10 page Leadership Research Paper

An Affair of the Heart: Emotional Intelligence and

Transformational Leadership Lara E. Megerian

John J. Sosik The Pennsylvania State University at Great Valley

About the Authors: Lara E. Megerian is a Management Administrative Assistant at the American Heart Association. She is currently a masters of management candidate at the Pennsylvania State University at Great Valley. Her research interests include transformational/charismatic leadership, emotional intelligence, and individual differences.

John J. Sosik is an Assistant Professor of Management and Organization at the Pennsylvania State University at Great Valley. He earned a Ph.D. in Management from the State University of New York at Binghamton. His research interests include transformationaUcharismatic leadership, group/team-based work structures, and group decision support systems.

Acknowledgments: Each author made equal contributions to this paper. The authors acknowledge discussions with Basil Englis, Jan Dreachslin, John McGinnis, Kay Shady and Bruce Avolio which contributed toward the development of this paper.

Executive Summary The importance of emotional engagement in motivation of followers by transformational/charismatic leaders has often been emphasized by leadership scholars. Despite such consideration, little has been espoused regarding the theoretical mechanisms by which emotions and leadership behaviors are related. By presenting a theoretical bridge between the concept of emotional intelligence (Goleman, 1995) and Bass and Avolio’s (1994) components of transformational leadership (i.e., idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, individualized consideration), this paper provides a focus on such theoretical issues with the hope of stimulating more systematic research efforts. Implications for future research and organizational management are also discussed.

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. &dquo;Emotions: Ah! Let us never be one of those who treat lightly one of the words that most deserve reverence.&dquo; -Charles DuBos

In recent years organizational researchers and practitioners have begun to share in the sentiments of DuBos by raising some important questions about the role of emotions in leadership (Fairhurst & Starr, 1996; Gates, 1995; Hesselbein, Goldsmith & Beckhard, 1996; House, 1995). For example, why do so many of today’s technically talented individuals fail miserably in leadership positions? What emotional skills must leaders possess to achieve the highest levels of organizational results in the new millennium? How can future leaders passionately inspire their followers to perform beyond expectations? To contribute toward answering these questions, this paper explores the theoretical relationship between emotional intelligence and transformational leadership.

While traditional theories of leadership suggest that future leaders must rationally plan, control, and coordinate to attain organizational goals (DuBrin, 1995; Yuki, 1994), theories of charismatic and transformational leadership suggest that tomorrow’s leaders also must emotionally engage followers to collectively perform beyond organizational expectations (Bass & Avolio, 1994; Conger, 1989; Covey, 1990; Hesselbein et al., 1996; House, 1995; Shamir, House & Arthur, 1993). Exhibition of emotions by charismatic and transformational leaders can have important effects on follower motivation and beliefs. For example, Jesse Jackson’s stirring speech to the National Convention of the Democratic Party in 1988 illustrates positive effects emotions can have on follower motivation (Shamir, Arthur & House, 1994). In contrast, Edmund Muskie’s appearance of being in tears on television has been attributed by some analysts as being inappropriate presidential behavior, which may have contributed to the Democratic loss in 1972 (Englis, 1993). Thus, leadership may not only depend on intelledtual and managerial talents, but also on &dquo;affairs of the heart&dquo;, such as understanding and mastering one’s emotions.

Recent work in applied psychology (e.g., Goleman, 1995; Salovey & Mayer, 1990) suggests that emotional intelligence may be a quality of leaders who are seen by their followers as transformational or charismatic. Emotional Intelligence (EI) includes self-awareness and impulse control, persistence, zeal, self-motivation, empathy, and social deftness. Goleman (1995) suggests that leadership is the art of persuading people to work toward a common goal by being skilled in basic emotional competencies (i.e., being emotionally intelligent). However, Goleman (1995) fails to prescribe which specific leadership style may be most closely related to emotional intelligence. This is unfortunate since certain leadership styles (e.g., transformational) are grounded in emotional relationships with followers to a greater extent than other styles (e.g., transactional) (Bass, 1985; Burns, 1978; Shamir, 1991).

Although theories of transformational/charismatic leadership consider emotions to be important for follower motivation (e.g., Hogan, Curphy & Hogan, 1994; Shamir, 1990; 1991), they provide little guidance regarding specific emotional skills necessary for exhibition of transformationallcharismatic leadership.

33

Consequently, there has been several calls for additional research to better understand the role of emotion in transformationalcharismatic leadership. For instance, Gardner and Avolio (1996) stated that much research is needed to clarify emotional attributes of charismatic leaders and affective processes that produce attributions of charisma. ’

It is important to understand the relationship between El and transforrll°iationavcharismatic leadership for several reasons. First, team-based work structures, led by team facilitators, are becoming basic building blocks of organizations (Mohrman, Cohan & Mohrman, 1995; Sims & Lorenzi, 1993). To the extent that team leaders require social/emotional skills to harmonize team efforts, El should be increasingly valued as a leadership skill now and in years to come. Second, new knowledge may be generated through the integration of previously disparate theories of organizational behavior, such as transformational leadership and El. Third, El has received increased attention in both the professional and academic arenas (Goleman, 1995). As suggested by Gates (1995), &dquo;emotion offers a productive field of inquiry that increases our ability to describe, explain, and predict social interaction ... and provides valuable insights on leadership&dquo; (p. 109). To the extent that managers are increasingly emphasizing social interaction and leadership skills to enhance organizational effectiveness, El may provide a wealth of theoretical and practical implications for the business community. Fourth, adequate prescriptions for selection of leaders can be made for organizations currently struggling to select and train potential transformational leaders, who often employ emotions to motivate followers (Bass & Avolio, 1994; Conger, 1989; Hogan et al., 1994).

The purpose of this paper is to provide a theoretical approach toward understanding the relationship between transformational leadership style and specific components of El derived from Goleman (1995). First, an overview of El and its components will be provided. This overview will be followed by a description of specific components of transformational leadership (Bass & Avolio, 1994). Next the concept of El will be linked to the components of transformational leadership. Issues pertaining to this linkage will then be discussed.

Components of Emotion Intelligence

According to Goleman (1995), emotion refers to a feeling and its distinctive thoughts, psychological and biological states, and range of propensities to act. Goleman’s definition of emotion is consistent with sociological perspectives which regard emotion as free or uninhibited display of expressive gestures (Thoits, 1989), and &dquo;temporally embodied self-feelings which arise from emotional social acts persons direct to self or have directed towards them by others&dquo; (Denzin, 1983, p. 404). Examples of emotions include: anger, sadness, fear, enjoyment, love, surprise, passion, enthusiasm, and persistence.

34

The concept of El is grounded in the work of Gardner (1993), which suggests that human intelligence is multidimensional. Relevant to El, &dquo;interpersonal intelligence is the ability to understand other people: what motivates them, how they work, how to work cooperatively with them ... Intrapersonal intelligence ... is a correlative ability, turned inward. It is the capacity to form an accurate, veridical model of oneself and to use that model to operate effectively in life&dquo; (Gardner, 1993, p. 9). Thus interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligences represent dimensions of social intelligence which are distinct from academic intelligence (e.g., intelligence quotient) and are integral in explaining what makes individuals successful in the practicalities of life (Sternberg, ’1985). ~

Building on the work of Gardner, Sternberg and others, Salovey and Mayer (1990) identified five components of EI: self-awareness, emotional management, self-motivation, empathy, and relationship management.

Self-Awareness .

Self-awareness, the base component of El, provides a foundation for the remaining four components (Goleman, 1995). Self-awareness is the ability to recognize a feeling as it occurs and to be aware of one’s moods and thoughts in moods. Individuals who possess high degrees of self-awareness are in touch with their self-concept. According to Schlenker (1985), the self-concept is an identity which is invoked when one &dquo;attempts to answer personal questions about the self posed by oneseif (p. 67). Being in touch with one’s self-concept involves understanding one’s values and social identity (Shamir, 1990), maintaining a central meaning and purpose in life (Frankl, 1992), and possessing self-confidence, internal locus of control, and self-efficacy (Bandura, 1 986)..

Self-awareness is related to an individual’s psychological insight and self- understanding (Goleman, 1995). If an individual can recognize hislher emotions as they occur, then a sense of control may be exerted over them. Otherwise, a person may fall victim to his/her emotions. Prior research (e.g., Bandura, 1986; Frankl, 1992) has indicated that the greater the level of self awareness a person has over feelings, the more control that person has in mastering his/her own fate. Thus, self-awareness may play a key role in determining how an individual exhibits behaviors and interacts with others. Indeed, leaders who see themselves as highly confident, self-efficacious, and aware of their emotions tend to behave as such and foster attributions of charisma (Gardner & Avolio, 1995).

Emotional Management ’

Emotional management, which is based on self-awareness, involves the ability to handle feelings as they are being experienced and encompasses managing techniques such as knowing when to comfort oneself and when not to let every emotion engulf one’s being (Goleman, 1995). Effective management of emotions allows for soothing and ridding of various feelings such as depression

35

and anxiety. Emotional management skills include managing mood and self- monitoring ability. Managing one’s moods is not meant to suppress feelings, but rather balance them. This involves finding an appropriate emotional response to a situation (Goleman, 1995). For example, when a leader becomes angry with a follower who has failed to finish an assigned project on time, it is important that the leader expresses the anger appropriately by framing the reprimand as a constructive and developmental action.

Emotional management also includes self-monitoring ability (i.e., capacity to monitor and control expressive behaviors). High self-monitors are skilled at understanding their own emotions, observing reactions of others, and expressing their emotions through appropriate behaviors to form desired images (Gardner & Avolio, 1996). For example, when a high self-monitoring leader reprimands a follower for failing to attain a performance goal, slhe would reprimand the employee in a calm, nurturing and socially sensitive manner, while adjusting her/his behavior to the reaction of the follower. Emotional management traits, such as emotional control (Gates, 1995) and self-monitoring ability (Gardner & Avolio, 1996; Shamir, 1991) have been proposed to be related to charismatic and transformational leaders.

Self-Motivation

Self-motivation is a function of an individual’s a) motives or needs, b) sense of hope and optimism, and c) self-efficacy (Goleman, 1995). An individual’s needs for power, achievement, and affiliation may play particularly important roles in motivating behaviors. Need for power involves a strong desire to influence others. Need for achievement involves being motivated to garner many accomplishments. Need for affiliation involves a desire for friendship and human interaction. These needs provide a strong impetus for self-motivated individuals (McClelland, 1985).

Hope and optimism also are factors that comprise self-motivation. Hope involves faith that allows one to set higher goals and work diligently to reach them (Shamir et al., 1993). Optimism is complimentary to hope. Optimism is needed to attain high goals. Optimistic people &dquo;see the glass as half full&dquo; (rather than half empty) and realize that failures can be transformed into success with the right amount of determination, effort, and faith.

Optimism and hope are attitudes that can be learned (Bandura, 1986). These positive attitudes may depend, in part, upon an individual’s self-efficacy level. Self-efficacy is the belief that one has the requisite skills to accomplish a given task (Bandura, 1986). A self-efficacious individual is more apt to greet and meet challenges as they arise. An individual who takes on challenges with a strong will establishes a high degree of self-confidence. This allows for greater levels of willingness to take on greater and more frequent challenges. For example, Shamir et al. (1993) state that charismatic leaders exhibit high levels of self- motivation based on strong convictions and beliefs as well as faith and hope in a better future.

36

Empathy

Empathy is defined as being able to recognize and understand emotions in others (Goleman, 1995). Empathy involves being able to detect emotions (e.g., ability to read nonverbal cues) in others, grasping their meaning, and acting to satisfy the needs of others. According to Goleman (1995), empathy, like emotional management, builds on self-awareness. In other words, the more in tune one is with his/her own feelings, the better one is at reading feelings in others. Being attuned to the emotions of others involves meeting emotions with empathy, accepting, and reciprocating them. To the extent that one is attuned to the emotions of others, one may experience increased self-awareness, sensitivity, and emotional connectedness to others. Indeed, Burns (1978) argues that &dquo;the striving for self-esteem and evolution of a sense of human empathy work in harmony to bring out a potential for leadership&dquo; (p. 95).

Relafionship llAanagei ment

Relationship management entails being able to manage emotions in others to solve interpersonal conflicts for which there may be no logical solutions. This ability includes socio-emotional skills necessary to analyze and understand human relationships, resolve conflicts, negotiate disputes, influence popular opinion, and exhibit considerate and cooperative behaviors (Goleman, 1995). Since leaders engage in behaviors directed toward interpersonal relations (Bass, 1990; Yukl, 1994), being skilled at relationship management may be important for exhibiting effective leadership behavior.

Prior research (e.g., Bass, 1990; Dubrin, 1995; Hogan et al., 1993; Shamir et al., 1993; Yukl, 1994) has suggested that the relationship between leadership behavior and effective follower motivation may depend on emotional traits of the leader. For example, Shamir et al. (1993) argued that enthusiasm and optimism are important emotions that charismatic leaders display to form a bond of community among followers to motivate collective action. In fact, the word emotion has its root meaning in the Latin verb mot are ’10 move,&dquo; suggesting that emotions can be potent catalysts to action.

To summarize, we have suggested that relationship management, along with self-awareness, emotional management, self-motivation, and empathy, are components of El that may be personal characteristics related to effective leadership. However, one question remains: what leadership behaviors are associated with leaders who possess high levels of El?

The Four I’s of Transformational Leadership

Bass and Avolio (1994) have developed a &dquo;full-range&dquo;leadership (FRL) model which describes specific leadership behaviors or styles across a very diverse range. The FRL model represents a refinement of Bass’ (1985) formal theory of transformational, transactional, and non-transactional leadership styles/behaviors. We focus on transformational leadership, the most effective

37

leadership style in the FRL model (Bass & Avolio, 1994). Transformational leaders form &dquo;a relationship of mutual stimulation and elevation that converts followers into leaders and may convert leaders into moral agents&dquo; (Burns, 1978, p. 4). Transformational leaders broaden and elevate follower’s goals and provide them with confidence to go beyond minimally acceptable expectations.

Bass and Avolio (1994) identified four components that characterize the behavior of transformational leaders: individualized consideration, intellectual stimulation, inspirational motivation and idealized influence. Collectively these factors represent the &dquo;41’s&dquo; of transformational leadership. A leader who treats followers as individuals, paying close attention to their individual developmental needs and giving personal attention to members who seem neglected exhibits individualized consideration. A leader who encourages followers to question assumptions, rethink their ideas, and think of old problems in new ways displays intellectual stimulation. A leader who highlights the importance of follower tasks and of working as a team to achieve synergy through collective action, and who communicates high performance expectations through the projection of a powerful, confident, dynamic presence which invigorates followers exhibits inspirational motivation. A leader who displays role model behaviors for followers through exemplary personal achievements and character or behavior exhibits idealized influence (Bass & Avolio, 1994).

We choose to link the 4 l’s of transformational leadership from Bass and Avolio’s (1994) FRL model, as opposed to other leadership models, to components of El for several reasons. First, while other leadership models describe transformational leadership in terms of principles or concepts (e.g., Conger, 1989; Covey, 1990), the FRL model presents transformational leadership in terms of specific behaviors, which may be easily translated into action steps. Second, the FRL model has been widely researched in a variety of evaluative investigations (e.g., Avolio, Waldman & Einstein, 1988; Bass, 1985; Hater & Bass, 1988; Sosik, 1995; Sosik, Kahai, Avolio & Jung, 1995; Yammarino & Bass, 1990). Third, the FRL model describes specific behaviors which facilitate manager training. Well over two thousand leaders from industry, government, healthcare, and education sectors in the United States and elsewhere have been trained using the FRL model (Bass & Avolio, 1994).

Although Bass and Avolio’s FRL model provides significant contributions toward understanding behaviors of transformational leaders., &dquo;it ignores some important aspects of transformational leadership that are rooted in the personal characteristics of individual leaders&dquo; (Sashkin & Rosenbach, 1993, p. 92). Personal characteristics of a leader, such as El, may play a key role in predicting transformational/charismatic leader behaviors. Thus, we now propose linkages between leader El and transformational leadership behaviors by drawing upon the leadership and social psychology literatures.

38

Linkages Between Emotional Intelligence and Transformational Leadership

In his seminal work on transformational leadership, Bums (1978) suggested that emotions serve four functional roles in the leadership process. Transformational leaders a) emotionally arouse followers to collective action, thereby developing followers into self-leaders, b) promote emotional tension in followers to persuade followers to champion innovation change, c) employ emotions to foster follower emotional attachments and commitment to the leader, and d) utilize empathy to understand follower needs and values. Thus, transformational leaders may purposely manipulate emotions to initiate important motivational, persuasive, relational, and consideration effects on followers.

However, these effects may depend upon personality characteristics related to a leader’s ability to express emotion. For example, prior leadership research has indicated that certain personality dimensions, relevant to EI, may be related to emergent leadership and rated leader effectiveness. For example, Stodgill (1948) found that measures of sociablility, self-confidence, and emotional control were positively related to emergent leadership. Moreover, reviews by Bass (1990) and Hogan et al. (1994) conclude that surgency (e.g., sociability, social participation), emotional stability (e.g., emotional balance, self confidence), conscientiousness (e.g., personal integrity, ethical conduct), and agreeableness (e.g., friendliness, social nearness) are positively related to rated leader effectiveness. We argue that personality traits, relevant to El, may shape leaders’ behaviors, which in turn, may influence leader effectiveness.

Transformational leadership is considered to be a highly effective leadership style (Bass & Avolio, 1994; Covey, 1990; House, 1995). Transformational leadership results in highest levels of performance outcomes, including technological innovation (Howell & Higgins, 1990), simulated production quality task outcomes (Kirkpatrick & Locke, 1996), total quality management outcomes (Sosik & Dionne, in press), military unit performance (Yammarino & Bass, 1990), computer-assisted group creativity (Sosik, 1995); organizational unit effectiveness (Hater & Bass, 1988; Howell & Avolio, 1993) and team performance (Avolio et al., 1988).

According to Bass (1985), over sixty percent of the impact of transformatinal leadership on follower effectiveness is explained by charisma, the strong emotional reaction to, identification with, and belief in a leader by followers. Charismatic leaders, who hold strong emotional convictions regarding their values and beliefs, are likely to be emotionally expressive in their communication with followers. Display of emotions by leaders may result in a) leader verbal and lor non-verbal behaviors, and b) emotional reaction in followers (Englis, 1993). By using affecfive displays and emotional management, charismatic leaders articulate the shared values and feelings of the followers to promote collective action and change initiatives (Wasielewski, 1985). Hitler and Mussolini, for example, motivated followers to collective action with spellbinding rhetoric infused with emotion. More benevolent charismatics, such as John F. Kennedy,

39

Evita Peron, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, and Martin Luther King, could be equally inspiring.

Moreover, House (1995) argues that by maintaining emotional balance in order to display confidence, determination and persistence in the face of adversity, charismatic leaders selectively arouse followers’ motives (i.e., affiliation, power, and achievement). For example, positive affect evoked by Ronald Reagan’s emotional expression of happiness/reassurance made voters feel better in his presence, and may have influenced voter motives and attitudes (Englis, 1993). Motive arousal by leaders facilitates and directs behaviors of followers to achieve high levels of performance (McClelland, 1985; House, Spangler & Woycke, 1991).

To the extent that emotions are integral to charismatic/transformational leadership behaviors (Bass & Avolio, 1994; Burns, 1978; House, 1995; Shamir et al., 1993), a leader’s ability to manage his or her emotions may be predictive of subsequent exhibition of transformational leadership behaviors. Thus, leaders who exhibit high levels of El (e.g., ability to motivate oneself and others to persist despite difficulties; ability to regulate one’s moods to inspire collective action) may be more likely to display transformational leadership behaviors (i.e., idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, individualized consideration) than leaders who exhibit low levels of EI.

Emotional Intelligence and Idealized Influence

Idealized influential leaders exhibit positive role model behaviors, put the group’s needs ahead of their own needs (i.e., self-sacrifice), and set high standards of conduct and performance for themselves and their followers (Bass & Avolio, 1994). To the extent that the emotionally intelligent leader possesses self- awareness, s/he may demonstrate strong convictions in her/his beliefs while maintaining a high degree of self confidence. Strong convictions and self- confidence may be necessary for a leader to earn follower trust and respect (Covey, 1991). Since idealized leaders are said to be counted on to &dquo;do the right thing&dquo; and exhibit high levels of moral conduct, followers may perceive the leader as a role model.

Another behavior exhibited by idealized leaders is self-sacrifice (Bass, 1985). To the extent that the emotionally intelligent leader possesses emotional management skills, slhe may be more likely to not let every emotion engulf one’s being (e.g., suppress selfish desires for self-gain which may be detrimental to the good of the group). Emotional management may enable individuals to objectively consider the needs of others over his/her own personal needs (Goleman, 1995). However, considering the needs of others may be precluded when a leader’s emotions become unbalanced, rather than managed. For example, extreme emotions (e.g., depression, anger) may intensify self- centeredness and self-consciousness (Goleman, 1995) and therefore may limit one’s ability to understand the needs of others and to view issues from the

40

perspective of others. As a result, one may be less inclined to engage in self- sacrificing behavior.

Idealized influential leaders also set high standards of conduct and performance for themselves and their followers (Bass & Avolio , 1994). To the extent that the emotionally intelligent leader possesses emotional management skills, slhe may possess high levels of self discipline and self-control. Self-discipline is based on self-control, the ability to defer gratification and control one’s urges to act. Self-discipline enables commitment to civic, moral, and community-based values (Goleman, 1995). Idealized leader’s influence involves an internalized-moral commitment, a course of action to invest in efforts regardless of the balance of external costs and benefits and their immediate gratifying properties (Shamir et al., 1993). Idealized influential leaders &dquo;manufacture ethics to give life through commitment to the spirit of the organization&dquo; (Hodgkinson, 1983, p. 218). This commitment, which is based on moral values, reflects high standards of performance for both leaders and followers (Shamir et al., 1993). Taken together, these arguments suggest:

Proposition 1: Emotional intelligence will be positively related to idealized influence.

Emotional Intelligence and Inspirational Motivation

Inspirationally motivating leaders provide meaning and challenge for followers’ work, arouse team spirit and group synergy, display confidence, optimism and enthusiasm despite setbacks, and articulate attractive future states (i.e., visions) for followers (Bass & Avolio, 1994). To the extent that the emotionally intelligent leader possesses self-awareness, slhe may possess a greater than average sense of purpose and meaning, a key motive force behind leader influence (Levit, 1992). By providing followers with purpose and meaning attached to their work, leaders elevate followers’ levels of intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 1985) and therefore motivate followers to high levels of performance (Bass & Avolio, 1994; Shamir, 1990). To the extent that the emotionally intelligent leader possesses relationship management skills, slhe may possess socio-emotional skills necessary to harmonize group efforts. By understanding how each member can best contribute toward the collective effort, inspirationally motivating leaders may forge a bond of unity and collective interest and therefore arouse team spirit and group synergy.

Inspirationally motivating leaders also display optimism, confidence, and enthusiasm despite setbacks (Bass, 1985). To the extent that the emotionally intelligent leader possesses emotional management skills, slhe may be more likely to possess high levels of self-monitoring ability. Being skilled at understanding how one’s expression of emotions can affect followers is important for self-monitoring behavior. Specifically, an emotionally intelligent leader, whose self-motivation is manifested in high levels of optimism and energy, may have a contagious effect on followers (Shamir, 1991; 1995). To inspirationally motivate followers despite setbacks requires leaders who

41

understand their own emotions, observe reactions of followers, and express their emotions appropriately to form a positive and motivating vision for followers (Gardner & Avolio, 1996).

Along the same lines, inspirationally motivating leaders create and communicate a vision of what is desired by the community of followers. &dquo;Effective leaders use metaphors and stories to inspire people and make their visions reality&dquo; (Stoltenberg, 1990, p. 84). One technique that inspires followers to buy into the vision is carefully crafting and articulating a verbal picture of an attractive future state. To the extent that the language used by the leader is emotionally expressive (rather than technical), the vision may be more appealing to followers. &dquo;Passionate speech is compelling; it mesmerizes listeners because they hear it so rarely. Thus, tapping people’s emotions through a disciplined display of one’s own passion is a valuable tool in selling one’s vision (Stoltenberg, 1990, p. 86). Taken together, these arguments suggest:

Proposition 2: Emotional intelligence will be positively related to inspirational motivation.

Emotional Intelligence and Intellectual Stimulation

Intellectually stimulating leaders encourage followers to question assumptions, view problems form different perspectives, and approach old situations in new ways (Bass & Avolio, 1994). Intellectual stimulation may be related to a particular application of El (i.e., airing grievance as helpful critiques). One effective way for emotionally intelligent leaders to intellectually stimulate followers is through constructive criticism. The manner in which criticism is expressed and received by followers determines to a large extent the degree of follower job-satisfaction (Goleman, 1995).

When criticism is received by followers as a personal attack, it may increase job- related stress and anxiety, and thus decrease job-satisfaction and inhibit intellectual stimulation. This is likely to occur because a follower may become defensive and avoid alternate ways of approaching problems because slhe has been made to feel inadequate as a result of the criticism. Consequently, followers may understandably do all that is within his/her control to avoid risk taking, uncertainty, and creative efforts.

Emotionally intelligent leaders use more appropriate strategies to offer criticism. One approach is the &dquo;artful critique&dquo;, which involves focusing on accomplishments followers have achieved in the past and what they are capable of doing in the present and future (Goleman, 1995). The artful critique entails being empathetic and sensitive to followers’ needs, and offering alternative ways to solve problems. To the extent that the emotionally intelligent leader is empathic, slhe may be more inclined to frame the critique as a developmental learning experience which offers a new approach to thinking.

42

Goleman (1995) also offers another strategy that may be helpful to intellectually stimulate followers. A leader who wishes to intellectually stimulate followers may be more likely to produce the desired effects if s/he possesses emotional management skills. For example, a leader who is able to manage moods may be more inclined to display positive emotions when interacting with followers. &dquo;Good moods enhance the ability to think flexibly and with complexity, thus making it easier to find solutions to problems&dquo; (Goleman, 1995, p. 85). One way to stimulate followers’ critical thinking is to integrate humor into interactions with followers. For example, laughter helps people think at broader levels thus stimulating the creativity of ideas (Avolio, Howell, & Sosik, 1996; Bass 1990). Thus, a good mood on behalf of both leaders and followers may result in deeper levels of thinking when making decisions. Thus, we propose the following:

Proposition 3: Emotional intelligence will be positively related to intellectual stimulation.

Emotional Intelligence and Individualized Consideration ’

Individually considerate leaders treat followers as individuals through one-to-one contact and two-way communication, and mentor followers by creating new learning opportunities (Bass, 1985). To the extent that the emotionally intelligent leader is empathetic, s/he may be more likely to recognize and understand emotions in others. If a leader is empathetic slhe may be more open-minded and therefore be more considerate of individual differences. In addition, an empathetic leader is able to recognize follower’s emotions (Gates, 1995). For example, if a leader recognizes that a follower wishes to invest his/her knowledge, skills and abilities in a particular task, then the leader can provide the requisite training. Thus, empathy may have significant effects on consideration and recognition of emotions, both of which are necessary for a leader to exhibit individually considerate behaviors.

In addition to considering and recognizing followers as unique human beings, individually considerate leaders engage in two-way communication with followers (Bass, 1985). Two-way communication involves listening attentively to follower concerns during verbal communication. While listening, the leader may gain important insights into the feelings of followers. &dquo;The most powerful form of non-defensive listening, is empathy, which involves actually hearing the feeling behind what is being communicated&dquo; (Goleman, 1995, p. 145). Therefore, if a leader listens s/he may be able to assess each follower’s situation, and consider and meet the followers needs. Thus, we expect that the greater the level of empathy a leader possesses, the greater the extent to which individual consideration may be displayed.

Empathy also may be necessary for individually considerate leaders to a) spend time teaching and coaching followers, b) treat followers, as individuals with unique needs, abilities and aspirations, c) help followers develop strengths, and d) promote follower self-development (Bass & Avolio, 1994). Empathy provides a basis for understanding the needs and values of others (Gates, 1995).

43

Recognizing potential in followers and treating them as individuals provides a developmental orientation to facilitate mentoring. Mentoring enhances follower self-image, security and visibility within the organization and provides fulfillment of desires for information and fate control (Yuki, 1994).

To summarize, empathy may be required for individually considerate leaders to provide followers with fulfillment of their needs for achievement, esteem and self-actualization (Bass, 1985). We suggest that empathy is necessary for individually considerate leaders to foster one-on-one contact and two-way communication with followers, give attention to individual differences in needs, and delegate responsibilities to followers. Taken together, these arguments suggest:

Proposition 4: Emotional intelligence will be positively related to individualized consideration.

Discussion

This paper has provided a theoretical approach to understand the relationship between El and components of transformational leadership. To this extent, five specific components of El have been defined, and linkages have been made to behavioral components of transformational leadership (Bass & Avolio, 1994). Research and practical implications will now be discussed.

Research Implications

Several possibilities for future research are relevant to the propositions set forth above. First, is El really a multidimensional construct? Although Salovey and Mayer (1990) identified five components of El, there may be significant covariation between components such as self-awareness, emotional management, and self-management. Indeed, Goleman (1995) admitted that self-awareness provides the emotional base for emotional management. Thus, while the components of El may be conceptually distinct, they may not be empirically distinct. Further research is needed to empirically examine the factor structure underlying the El construct.

Second, in line with theories of charismatic leadership, which specific aspects of El are most predictive of emotional and motivational arousal of followers? How may El promote the emotional attachment to the leader on the part of the followers? How might El differentially affect follower perceptions of close and distant charismatic leaders? The importance of such questions recently was highlighted by Shamir (1995) and Shamir et al. (1994), who call for more research examining mechanisms of emotional rhetoric employed by close and distant charismatic leaders.

The social psychology literature offers some insights for understanding the impact of leader emotional expressions by close and distant charismatic leaders. According to Englis (1993), emotional expression, a non-verbal leader

44

behavior, is a peripheral cue for follower attention and subsequent motivation as compared with verbal content of the leader’s message, which is a central cue. Prior research (e.g., Houston & Rothchild, 1978; Petty, Cacioppo & Schumann, 1983) has indicated that impacts of peripheral cues are greatest in low- involvement situations (e.g., high social distance between leader and followers), whereas central cues dominate in high involvement situations (e.g., low social distance between leader and followers). Thus, emotions communicated by distant charismatic leaders through non-verbal behaviors may have greater - motivational effects on followers than emotions communicated by close charismatic leaders. Future research, along the lines of Shamir (1995), is necessary to support this conjecture.

A third set of issues involves empirical examination of the posited relationships between El and components of transformational leadership presented in this paper. First, there are no single validated tests to measure El. Thus, researchers may wish to develop and validate a single survey which measures all components of El. Second, both laboratory and field empirical studies are necessary to gain evidence to support the posited relationships between El and transformational leadership components. Third, researchers may wish to examine the relationship between El and other leadership styles, such as management-by exception and contingent reward (Bass & Avolio, 1994). An interesting topic for future research would involve empirically assessing whether the transformational style of leadership in the FRL model would be most strongly predicted by El. Fourth, as noted by Shamir (1995), further research is needed to identify more accurately leader variables that are related to charismatic and transformational leadership. Research linking leader personal characteristics and behaviors is currently being carried out by Dubinsky, Yammarino and Jolson (1995). Other studies should examine the effects of components of El on leader exhibition and follower perception of transformational leadership behaviors most related to El (e.g., inspirational motivation, individualized consideration).

Practical Implications

Practical implications are evident from the prior discussion. One implication is that El may be useful in selection of future transformational leaders. Selecting the right leaders is necessary in all organizations, and the quality of choices has long-term effects on organizations (Gatewood & Field, 1994). To the extent that a) El may predict transformational leadership behaviors and b) transformational leadership may result in the highest levels of follower effectiveness (Bass & Avolio, 1994; House, ’1995), El is likely to be a key selection criterion useful in promoting organizational effectiveness through transformational leadership.

El and transformational leadership may be related to processes valued by .

organizations both today and in the next millennium. For example, Goleman (1995) has suggested that emotionally intelligent managers may be more successful in developing employees, dealing with diversity, and coordinating group efforts than managers who lack El. Behavioral components of transformational leadership also may promote action steps helpful for managers

45

wishing to promote development of followers, leverage employee diversity, and facilitate groups and teams.

Development of employees and leveraging of employee diversity may be facilitated by exhibiting a) individually considerate behaviors such as spending time teaching and coaching, and treating employees as individuals with different needs and aspirations, and b) intellectually stimulating behaviors to suggest new ways of doing things and reframe failures as learning experiences. Facilitation of groups and teams may be enhanced through inspirational motivation which optimistically and enthusiastically promotes the importance of team synergy and collective acting to attain commonly desired outcomes. Thus, El may provide the affective stimuli to trigger transformational leadership behaviors or action steps necessary to facilitate organizational processes for attaining desired organizational outcomes.

Another important implication is that El may provide the foundation for transformational/charismatic leaders to frame an appropriate motivational message which provides meaning to followers. Individuals need a symbolic order, a sense of purpose or meaning for the sake of which to work or live (Franki, 1992). &dquo;Charismatic leadership ... is a function of the need for order and meaning, and its perceived ability to provide such order and meaning&dquo; (Shamir, 1991, p. 87). Charismatic organizational leaders can therefore be instrumental in initiating, creating, transforming or destroying values and meaning integral to an individual’s work.

One way charismatic leaders provide meaning for followers is through framing messages which articulate inspirational visions. Framing involves developing collective mental models of desirable future states by presenting an organizational mission in a manner which affectively arouses followers (Fairhurst & Starr, 1996). For example, Robert Kennedy, Bella Adzug, Winston Churchill, Barbara Jordan, Martin Luther King, and Margaret Thatcher represent leaders who integrated emotions into their speeches to affectively motivate followers to attain collective missions. Thus, El may be helpful for leaders who wish to strongly engage followers in the interest of the collective mission framed by the leader.

A leader’s display of emotions in framing a vision for followers may depend on follower perception of consistency between leader emotion displayed and content of the leader’s message. Charismatic leaders align carefully crafted rhetoric with &dquo;nonverbal and expressive behavior which is seen as fluid, outwardly directed and animated&dquo; (Gardner & Avolio, 1996, p. 32). In their examination of the role of affect in non-verbal behavior of politicians competing in the 1984 primary, McHugo, Lanzetta, Sullivan, Masters and Englis (1985) reported that Walter Mondale’s smile was perceived by individuals as not being as emotionally evocative as Ronald Reagan’s. Moreover, &dquo;effects of Reagan’s expressions also were found in viewer reactions to the content of the stories (e.g., viewers were more comforted and less angered by the same news story shown with a happylreassuring Reagan as compared with an angry/threatening

46

Reagan)&dquo; (Englis, 1993, pp. 239-240). Thus, charismatic leaders, such as Reagan, may be more adept than others in employing emotions to stimulate emotional responses in others. For organizations to increase levels of employee effectiveness, it is certainly appropriate to determine the extent to which leader El may be useful in augmenting the content of rhetoric aimed at emotionally motivating employees to high levels of performance.

Conclusions

The business community recently has become interested in learning how El can affect organizational behavior. This interest has been spearheaded by writers presenting the concept of El as applicable to management contexts, but this paper has taken a more theoretical approach to better understand the components of El and linkages that exist with regard to transformational leadership. In a world where organizations have begun to trade directive, rigid, and calculative management styles for a team-based, employee-empowered, collaborative, and developmental management orientation, the role of interpersonal skills in leadership is becoming increasingly vital for organizational excellence (Hesselbein et al., 1996; Sims & Lorenzi, 1992). To the extent that El includes dimensions of basic interpersonal competencies, El may be a concept useful for predicting the exhibition of outstanding leadership (e.g., transformational leadership).

The conceptual bridge between El and transformational leadership presented in this paper may provide organizations with guidance concerning the affective attributes predictive of future transformational leaders. The posited relationships between El and components of transformational leadership presented in this paper are clearly speculative. Nevertheless, it is hoped that the ideas presented in this paper will provide researchers with framework upon which future theoretical and empirical work may be built to better understand the requisite skills of outstanding leadership. The hope also is that organizational managers may come to realize that while run-of-the-mill leadership may involve managing with one’s head, outstanding leadership, based to a large extent on El, may be truly an affair of the heart.

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