphs, you’ll learn why the Middle Kingdom was a golden age for Egypt.

About 2300 B.C., the pharaohs lost con- trol of Egypt as nobles battled one another for power. Almost 200 years of confusion followed. Finally, a new dynasty of pharaohs came to power. They moved their capital south from Memphis to a city called Thebes (THEEBZ). There they restored order and stability, ushering in a new period called the Middle Kingdom.

The Middle Kingdom lasted from about 2050 B.C. to 1670 B.C. During this time, Egyptians enjoyed a golden age of stability, prosperity, and achievement.

The Drive for More Land During the Middle Kingdom, Egypt took control of new lands. Soldiers captured Nubia to the south and attacked what is now Syria. The conquered peoples sent tribute (TRIH • byoot), or forced payments, to the Egyptian pharaoh, enriching the kingdom. Within Egypt, the pharaohs added more waterways and dams. They increased the amount of land being farmed and built a canal between the Nile River and the Red Sea.

The Arts Blossom During the Middle Kingdom, arts, literature, and architecture thrived. Painters covered the walls of tombs and temples with colorful scenes of the deities and daily life. Sculptors created large wall carvings and statues of the pharaohs, showing them as ordinary people rather

than godlike figures. Poets wrote love songs and tributes to the pharaohs.

A new form of architecture was also created. Instead of building pyramids, pharaohs had their tombs cut into cliffs west of the Nile River. This area became known as the Valley of the Kings.

Who Were the Hyksos? The Middle Kingdom came to an end in 1670 B.C. Nobles were again plotting to take power from the pharaohs. This time, however, Egypt also faced a serious threat from out- side. A people known as the Hyksos (HIHK • SAHS), from western Asia, attacked Egypt.

60 CHAPTER 2 Ancient Egypt

This artwork with gold inlay from the Middle Kingdom period shows a funeral boat. How did architecture change during the Middle Kingdom?

Web Activity Visit jat.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 2—Student Web Activity to learn more about ancient Egypt.

Gianni Dagli Orti/CORBIS

059-067 Ch2 S3-824133 3/9/04 3:18 AM Page 60

Today, millions of people use computer icons as symbols for words

and even emotions in e-mails and other electronic communication. These

icons are pictures—such as flags or paper clips—that represent other things. In what way

are hieroglyphs and computer icons similar?

Hieroglyphs and Computer Icons

The ancient Egyptian system of writing was made up of hundreds of different characters called hieroglyphs. Each hieroglyph was a picture that represented a word. For example, a large circle with a smaller circle drawn in its center meant “sun.” Egyptian scribes carved hieroglyphic symbols on monuments and used them for everyday communication.

Computer icons

CHAPTER 2 Ancient Egypt 61

The Hyksos were mighty warriors. They crossed the desert in horse-drawn chariots and used weapons made of bronze and iron. Egyptians had always fought on foot with copper and stone weapons. They were no match for the invaders.

The Hyksos ruled Egypt for about 120 years. Then, around 1550 B.C., an Egyptian prince named Ahmose (AHM • OHS) led an uprising that drove the Hyksos out of Egypt.

Identify Who were the Hyksos?

The New Kingdom During the New Kingdom, Egypt acquired

new territory and reached the height of its power. Reading Focus Do you know the names of any women who hold political office? In ancient civiliza- tions, women rarely held positions of power. Read to learn how a woman became ruler of Egypt.

Ahmose’s reign in Egypt began a period known as the New Kingdom. During this time, from about 1550 B.C. to 1080 B.C., Egypt reached the height of its ancient glory.

Hieroglyphs

(l)Smithsonian Institution, (r)file photo

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A Woman Ruler About 1473 B.C., a queen named Hatshepsut (hat • SHEHP • soot) came to power in Egypt. She ruled first with her husband and then, after his death, on behalf of her young nephew. Finally she made herself pharaoh. Hatshepsut became one of the few women to rule Egypt.

Hatshepsut was more interested in trade than conquest. During her reign, Egyptian traders sailed along the east coast of Africa. They exchanged beads, metal

tools, and weapons for gold, ivory, ebony, and incense (IHN • SEHNS), a material burned for its pleasant smell.

Another product Egyptians wanted was wood. The Nile Valley had few trees, and the Egyptians needed wood for boats and other items. The search for wood took Egyptian traders to the eastern Mediterranean, where Lebanon is located today. The region had many trees, and its people, called the Phoenicians, were famous for their wooden furniture.

Trading brought great wealth to Egypt. Hatshepsut used some of this wealth to build monuments. One of her greatest proj- ects was a huge temple and tomb in the limestone cliffs of the Valley of the Kings.

Expanding the Empire When Hatshepsut died, her nephew, Thutmose III (thoot • MOH • suh), became pharaoh. Thutmose’s armies expanded Egypt’s borders north to the Euphrates River in Mesopotamia. His troops also moved south and regained control of Nubia, which had broken free from Egypt earlier.

Thutmose’s empire grew rich from trade and tribute. In addition to claiming gold, copper, ivory, and other valuable

goods from conquered peoples, Egypt enslaved many prisoners of war. These unfortunate captives were put to work rebuilding Thebes. They filled the city with beautiful palaces, temples, and

monuments. Slavery had not been widespread in

Egypt before. During the New Kingdom, however, it became common. Enslaved peo- ple did have some rights. They could own land, marry, and eventually be granted their freedom.

Summarize Describe Egyptian trade during the rule of Hatshepsut.

62 CHAPTER 2 Ancient Egypt

300 km

300 mi.0

0 Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection

N

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40°E30°E

30°N

20°N

TROPIC OF CANCER

R ed

S ea

Mediterrranean Sea

N ile

R .

LOWER EGYPT

UPPER EGYPT

SYRIA

NILE DELTA

A R A B I A N P E N I N S U L A

Cyprus

Giza

Memphis

Thebes

Egyptian Kingdoms

During the Middle Kingdom, the capital of Egypt moved from Memphis to Thebes. 1. Which kingdom included lands across the

Mediterranean Sea? 2. What physical feature makes up much of the

eastern border of the Middle Kingdom?

Old Kingdom Land added during Middle Kingdom Land added during New Kingdom Pyramids

KEY

Motion In

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HATSHEPSUT Reigned 1473–1458 B.C.

Hatshepsut was the daughter of Ki ng Thutmose I

and Queen Aahmes. Even as a youn g princess, she

was confident, describing herself as “exceedingly

good to look upon . . . a beautiful m aiden” who

was “serene [peaceful] of nature.” D uring her

marriage to King Thutmose II, Hats hepsut

influenced her husband’s decisions and hoped

to someday have more power. She saw an

opportunity when Thutmose died a nd

declared herself pharaoh.

Because the position of pharaoh wa s

usually passed from father to son,

Hatshepsut had to prove that she w as a

good leader. She often wore men’s clothing

to convince the people that she co uld

handle what had always been a ma n’s job.

Unlike other pharaohs, Hatshepsut avoided

military conquests. She focused he r attention

instead on expanding Egypt’s econo my. She restored

Egypt’s wealth through trade with Africa and Asia.

Returning home from trading exped itions, cargo ships were loaded

with ebony, gold, ivory, incense, and myrrh. During her reign, Hatshepsu

t also

rebuilt many of Egypt’s great temp les, including the temple at Karnak

. In her

temple at Deir el Bahri, the reliefs o n the walls recorded the major eve

nts of

Hatshepsut’s reign.

Hatshepsut’s 21-year reign was pea ceful, but her stepson, Thutmose III

, was

plotting against her. He overthrew Hatshepsut and her government.

It is unknown how Hatshepsut died , but

after her death, Thutmose III ordere d

that the reliefs and statues in

Hatshepsut’s temple be destroyed.

63

Hatshepsut

“A dictator excellent of plans”

—Egyptian scribe quoted in Barbarian Tides

Make a list of Hatshepsut’s strengt hs as a

leader. Then choose a present-day female

leader and list her leadership stren gths. Write a

paragraph comparing their similarit ies and

differences.

Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund and Edward S. Harkness Gift,1929 (29.3.3)

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N Y

Cats in Ancient Egypt In ancient Egypt, cats were loved and even worshiped. Egyptians valued the ability of wild cats to protect villages’ grain supplies from mice and rats. Over several hundred years, cats became tame, and their role developed from valued hunter to adored family pet to goddess.

In ancient Egyptian tombs, archaeologists have found many wall paintings, carvings, and statues of cats. Often the statues were adorned with beautiful jewelry, such as silver or gold earrings, nose rings, and collars. When an Egyptian family’s cat died, its owners shaved their eyebrows to show their grief and had the cat’s body mummified.

Egyptians worshiped cats because they associated them with the goddess Bastet. She represented motherhood, grace, and beauty, and often appears in paintings and statues as a woman with the head of a cat.

The Legacies of Two Pharaohs Akhenaton tried to change Egypt’s

religion, while Tutankhamen is famous for the treasures found in his tomb. Reading Focus If you ask people to name an Egyptian pharaoh, the answer you’re likely to get is “King Tut.” Read on to find out more about him and his predecessor.

About 1370 B.C., Amenhotep IV (AH • muhn • HOH • TEHP) came to the throne. With the help of his wife, Nefertiti (NEHF • uhr • TEET • ee), Amenhotep tried to lead Egypt in a new direction.

A Religious Reformer Amenhotep real- ized that Egypt’s priests were gaining power at the expense of the pharaohs. In an attempt to maintain his own power, Amenhotep introduced a new religion that swept away the old gods and god- desses. Instead, only one god, called Aton (AH • tuhn), was to be worshiped. When Egypt’s priests resisted these changes, Amenhotep removed many from their positions, seized their lands, and closed temples. He then changed his name to

Akhenaton (AHK • NAH • tuhn), which means “Spirit of Aton.” He began ruling Egypt from a new city.

To most Egyptians, Akhenaton’s attacks on the gods seemed to be an attack on Egypt itself. They refused to accept Aton as the only god. Meanwhile, Akhenaton became so devoted to his new religion that he neglected his duties as pharaoh. The administrators he appointed were not as experienced as the priests they replaced, and Akhenaton took no action when ene- mies from what is now Turkey, the Hittites, attacked Egypt. As a result, Egypt lost most of its lands in western Asia, greatly shrink- ing the empire.

Egyptian goddess depicted as a cat

Connecting to the Past 1. Why did ancient Egyptians first value cats?

2. With what goddess did the ancient Egyptians associate cats?

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The Boy King When Akhenaton died, his son-in-law inherited the throne. The new pharaoh, Tutankhamen (TOO • TANG • KAH • muhn), was a boy about 10 years old. He relied on help from palace officials and priests, who convinced him to restore the old religion. After ruling for only nine years, Tutankhamen died unexpectedly. He may have suffered a fall or been murdered; no one is sure.

What is certain is that “King Tut,” as he is nicknamed, played only a small role in Egypt’s history. Why, then, is he the most famous of all pharaohs? The boy king cap- tured people’s imaginations after a British archaeologist, Howard Carter, found his tomb in A.D. 1922.

The tomb contained the king’s mummy and incredible treasures, including a brilliant gold mask of the young pharaoh’s face. Carter ’s find was a thrilling discovery, because most royal tombs in Egypt were looted by robbers long ago.

Evaluate Why is Tutankhamen so famous today?

The End of the New Kingdom Under Ramses II, Egypt regained terri-

tory and built great temples, but the empire fell by 1150 B.C. Reading Focus Egypt remained mighty for thou- sands of years, but it finally fell to outsiders. Read to learn about Egypt’s last great pharaoh and the empire’s decline.

During the 1200s B.C., pharaohs worked to make Egypt great again. The most effective of these pharaohs was Ramses II (RAM • SEEZ). He reigned for a remarkable 66 years, from 1279 B.C. to 1213 B.C. During this time, Egyptian armies regained lands in western Asia and rebuilt the empire. Ramses also launched an ambitious building program, constructing several major new temples.

Tutankhamen’s gold mask

Temple of Karnak

CHAPTER 2 Ancient Egypt 65 (t)Egyptian National Museum, Cairo/SuperStock, (b)Gavin Hellier/Getty Images

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RAMSES II Reigned 1279–1213 B.C.

Ramses II began his military trainin g at a very young

age. Ramses’ father, Seti I, allowed his 10-year-old son to

serve as a captain in his army. Seti also made his son

coruler of Egypt. By the time Rams es was crowned pharaoh

of Egypt, he was a great warrior an d experienced leader.

Nine kings who ruled after Ramses II named themselves in

his honor. Many centuries later, arc haeologists nicknamed

the pharaoh “Ramses the Great” be cause of his fame on the

battlefield, his construction and res toration of buildings and

monuments, and his popularity am ong the Egyptian people. His

subjects fondly called him “Sese,” a n abbreviation of Ramses.

Ramses continued in his father’s fo otsteps by trying to

restore Egyptian power in Asia. In t he early years of his reign,

he defeated forces in southern Syri a and continuously battled

Egypt’s longtime enemy, the Hittit es. Details about one costly

battle with the Hittites were carve d on temple walls, showing

the Egyptians succeeding against g reat odds.

During his 66-year reign, Ramses II undertook a large-scale

building program. He could afford s uch an expensive plan because

Egypt was very prosperous during h is reign. He restored the

Sphinx, completed the Temple of K arnak, and built himself a city

with four temples as well as beauti ful gardens and orchards. He

is famous for the temple built at A bu Simbel. It was carved out

of a solid rock cliff and featured fo ur huge statues of Ramses II,

two on each side of the doorway.

Ramses’ first wife, Queen Nefertari , died early in his reign.

Like other pharaohs, Ramses had m any wives. Ramses II was

proud of his large family, which inc luded more than 100

children.

Statue of Ramses II holding an offering table

Coffin of Ramses II

“They all came bowing down to him, to his palace of life and satisfaction.”

—hieroglyphic translation by James B. Pritchard,

Ancient Near Eastern Texts

Use the Internet and your local libr ary to learn

about Mount Rushmore, a monume nt in South

Dakota. Describe Mount Rushmore , and then

compare it to Ramses’ temple at A bu Simbel.

(t)Michael Holford, (b)O. Louis Mazzatenta/National Geographic Society Image Collection

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Reading Summary Review the • During the Middle Kingdom, Egypt

expanded its borders, and the arts flourished.

• Under New Kingdom rulers, Egypt built a strong empire and expanded trade.

• Akhenaton failed in his attempt to create a new religion. Tutankhamen ruled briefly but gained fame because of treasures found buried with him.

• Ramses II was Egypt’s last great pharaoh. In the 900s B.C., Egypt lost power to outside invaders.

1. What improvements did the Middle Kingdom rulers make?

2. What purposes did temples serve in Egypt?

Critical Thinking 3. Organizing Information

Create a chart like the one below. Fill in details about Egypt’s Middle Kingdom and New Kingdom.

4. Evaluate What was unusual about the reign of Hatshepsut?

5. Analyze How did Akhenaton upset the traditional order?

6. Compare and Contrast Describe the similarities and differences between the rule of Hatshepsut and Ramses II.

7. Expository Writing Which of the rulers discussed in this section do you think had the greatest effect upon Egyptian history? Write a short essay to explain your answer.

What Did You Learn?

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CHAPTER 2 Ancient Egypt 67

Why Were Temples Built? Under Ramses II and other New Kingdom rulers, scores of new temples rose throughout Egypt. Many were built by enslaved people captured in war. The most magnificent was Karnak at Thebes. Its huge columned hall decorated with colorful paintings still impresses visi- tors today.

Unlike modern churches, temples, and mosques, Egyptian temples did not hold regular services. Instead, most Egyptians prayed at home. They considered the tem- ples as houses for the gods and goddesses. Priests and priestesses, however, performed daily temple rituals, washing statues of the deities and bringing them food.

The temples also served as banks. Egyptians used them to store valuable items, such as gold jewelry, sweet-smelling oils, and finely woven cloth.

Egypt’s Decline and Fall After Ramses II, Egypt’s power began to fade. Later pharaohs had trouble keeping neighboring countries under Egyptian control. Groups from the eastern Mediterranean attacked Egypt by sea, using strong iron weapons. The Egyptians had similar arms, but they paid dearly for them because Egypt lacked iron ore.

By 1150 B.C., the Egyptians had lost their empire and controlled only the Nile delta. Beginning in the 900s B.C., Egypt came under the rule of one outside group after another. The first conquerors were the Libyans from the west. Then in 760 B.C., the people of Kush, a land to the south, seized power and ruled Egypt for the next 70 years. Finally, in 670 B.C., Egypt was taken over by the Assyrians.

Identify What groups con- quered Egypt starting in the 900s B.C.?

Middle Kingdom New Kingdom

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Civilization Kush

c. 750 B.C. Kashta of Kush conquers part of Egypt

N

ile R

.

Napata

Mero¨e

800 B.C. 700 B.C. 600 B.C. 500 B.C.800 B.C. 700 B.C. 600 B.C. 500 B.C.

68 CHAPTER 2 Ancient Egypt

What’s the Connection? In Sections 1, 2, and 3, you

learned about the rise and fall of civilizations in ancient Egypt. Another civilization in early Africa was Kush. It was located near Egypt and was very similar.

Focusing on the • To the south of Egypt, the Nubians

settled in farming villages and became strong warriors. (page 69)

• The people of Kush devoted themselves to ironworking and grew wealthy from trade. (page 70)

Locating Places Nubia (NOO • bee • uh) Kush (KUHSH) Kerma (KAR • muh) Napata (NA • puh • tuh) Meroë (MEHR • oh • ee)

Meeting People Kashta (KAHSH • tuh) Piye (PY)

Building Your Vocabulary savanna (suh •VA • nuh)

Reading Strategy Compare and Contrast Use a Venn diagram like the one below to show the similarities and differences between Napata and Meroë.

The of

Napata Meroë

728 B.C. Piye of Kush defeats Egyptians

c. 540 B.C. Kush moves capital to Meroë

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CHAPTER 2 Ancient Egypt 69

In this wall painting, four Nubian princes offer rings and gold to an Egyptian ruler. What kingdom was formed when more powerful Nubian villages took over weaker ones?

Nubia To the south of Egypt, the Nubians set-

tled in farming villages and became strong warriors. Reading Focus Are you on good terms with your neigh- bors? It’s not always easy—for individuals or countries. Read on to find out about the Egyptians’ neighbors to the south and the ways the two civilizations mixed.

The Egyptians were not alone in settling along the Nile River. Farther south, in present-day Sudan, another strong civiliza- tion arose. This was in a region called Nubia (NOO • bee • uh), later known as Kush (KUHSH).

Historians do not know exactly when people arrived in Nubia. Evidence suggests that cattle herders arrived in about 2000 B.C. They grazed their herds on the savannas (suh • VA • nuhs), or grassy plains, that stretch across Africa south of the Sahara. Later, peo- ple settled in farming villages in Nubia. They

grew crops, but they were also excellent hunters, skilled at using the bow and arrow. Soon the Nubians began forming armies known for their fighting skills.

The Kingdom of Kerma The more pow- erful Nubian villages gradually took over the weaker ones and created the kingdom of Kerma (KAR • muh). Kerma developed close ties with Egypt to the north. The Egyptians were happy to trade for Kerma’s cattle, gold, ivory, and enslaved people. They also admired Nubian skills in warfare and hired Nubian warriors to fight in their armies.

Kerma became a wealthy kingdom. Its artisans made fine pottery, jewelry, and metal goods. Like Egyptian pharaohs, the kings of Kerma were buried in tombs that held pre- cious stones, gold, jewelry, and pottery. These items were as splendid as those found in Egypt during the same period.

Egyptian Expedition of The Metropolitan Museum of Art, The Rogers Fund, 1930 (30.4.21)/The Metropolitan Museum of Art

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Why Did Egypt Invade Nubia? As you learned earlier, the Egyptian pharaoh Thutmose III sent his armies into Nubia in the 1400s B.C. After a 50-year war, the king- dom of Kerma collapsed, and the Egyptians took control of much of Nubia. They ruled the Nubians for the next 700 years.

During this time, the people of Nubia adopted many Egyptian ways. They began to worship Egyptian gods and goddesses along with their own. They learned how to work copper and bronze and changed Egyptian hieroglyphs to fit their own lan- guage. As people and goods continued to pass between Nubia and Egypt, the two cultures mixed.

Identify Where was Kush located?

The Rise of Kush The people of Kush devoted them-

selves to ironworking and grew wealthy from trade. Reading Focus Do you and your friends ever trade video games or CDs? Trading may be a casual activity for you, but it was very important to ancient peoples. Read to find how Kush took advantage of its location along an important trade route.

As Egypt declined at the end of the New Kingdom, Nubians saw their chance to break away. By 850 B.C., a Nubian group had formed the independent kingdom of Kush. For the next few centuries, powerful Kushite kings ruled from the city of Napata (NA • puh • tuh).

Napata was in a favorable location. It stood along the upper Nile where trade caravans crossed the river. Caravans soon

carried gold, ivory, valuable woods, and other goods from Kush to Egypt.

70 CHAPTER 2 Ancient Egypt

300 km

300 mi.0

0 Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection

N

S

W E

40°E30°E

30°N

20°N

10°N

R e

d S

e a

Mediterranean Sea

N ile

R .

EGYPT

S A H A R A

ARABIA

Thebes

Memphis

Napata

Mero¨e

These Kushite pyramids were much smaller and had more steeply sloped sides than Egyptian pyramids. How else was Meroë rebuilt to look like an Egyptian city?

Kush Kingdom c. 250 B.C.

Kush KEY

Kush developed along the Nile River to the south of Egypt. 1. Which of Kush’s capital cities was closest to

Egypt? 2. Based on its location, where might trade that

passed through Kush have come from?

Timothy Kendall/Museum of Fine Arts, Boston

068-072 Ch2 S4-824133 3/9/04 4:56 AM Page 70

In time, Kush became rich enough and strong enough to take control of Egypt. About 750 B.C., a Kushite king named Kashta (KAHSH • tuh) headed north with a powerful army. His soldiers began the conquest of Egypt that his son Piye (PY) completed in 728 B.C. Piye founded a dynasty that ruled both Egypt and Kush from Napata.

The kings of Kush greatly admired Egyptian culture. In Napata they built white sandstone temples and monuments similar to those of the Egyptians. The Kushites also built small pyramids in which to bury their kings. The ruins of these pyra- mids can still be seen today.

The Importance of Iron Kush’s rule in Egypt did not last long. During the 600s B.C., the Assyrians invaded Egypt. Armed with iron weapons, they drove the Kushites back to their homeland in the south.

Despite their losses, the Kushites gained something from the Assyrians—the secret of making iron. The Kushites became the first Africans to devote themselves to iron- working. Soon, farmers in Kush were using iron for their hoes and plows instead of copper or stone. With these superior tools, they were able to grow large amounts of grain and other crops.

Kush’s warriors also began using iron spears and swords, increasing their military power. Meanwhile, traders from Kush car- ried iron products and enslaved people as far away as Arabia, India, and China. In return, they brought back cotton, textiles, and other goods.

A New Capital About 540 B.C., Kush’s rulers left Napata and moved farther south to be out of the Assyrians’ reach. In the city of Meroë (MEHR • oh • ee), they set up a royal court. Like Napata, the new capital had

access to the Nile River for trade and trans- portation. The rocky desert east of Meroë, however, contained rich deposits of iron ore. As a result, Meroë became not only a trading city but also a center for making iron.

With their growing wealth, Kush’s kings rebuilt Meroë to look like an Egyptian city. Small pyramids stood in the royal graveyard. A huge temple sat at the end of a grand avenue lined with sculp- tures of rams. Sandstone palaces and red- brick houses had walls decorated with paintings or blue and yellow tiles.

CHAPTER 2 Ancient Egypt 71

Selecting a New King

When their king died, the Kushites asked the god Amon-Re to appoint a new leader. “[The Kushite officials said] ‘We have come to you, O Amon-Re . . . that you might give to us a lord. . . . That beneficent office [helpful task]

is in your hands—may you give it to your son whom you love!’

Then they offered the king’s brothers before this god, but he did not take one of them. For a second time there was offered the king’s brother . . . Aspalta . . .

[Amon-Re said] ‘He is your king.’”

—author unknown, c. 600 B.C.,

“The Selection of Aspalta as King of Kush”

Do you think Aspalta was qualified to be king? Why or why not?

Lion statue in honor of King Aspalta

Brooklyn Museum of Art, New York/Charles Edwin Wilbour Fund/Bridgeman Art Library

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Reading Summary Review the • In the Nile Valley to the south of

Egypt, the Nubians founded the kingdom of Kerma and traded with the Egyptians.

• The Kushites set up a capital at Meroë that became a center for ironmaking and the base of a huge trading network.

1. Who were the Nubians?

2. What were the Kushites’ most important economic activities?

Critical Thinking 3. Sequencing Draw a diagram

to show events that led up to the Kushite conquest of Egypt.

4. Geography Skills Why was Napata’s location advantageous?

5. Analyze How did the Kushite kings demonstrate their admi- ration for Egyptian culture?

6. Compare Describe the simi- larities between Kush and Egypt.

7. Persuasive Writing Create an advertisement that could have been used in ancient Egypt and Kush to promote the many uses of iron.

What Did You Learn?

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72 CHAPTER 2 Ancient Egypt

Building a Profitable Trade Meroë became the center of a huge trading network that stretched north to Egypt’s border and south into central Africa. Kush’s traders received leopard skins and valuable woods from the interior of Africa. They traded these goods, along with enslaved workers and their own iron products, to people throughout the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean area.

Kush remained a great trading power for some 600 years. By the A.D. 200s, though, the kingdom began to weaken. As Kush declined, another kingdom rose to take its place. The kingdom is called Axum and was located in what is today the country of Ethiopia. Around A.D. 350, the armies of Axum burned Meroë to the ground. You will read more about the kingdom of Axum when you study Africa.

Explain How did Kush become a wealthy kingdom?

Kush Conquest of Egypt

The Kushite king Taharqa was one of the most powerful leaders in Nubian history. During his reign, the kingdom grew and prospered. He built many large temples in and around Egypt and Kush. What kingdom replaced Kush?

Kushite KingKushite King

Kushite king Taharqa

SuperStock

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The Egyptian Empire

The Civilization of Kush

The Nile Valley

Section

Section

Section

Section

Vocabulary cataract delta papyrus hieroglyphics dynasty

Vocabulary pharaoh deity embalming mummy pyramid

Vocabulary tribute incense

Vocabulary savanna

Focusing on the • The Egyptian civilization began in the fertile Nile River valley, where natu-

ral barriers discouraged invasions. (page 39)

• The Egyptians depended on the Nile’s floods to grow their crops. (page 41) • Around 3100 B.C., Egypt’s two major kingdoms, Upper Egypt and Lower

Egypt, were combined into one. (page 43)

• Egyptian society was divided into social groups based on wealth and power. (page 45)

Focusing on the • Egypt was ruled by all-powerful pharaohs. (page 48) • The Egyptians believed in many gods and goddesses

and in life after death for the pharaohs. (page 49)

• The Egyptians of the Old Kingdom built huge stone pyramids as tombs for their pharaohs. (page 50)

Focusing on the • The Middle Kingdom was a golden age of peace, prosperity,

and advances in the arts and architecture. (page 60)

• During the New Kingdom, Egypt acquired new territory and reached the height of its power. (page 61)

• Akhenaton tried to change Egypt’s religion, while Tutankhamen is famous for the treasures found in his tomb. (page 64)

• Under Ramses II, Egypt regained territory and built great temples, but the empire fell by 1150 B.C. (page 65)

Focusing on the • To the south of Egypt, the Nubians settled in farming villages and became

strong warriors. (page 69)

• The people of Kush devoted themselves to ironworking and grew wealthy from trade. (page 70)

73

Egypt’s Old Kingdom

Tutankhamen’s gold mask

Study anywhere, anytime! Download quizzes and flash cards to your PDA from glencoe.com.

073-075 CH2 CRA-875047 9/7/06 9:03 PM Page 73

Predicting What Do You Predict? Read these sentences from page 72. As Kush declined, another kingdom rose to take its place. The kingdom is called Axum and was located in what is today the country of Ethiopia. Around A.D. 350, the armies of Axum burned Meroë to the ground. You will read more about the kingdom of Axum when you study Africa.

20. Based on what you know about the loca- tion of Ethiopia and the culture of Kush and Egypt, predict what the kingdom of Axum might be like. Check your predic- tions when you read about medieval Africa.

To review this skill, see pages 36–37.

Section 2 • Egypt’s Old Kingdom 10. What were the Egyptians’ religious beliefs? 11. Where did Egyptians of the Old Kingdom

bury their pharaohs? Section 3 • The Egyptian Empire 12. Why was the Middle Kingdom called a

golden age? 13. Why are Akhenaton and Tutankhamen

well-known? Section 4 • The Civilization of Kush 14. Where did the Nubians live? 15. What made the Kushites wealthy?

Critical Thinking 16. Describe Identify the four social groups

in ancient Egypt, and explain who belonged to each group.

17. Synthesize How do you think religious leaders reacted to Akhenaton’s changes?

18. Analyze Do you agree that Egyptian civi- lization can be called “the Gift of the Nile”? Explain.

19. Compare In what ways did Meroë look like an Egyptian city?

Review Vocabulary Match the definitions in the second column to the terms in the first column. Write the letter of each definition.

___ 1. savanna a. area of fertile soil at the end of a river

___ 2. tribute b. reed plant used to make baskets, rafts, and paper

___ 3. cataract c. grassy plain

___ 4. delta d. rapids

___ 5. hieroglyphics e. Egyptian writing system

___ 6. pharaoh f. forced payments

___ 7. papyrus g. title for Egyptian leaders

Review Main Ideas Section 1 • The Nile Valley

8. What natural barriers protected Egypt from invasion?

9. What factors divided Egyptians into social groups?

74 CHAPTER 2 Ancient Egypt

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100 km0 Azimuthal Equidistant projection

100 mi.0

N

S

W E

30°E

30°N

Me d i t e r r a n e a n Se a

R ed Sea

Dead Sea

N ile

R iver

Great Pyramid and Sphinx ARABIAN

DESERT

WESTERN DESERT

EASTERN DESERT

NILE DELTA LOWER EGYPT

UPPER EGYPT

Giza

Memphis

Thebes

CHAPTER 2 Ancient Egypt 75

Ancient Egypt

Analyze The Greek historian Herodotus noticed that the Nile was different from other rivers. “The Nile, when it floods, spreads over not only the Delta but parts of what are called Libya and Arabia for two days’ journey in either direction, more or less. . . . This that I have mentioned was the subject of my persistent asking why, and also why it is that it is the only river that has no breezes blowing from it.”

—Herodotus, The History, 2.19

28. According to Herodotus, how much land does the Nile cover when it floods?

29. What two questions does Herodotus ask about the Nile?

Geography Skills Study the map below and answer the following questions. 21. Location The Nile River delta empties

into what body of water? 22. Movement Why would ancient Egyptians

find it easier to travel north and south than to travel east and west?

23. Human/Environment Interaction Why is most farming in ancient Egypt and in present-day Egypt done along the Nile?

Read to Write 24. Descriptive Writing Imagine you are an

ancient Egyptian pharaoh. You are making plans that your followers will carry out after your death. Describe the types of items you want buried with you in your pyramid. Then explain what people from later centuries will know about you if they find those items.

25. Using Your Use your foldable to describe one of the civilizations from the chapter, including such things as religious life, family life, and contributions. A class- mate should identify which civilization you are describing. Then your classmate will describe a civilization, and you will identify it. When you are finished, discuss similari- ties and differences among the civilizations.

Using Technology 26. Developing Multimedia Presentations

Use the Internet and your local library to find out more about the reign of one of the Egyptian pharaohs. Create a computer slide show presentation that includes details about the pharaoh’s reign and life. Include an illustrated time line of significant events.

Linking Past and Present 27. Organizing Information Use the Internet

and atlases to locate present-day countries that rely heavily on a major river. Make a chart listing the country, the river, the river’s length and average depth, and how the people of that country use the river.

Self-Check Quiz To help prepare for the Chapter Test, visit jat.glencoe.com

Nile Valley KEY

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