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Respond to the Classmate’s Discussion (below) as you would in a

face-to face class by stating why you agree and asking questions

pertaining to the discussion.

Discussion 1 (Fad)

A tiny, curving structure called the hippocampus is situated deep within the temporal lobe of the brain. The hippocampus' main roles are in the formation of new memories, learning, and emotions. Declarative memory, which contains factual information like names, faces, and events, is particularly important to the creation and retrieval of memories and is mediated by the hippocampus. It combines data from several sensory modalities and connects them to build a cohesive memory. Additionally, the hippocampus plays a crucial role in spatial navigation, particularly in the creation of mental maps that aid people in navigating their surroundings. The hypothalamic- pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, which is regulated by the hippocampus, is important in controlling the stress response. In reaction to stress, the hippocampus blocks the release of stress chemicals like cortisol (Anand & Dhikav, 2012).

Depending on the nature and location of the injury to the hippocampus, a person may have a variety of cognitive and behavioral symptoms. The hippocampus is an important part of the brain that facilitates the storage and recall of declarative memories. Anterograde amnesia, or the inability to form new memories, can be caused by hippocampal damage, as can problems recalling previously stored memories. The consolidation of memories from short-term to long-term memory also occurs in the hippocampus. Damage to the hippocampus can make consolidation harder, which impairs memory recall. The creation of cognitive maps and spatial navigation depend heavily on the hippocampus. When the hippocampus is damaged, it can be challenging to navigate both familiar and new environments. The stress response and emotional processing are controlled by the hippocampus. Increased anxiety, anger, and emotional instability can occur from hippocampal damage. Seizures, language difficulties, and behavioral changes are some additional symptoms that may exist depending on the location and severity of the damage (Shetty, 2014).

Activities of daily living can be greatly impacted by hippocampal injury. Hippocampal injury patients may struggle to recall recent events, appointments, and directions, making it difficult to carry out duties like grocery shopping or travel to well-known locations. They might also have trouble with spatial orientation, which makes it challenging for them to navigate a strange place. Hippocampal injury that is severe might make it difficult to communicate and do basic self-care tasks including dressing, bathing, and grooming (Anand & Dhikav, 2012).

The hippocampus is found in the medial temporal lobe and is in charge of several cognitive and physiological functions, including storing memories and retrieval, spatial

orientation, and stress management. Memory loss, problems with spatial navigation, emotional disturbances, problems with consolidation, and other symptoms that can have a big influence on daily activities can all be caused by damage to the hippocampus. Depending on the extent and location of the damage, hippocampus injury may be treated with medication, cognitive therapy, and psychotherapy. Hippocampal injury sufferers can learn to manage their symptoms and continue to lead happy lives with the right care and assistance (Shetty, 2014).

References: Anand, K. S., & Dhikav, V. (2012). Hippocampus in health and disease: An overview. Annals of Indian Academy of Neurology, 15(4), 239– 246. https://doi.org/10.4103/0972-2327.104323Links to an external site.

Shetty A. K. (2014). Hippocampal injury-induced cognitive and mood dysfunction, altered neurogenesis, and epilepsy: can early neural stem cell grafting intervention provide protection?. Epilepsy & behavior : E&B, 38, 117– 124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2013.12.001

Respond to the Classmate’s Discussion (below) as you would in a

face-to face class by stating why you agree and asking questions

pertaining to the discussion.

Discussion 2 (Taylor)

I chose to focus on the cerebellum, which resides in the back of the brain, between the cerebrum and the brain stem. Interestingly, it is a part of the brain that a person can live without, although not without varying degrees of deficit. In 1940, a recently deceased and unclaimed patient was dissected at a hospital in London, and discovered to have no cerebellum (Lemon, 2010). Further investigation into this patient revealed that he had lived a somewhat normal, long life as a laborer, eventually dying of heart disease at the age of 76. This raised questions as to whether or not the cerebellum was of importance in normal adult functioning, spurring a persisting debate over the usefulness of the cerebellum that ultimately ended in an eventual consensus that while people can live long, useful lives without a cerebellum, they do always exhibit some form of deficit. In the case of the 76-year old patient, it was discovered that he had an unusual gait, a squint, and slurred speech (Lemon, 2010). The cerebellum has several functions. It coordinates movement (including eye movement), helps maintain balance, and facilitates motor learning, such as learning how to play an instrument (MedicalNewsToday). Individuals with cerebellum dysfunction can experience tremendous difficulty performing these functions, and commonly exhibit a "drunken gait" and clumsiness (Ataullah, 2022). Other symptoms can include imbalance, difficulty with fine motor skills, speech problems, visual impairments (nystagmus), and

vertigo (Ataullah, 2022). Essentially, an individual can still walk, talk, and function without a cerebellum (or with a dysfunctional one), but having an in-tact cerebellum refines all of these functions and makes life easier for us. Our cerebellum is what enables us to ride a bike, throw a ball at a target, successfully pass a sobriety test, and pick things up with ease, among many other things.

Cerebellum damage can occur as the result of disease, including stroke, cancer, brain bleeds, toxins, genetic anomalies, and cancer. People can also just be born without one, a condition called Cerebellar agenesis, although this is very rare. Prognosis is variable, with some individuals living out long lives with only minimal meaningful impairment, and others experiencing significant impairment. References: Ataullah AHM, Naqvi IA. Cerebellar Dysfunction. [Updated 2022 Aug 22]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2023 Jan-. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK562317 Links to an external site.

MediLexicon International. (n.d.). Cerebellum: Anatomy, function, and disorders. Medical News Today. Retrieved April 4, 2023, from https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/313265#anatomy R. N. Lemon, S. A. Edgley, Life without a cerebellum, Brain, Volume 133, Issue 3, March 2010, Pages 652–654, https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awq030Links to an external site.