U.S. DIPLOMATIC HISTORY
Private22
AMERICASGLOBALARMSwithlecture.pptx
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Page 1: For the second half of this course on American Diplomatic history we’re going to cover the 20th Century (the 1900s) and bring ourselves all the way around to the present 21st Century; full circle. It’s generally accepted that America really became a world power when it defeated another world power, Spain, in the Spanish-American war in 1898. So we see the U.S. coming into the new century, now as a world power with a two ocean navy (riding on the spectacular defeat of the Spanish Fleet, Manila Bay), victorious ground forces, and a power-projection capability grounded on one of the leading industrial/economic national bases in the world.
Recall that the first air flight only happened in 1903 (from Kitty hawk, N.C. to the moon in an astounding 66 years; mind-boggling, THAT’s America). The first Olympics in the U.S.?: St. Louis MO, July1-Nov.23, 1904. Henry Ford introduced the first Model T car on Oct. 1, 1908, cost?: $800 .
Recalling our study of the Monroe Doctrine, it is to play an important role as the 20th century (1900s) moves into the 21st century (2000s) in that the MD can be used to justify American actions in Latin America and the Caribbean. Brits and others accused America of violating its own Doctrine by moving to war in Cuba and other Caribbean holdings; they said that America had interfered in “Western Hemisphere affairs”. You’ll remember that the wording of the MD was directed at European powers; ‘Merica was already in the Western Hemisphere. You’ll also remember that the MD does not mandate (order, require) any U.S. president to automatically take action in the Western Hemisphere/Carib. in any circumstance. It’s just there so that any president can point to it as precedent (guided by earlier examples) as needed to justify actions in the region. That’s important.
And the century kicks off in 1901 with V.P. Theodore Roosevelt assuming the presidency as the youngest-ever (42 Y.O.) after President McKinley was shot to death by anarchist (not called terrorists until toward the end of the century) Leon Czolgosz, born in Detroit, a son of Polish-Russian immigrants.
Though people did not know it in the early 1900s, this would be the bloodiest century in world history, but also the most scientifically and technologically advancing century in world history.
BUT, before we launch into the new century, we have some review and catching up to do by way of fleshing out just how we got into that 20th century.
AMERICA STRETCHES ITS GLOBAL ARMS
MAXIMILIAN MOVES ON MEXICO
GEN. GRANT ORDERS SHERIDAN & 50K TROOPS TO TEXAS
JUAREZ SHOOTS MAX, JUNE 19, 1867
FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR, 1870, OVERTHROWS NAPOLEON III
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Page 2: Recall that in the wake of the French revolution in the late 1800s, Napoleon defeated the aims of the revolution and arranged for himself to be crowned Emperor of France. His nephew and heir, Napoleon III, placed a fellow Austrian royal, Maximilian, on the throne in MEXICO (direct violation of the Monroe Doctrine). In 1865, Gen. U.S. Grant, commanding the Northern Army of over 900,000 men, ordered Gen. Sheridan to move to the Mexican border with 50,000 troops and he dispatched Gen. SCHOFIELD to enter Mexico and organize an army of unemployed Confederate and Union soldiers to coordinate with Gen. Sheridan’s force and dethrone Napoleon III!!. Before action could take place, Mexican president Juarez (a full-blooded Amerindian), recouped his forces and had Maximilian executed. Finally Nap III loses out altogether in the Prussian war on France (where the Germans beat up on the French for the first time in our period and will repeat that twice in the coming century). France was to be a three-time loser. I understand; French wine, women and song; French high culture? Why would you want to go to war anywhere; this is so much more fun than eating dirt on the battlefield. The Germans won the Franco-Prussian war, 1870/71; “The Great War”, aka World War I, WW I, 1904-1918, named so at the outbreak of WW II; 1939-1945 (in Europe; 1937, Japan’s invasion of China, in Asia); so France lost all three wars to the Germans. Better stick with wine, women, and song, France. My experience? W,W,&Song in France is some of the best in the world.
Also, Germany, the new nation, only came into being during the ceremonies closing the war, in 1871, in the “Hall of Mirrors”, the Versailles Palace, outside of Paris. So, Germany, the Zweite Reich (Second Republic 1871-1918) came into being late as compared to other nations. Some use the name First Reich to designate the German Realm of the Holy Roman Empire (Heiliges Römisches Reich in German), 800-1806. Of course, Hitler‘s Third Reich lasted only from 1933-1945.
History is fun isn‘t it
ALASKA, 1865-1867
SEWARD-SEC. STATE – 1861-1869
MIDWAY ISLANDS – TO THE US – AUGUST 1867
ALASKA – COLD, GOLD, & OIL
EDOUARDO de STOECKL, ATLANTIC CABLE & $7,200,000
SEWARD’S “POLAR BEAR GARDEN”, PASSED BY SENATE, 18670409
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Page 3: SecState Seward held office for 8 long years under Abe Lincoln and his replacement upon assassination, Andrew Johnson, our 17th President, 1865-1869. Seward was a SecState with visions of American expansion, and without him Alaska might not have been part of the U.S., and, possibly might have ended up as part of Russia (picture the Cold War scenario in that case).
After an American naval officer “occupied” the islands 1,000 miles north of the main Hawaiian isles, the U.S. under Seward's direction acquired the Midway islands, even though the main islands were not taken over by America until later in this lesson .
While Russia profited off Alaska, it also found it burdensome to secure the frozen wastes of that broad stretch. Tsarist Russia eyed the possibility of selling the region to the U.S. Here Seward excels and closes a deal with Russia (to be approved by the Senate in April, 1867; recall that the executive branch---the president and departments and agencies, cannot commit the nation when negotiating treaties, and, in accordance with Sec. 2, Art. 2 of the U.S. Constitution, “the president has the power, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, to make Treaties, provided two-thirds of the Senators concur;…”
That’s actually a stiff requirement, the 2/3ds majority requirement; it’s the most difficult to attain. Do know though that it is the DoS (Department of State) which does the work to iron out a treaty; all the framing and legal correlation, the face-face negotiation, the finalizing details, and the guiding of the President through the process. This is a major mission requirement of the DoS and one of the key ways that it earns its keep. The deal was closed by the Russian minister to WADC, Stoeckl, and was communicated, back and forth to Russia by the newly installed Atlantic cable (1866), which saved literally weeks, even months from the arduous process. Just the cost and effort put into the cable project showed the increasing global importance and reach of the U.S. of A.. As it turned out, Seward negotiated the purchase of the Alaskan territory for an amazing $7.2 million=2 cents an acre; one penny less/acre than the Louisiana Purchase.
As per usual, Republican party political opponents of Andrew Johnson, calling the sale “Seward’s icebox”, etc. railed against the purchase, but Seward sold the American public, and even Congress had to admit that we got a boonfall for bargain basement prices.
CARIBBEAN & ALASKA, 1865-1867 (CONTINUED)
US GRANT – PRESIDENT, 4 MAR., 1869
TREATY OF WASHINGTON & SAN JUAN de FUCA ISLANDS, MAY, 1871
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Page 4: U.S. Grant was the successful victor of the U.S. Civil War. Such expertise and accomplishment does not mean that the individual will be a good president.
Still, aside from some incompetencies in his administration, and some tumultuous scandals among those under him, USG was as steady as president as he was as a wartime commander and he chose a most competent SecState in Mr. E.B Washburne. That was proven by the Grant administration acquisition of the San Juan de Fucas (next slide for map).
ALASKA, 1865-1867 (CONTINUED) TREATY OF WASHINGTON & SAN JUAN de FUCA ISLANDS, MAY, 1871
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Page 5: If you are ever assigned to Ft. Lewis, McChord joint airbase, Bremerton Naval Yard (see?; Dr. Jim is very Joint oriented) do take a ferry cruise through the San Juans; arrange to stay if you can. You see the American Bald Eagle up close all along the way, perched and in flight; a great trip. A great setting for a honeymoon, a weekend get-away, renewal of a marriage, let the kiddies out to play, etc. They are OURS, let’s enjoy them.
THE PANIC OF 1873
1874-1877: ROUTINE DIPLOMACY AND:
INDIAN FIGHTING
RAILROAD BUILDING
WESTWARD EXPANSION
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
INFLATION AGITATION
RACE RIOTS
ELECTION CAMPAIGNS
CENTENNIAL CELEBRATIONS
POLITICAL SCANDALS
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Page 6: For those of you who have taken my History of America to 1877 (Hist 2401 now 1401) you are aware of the economic panic which seized the nation in 1877. By the way, America’s economic panics are not just something that happens from time to time, such as a Tsunami or earthquake, each one can be proven to have come about due to man’s malfeasance, misfeasance, and fraudulent practices. To assume that “these things just happen from time-to-time” is to let those guilty of bringing on the calamity off the hook (which is of course, just what they want, to get away with cheating). All the issues above were going on at the same time and America was literally a beehive of activity. A young buck of a man flexing and showing off his muscles; Uncle Sam. Those were indeed exciting times, though I think my own times during the next batch of “’70s” (1970s) was even more exciting (look for my in-class course on U.S. History since WWII, Hist 3441, due soon).
1877-1899: DIPLOMACY TAKES A BACK SEAT:
. . . THE DIPLOMATIC SERVICE HAS OUTGROWN ITS USEFULNESS . . . . IT IS A COSTLY HUMBUG AND SHAM. IT IS A NURSE OF SNOBS. IT SPOILS A FEW AMERICANS EVERY YEAR, AND DOES NO GOOD TO ANYBODY. INSTEAD OF MAKING AMBASSADORS, CONGRESS SHOULD WIPE OUT THE WHOLE SERVICE.” ~~ New York Sun, 1889
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Page 7: This editorial comment in the N.Y. Sun typifies many Americans’ views formed during a period of relative isolation and consummation with domestic affairs of the nation; when there isn’t much alarming news from abroad. Still, I must make clear to you that the U.S. State Department didn’t really become an organized, professional, public-service body until WWII (when it was forced to perform by the threat of wartime defeat). Up until that time the U.S. Foreign Service was peopled generally with privileged elite from rich families, who didn’t want or need to work hard for a living, and who could also afford the high cost of living in foreign capitals, entertaining VIPs, and travelling abroad. Even up to the mid-1950s Foggy Bottom (the name of the section just west of downtown Washington, and the name of that metro stop for the DoS headquarters) was basically “an old boys club” peopled by elite Ivy league boys who were economically/socially groomed for high society, hung together in tight little cliques usually formed in their Alma Mater (Skull and Bones, Flat Hat Club, Quill &Dagger, Raven’s Claw, and many others). After the gutting of the DoS by the drunk and half-mad Sen. Joe McCarthy, in the early 1950s, when real experts in foreign affairs, tempered in the crucible of WWII, were run out of the FS unfairly and illegally, the DoS had to repair itself, and retool, and arrive at where it is today. Any outfit is only as good as the boss, his subordinates and the rank-and-file. Today I think we can say that the DoS is an operating, valuable, functioning outfit.
One worries about the damage done to the DoS and America’s foreign affairs by the administration from 2016-2020. So, we have to wait for a current assessment of the condition of the foreign service. Many political appointees, with no FS knowledge or experience were appointed to high-level posts. Or, the posts have been left empty, crippling the functioning of the DoS.
Let’s wait and see what happens beginning in 2021.
EARLIER BURLINGAME TREATY (1868) – UNRESTRICTED ENTRY
1879 – CONGRESS LIMITS ENTRY TO 15 PER SHIP
1882 – CONGRESS SUSPENDS IMMIGRATION FROM CHINA: 20 YEARS
PRESIDENT ARTHUR VETOED, CONGRESS GOES FOR 10 YEARS
The Closed Door For China
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Page 8: Remember from lesson 3, the Burlingame Treaty allowed unlimited Chinese entry to the U.S. to be used as coolie labor for railroads in the West? Well, the RRs are pretty much built now. So, Congress, reflecting a heavy form of racism (white supremacy, Anglo-Saxon superiority, Social Darwinism, etc.---if you don’t know these things look them up; by the time you hit this course you should already know these and other social afflictions affecting U.S. civil society; but if you don’t it’s because we teachers and our U.S. system of education has let you down. Now’s the time to make up for that).
Suspension of immigration is still a sore point among both Japanese and Chinese today. A standup guy such as General Eric Shinseki, former CoStaff, U.S. Army, and a commander of the war in Kosovo, is a good reason to admit immigrants; after all, unless you are native American, an original inhabitant, as I like to term it, we are ALL immigrants; we all originated from some place else through our ancestry.
SAMOA & HAWAII – SETTING THE STAGE
Bailey, 1980, 423
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Page 9: Captain A.T. Mahan (maa-hon---like the Hon in Honolulu) in his maritime strategy works imbued the U.S. decision makers that naval power and world power are synonymous. The U.S. was now fixing its gaze on the vast Pacific. Germany, a new nation only formed from hundreds of smaller individual states into a unified nation, branched out into the Pacific to, among other places, Samoa. While this jumps ahead in our timeline (this is on the heels of the next war, the Spanish-American War, 1898, we need to set the stage for America in the Pacific by covering Samoa and Hawaii). The next slide gives an overview of the dynamics at work in the country leading up to the end of the century and Samoa, Hawaii, the Philippines, Cuba, and Guam.
SAMOA & HAWAII (continued)
MANIFEST DESTINY AND:
BUDDING SPIRIT OF IMPERIALISM
DARWINIAN THEORY
CAPTAIN A.T. MAHAN: NAVAL POWER=WORLD POWER
1883 – THE NEW “STEEL NAVY”
PANAMA LOOKS ATTRACTIVE
1890: NELLIE BLY -72 DAYS, 6 HRS, 11 MIN., 14 SEC.
1893 – CONGRESS GRANTS AMBASSADORS
AMERICAN HISTORY INTO SCHOOLS
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Page 10: All of these dynamics have been hit on in one way or another so far in the course.
Note: the thrust toward globalization really gets under way with the cross Atlantic cable (cutting weeks off communication between the U.S. and Europe) as well as other undersea cables around the world. We have a steam-driven, steel-hulled maritime fleet, the railroad outpaces all other previous land travel speed, and by 1890, a New York World (owned by Henry Pulitzer) reporter, Nellie Bly, travelled around the world in 72 days (24,900 miles) by steamship and railroad, all the while keeping her news audience (and the world) informed by undersea cable in different regions of her travel.
It was at this time that Congress officially authorized the title of Ambassador to be used (replacing the term Minister).
Congress also mandated that HISTORY be taught in American schools (thank goodness, says historian Dr. Jim).
SAMOA & HAWAII (CONTINUED)
SAMOA – THE 6 FOOT 4 INCH CHIEF Le Mamea –THE “TATTOOED PRINCE”
Bailey, 1980, 426
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Page 11: to jump ahead, the U.S. finally wrangled the eastern Samoa islands away from England and Germany in the wake of America’s powerful victory in the Spanish-American war; to our benefit today as American Samoans proudly serve in our armed forces and contribute in many ways to the greatness of America as well as to the success of their own wonderful islands.
SAMOA & HAWAII (CONTINUED)
THE NEW GERMAN STATE-NEO-COLONIALISM
CONGRESS: $500K FOR OPS, $100K FOR DEV. OF PAGO-PAGO
BERLIN CONFERENCE – 29 APR., 1889
A THREE-POWER PROTECTORATE OVER SAMOA, 14 JUN., 1889
LATER, AFTER WAR, GB BACKS OUT (1899) – GER. & US = SAMOA
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Page 12: Again, Germany only became a nation, among colonial nations, in 1871. Chancellor Bismarck and his King, Kaiser Wilhelm, were driven to see Deutschland take its right honorable position among the colonial nations of the world and thus began, with the Europe-wide Berlin Conference (1899), a dividing up of the world into spheres and the resultant scramble for foreign lands which came to be known as Neo-colonialism (new colonialism). What as new about Neo-colonialism? The scramble now was for possession of land, not, as in earlier times, so much the scramble for riches. Also, the agreement was made in Berlin that claim on a colony only went inland as far as the colonizer physically occupied; no longer could he simply land on the coast, no longer could one put ashore at Pointe Noire and then claim the Congo all the way inland to the border with the Central African Republic. The quest was for prestige and national pride as much as it was still for wealth.
Besides the wrangle for control of Samoa, the Sandwich isles came to the fore in world competition.
HAWAII – AMERICANIZATION
PACIFIC TRADERS, NEW ENGLAND MISSIONARIES, WHALERS
BY 1842, 5/6ths OF ALL SHIP VISITS WERE AMERICAN
US DECLARES HANDS OFF TO FOREIGN POWERS (1842)
1854 – PIERCE NEGOTIATED A TREATY OF ANNEXATION
SENATE DEFEATS EVEN A COMMERCIAL RECIPROCITY TREATY
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Page 13: America had the advantage by proximity. England and Russia both had to come half way around the globe to operate in these islands. Still, both tried hard and one result is that our State flag is copied after the British “Union Jack”, we have the only royal palace in the United States, and the royalty of these islands modeled themselves after British royalty; and we also have Russian Fort on the south shore of Kauai and a few other places around the islands.
Fearing that the competitors would steal the islands from us, Congress passed the “hands off” act in 1842. 12 years later President Pierce negotiated a treaty, but Congress moved to protect mainland business from Hawaiian competition, so the annexation was delayed. Later in the century, things had assumed a different shape, and there would be movement toward a U.S. treaty with the Hawaiian kingdom (next slide).
HAWAII – AMERICANIZATION (CONTINUED) 1875 – RECIPROCITY TREATY PASSED BY CONGRESS:
HAWAII – NO TERR. CONCESSIONS TO FOREIGN POWERS
SUGAR & OTHER GOODS DUTY FREE TO US
TREATY RENEWED IN 1884
FINAL VERSION (1887): US GETS EXCLUSIVE RIGHT TO P.H.
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Page 14: SecState Hamilton Fish, president Grant’s second SecState, proved remarkably successful in gaining the agreement from Hawaiian royalty to, in effect, bind themselves closer to the U.S., and at the same time steer farther from other colonializing nations; that is seen in provision #1 of the treaty, as shown above, no concessions of land/water area to other nations, VERY BIG point of agreement. The Hawaiian monarchy was greatly boosted by duty-free access to the U.S. market, especially sugar. BUT, recall that the first attempt at a treaty (from the last slide), failed to pass Congress because of the need to protect U.S. sugar and rice businesses. The same cry arose again in the wake of the passage of this treaty, BUT, it passed renewal again 9 years later (1884). Then, three years later, the treaty was formally approved when the Senate made the amendment to provide EXCLUSIVE U.S. rights to use Pearl Harbor as a naval station, 1887.
HAWAII – AMERICANIZATION (CONTINUED)
A SMALL GROUP OF HAOLES CONTROL 2/3ds OF TAXABLE REAL ESTATE
QUEEN LILUOKALANI PROMULGATES A NEW CONSTITUTION, 14 JAN., 1893
HAOLES REVOLT
US MIN. JOHN L. STEVENS APPLIES US TROOPS ASHORE, 16 JAN.
STEVENS (UNAUTHORIZED) RECOGNIZES REV. REGIME, 17 JAN.
“HAWAII COMMISSION” TO WADC, 4 AMERICANS, 1 BRIT., 19 JAN.
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Page 15: Haole is the Hawaiian word for “without Ha” which means someone who prays, hunts, wrestles, fishes, gathers medicinal herbs, etc. without first performing the ritual of Ha, a special form of breathing similar to controlled breathing in Yoga or Chinese T’aichi (Taiji 太極), or other schools of physical discipline.
In the last part of the 1800s the small minority of prosperous Americans in the islands began to move to gain power and control over business and the islands themselves. They were able intimidate the more easy-going King Kaulakaua to implement a constitution which heavily favored white minority privileges and disenfranchised native Hawaiians. His sister, Liliuokalani, when she later became the ruling monarch, 1891, attempted to declare a new constitution in 1887. The U.S. Minister Honolulu, John L. Stevens, arranged for a company of U.S. Marines to come ashore and to be posted where the Queen would be intimidated by the threat of the use of force. He gave official U. S. recognition (a nation’s formal acknowledgement of the international existence of another nation) to the (all white) revolutionary government. A delegation was sent to WADC to plead the case before the U.S. government. The Queen was forced into giving up her right to rule, and Stevens declared Hawaii a protectorate of the U.S. He did not have the authorization of the U.S. government to land Marines, grant recognition to the revolutionary (white-led) regime, nor to declare the islands a protectorate of the U.S.
What was done, nonetheless, was most difficult to undo.
HAWAII – AMERICANIZATION (CONTINUED)
STEVENS THEN PROCLAIMS HAWAII A US PROTECTORATE, 1 FEB.
“RUSH ORDER” TREATY LIES IN CONGRESS, HARRISON ENDS PRESIDENCY
GROVER CLEVELAND (ANTI-IMPERIALIST) INTO WHITE HOUSE, MAR., 1893
CLEVELAND SENDS JAS. A. BLOUNT TO HAWAII TO INVESTIGATE, 9 MAR.
1. UPRISING THE WORK OF THE HAOLES (WHITE OLIGARCHY)
2. LAUNCHED ONLY WITH US MIN. STEVEN’S ASSURANCES
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Page 16: Congress hotly debated Stephens move and then a new president, Cleveland, pulled the treaty out of Congress “for examination” and dispatched former Congressman James Blount to investigate the affair in Honolulu. He found that Stephens had acted without proper authority. on June 16, 1897 which passed the Congress on the heels of the American victory over the Spanish in the war of 1898. Hawaii had become territory of the U.S.
HAWAII – AMERICANIZATION (CONTINUED)
NEW PRESIDENT McKINLEY, MAR, 1897, FAVORABLE TO ANNEXATION
AFTER THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR:
US WILL TAKE THE PHILIPPINES
MAHAN TOUTS HAWAII AS 1st LINE OF DEFENSE FOR MAINLAND
HAWAII SEEN AS A “BRIDGE” TO THE PHILIPPINES & ASIA-PACIFIC
SO,
CONGRESS PASSED A JOINT RESOLUTION 7 JULY, 1898: HAWAII IS ANNEXED
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Page 17: While Cleveland intended to restore the Queen to power, the follow-on president McKinley, with the cooperation of Congress, introduced a substitute treaty of annexation on June 16, 1897 which passed the Congress on the heels of the American victory over the Spanish in the war of 1898. Hawaii had become territory of the U.S.
THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR, 1898
CUBAN PEOPLE REVOLT AGAINST SPANISH COLONIALISM
EVENTS OCCUR
RECONCENTRADO
DUPUY de LOME., SPAIN. MIN. TO US-CRITICAL OF McKINLEY
THE BATTLESHIP MAINE BLOWS UP IN HAVANNA HARBOR
(US ADM. RICKOVER, 1976, “INTERNAL COMBUSTION”)
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Page 18: Let’s turn now to the Spanish-American War. Among many preludes, those shown in this slide were drivers toward war. American business was deeply involved in dealings in Cuba, and wanted to get it out from under Spanish control in order to give free play to American profit-making ventures. Spanish oppression of its colony was, indeed, harsh and as local resistance grew the Spanish implemented what arguably could be seen as the first “concentration” camps to corral trouble-making Cuba Libre types (such camps were now made possible by the new American invention of barbed wire, a product of cattleing in the new American west; but not available during the American Civil war; how that would have changed the face of that war, just consider the role barbed wire would have played in the battle of Antietam). The new Spanish minister to WADC managed, undiplomatically, to offend American public opinion. THEN, POW !!, the American battleship exploded in the capital’s harbor. Conspiracy theory also exploded everywhere, and, continues to fuel historians' quest for answers even to this day. The famed U.S.N. Admiral Hyman Rickover, father of the U.S.N. nuclear submarine force, did a study of the official navy records and defused the conspiracy; BUT, that explosion was sufficient casus belli (Lesson 3, slide # 20, if you don’t recall this term please go back to that slide and review--------have you gone back?) and the war fever raged, pumped up greatly by the media. W.R. Hearst, owner of one of the largest conglomerates engaged in yellow journalism (ultra sensationalist reporting, with mostly baseless information, designed to stir public passions, and to sell newspapers/TV viewing audience) played sensationalism against his main competitor, Joeseph Pulitzer.
THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR, 1898 (CONTINUED)
McKINLEY USES DIPLOMACY TO AVOID WAR
SPAIN AGREES TO
1. REVOKE RECONCENTRATION
2. GRANT AN ARMISTICE TO REBELS, TO SETTLE DEMANDS
BUT,
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Page 20: President McKinley fought as an enlisted man in the slaughter of the U.S. Civil War and thus favored diplomacy over war if agreeable outcomes could be reached. Many of us who have been to war tend to have that similar view. We’ll fight, if we have to, but, if we can achieve near the same national security objectives through the coordinated use of the other elements of national power (remember these?: Socio-cultural psychological, Political, Economic, Diplomatic; the SPED in SPEDM) then let’s try that, before going to war. It continues to amaze how those who have never been to war are so willing to send others to war.
Spain fears that giving in will bring popular uprising and rvolution at home, while war will probably mean defeat and loss of Cuba anyway (note here: the Philippines are not even a strategic consideration by either WADC nor Madrid, YET, the Phillipines wil be a determing factor in the most important outcomes of that war. That’s the trouble with war: you never know what tists and turns it wuill take; did the Bush I administration know that Operation Iraqi Freedom would last up until today? Clausewitz states that it is the element of chance which makes war always a gamble, “No other human activity is so continuously or universally bound up with chance. And through the element of chance, guesswork and luck come to play a great part in war.” (Clausewitz, On War, trans. Howard & Paret, 1976, 85)
Still, diplomacy is a hard row to hoe; cumbersome, frustrating, demanding.
In this case it was the Cuban rebels who refused Spain’s armisitcice which had been so skillfully worked outin diplomatic quarters between the USG (U. S. Government) and Spain.
THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR, 1898 (CONTINUED)
AMERICA WANTS WAR:
“REMEMBER THE MAINE, TO HELL WITH SPAIN”
HEARST & HIS “YELLOW PRESS”, (AND PULITZER) “McKINLEY HAS NO MORE BACKBONE THAN A CHOCOLATE ÉCLAIR”
THE 1900 PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS ARE COMING UP
SO,
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Page 20: As I have emphasized often in this course an historian should always check to see if the record of events which he/she is examining took place in the run up to an election. Running for office will always skew the normal course of events. Politicians (poly=many, tics=little blood-sucking critters) will usually do anything to get (re)elected; lie, cheat, steal, sell their own Mamas .
THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR, 1898 (CONTINUED)
McKINLEY (TWO DAYS AFTER SPAIN’S PARTIAL CAPITULATION):
SENDS A WAR MESSAGE TO CONGRESS (11 APR., 1898):
1. THE NEED TO “ABATE A NUISANCE”
2. PROTECT AMERICAN PROPERTY
3. TO END THE CONSTANT MENACE TO PEACE OF THE US
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Page 21: The peace-inclined McKinley asked Congress for authority to use the U.S.N. and Army to end hostilities in Cuba. War was declared on Spain on 25 April, 1898.
THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR, 1898 (CONTINUED)
CONGRESS PASSES A JOINT RESOLUTION (19 APR., 1898):
1. DECLARES CUBA FREE
2. DEMANDS WITHDRAWAL OF SPAIN
3. DIRECTS THE PRESIDENT TO USE ARMED FORCE
4. DISCLAIMS US INTENT TO ANNEX CUBA (TELLER AMEND.)
(US SUGAR INTERESTS DON’T WANT CUBA INSIDE THE TARIFF WALL)
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Page 22: Recalling that only Congress has the Constitutional authority to declare war, IAW Art. I, Sec. 8, a joint Resolution (is NOT an Act of law, but only a declaration of the position of the law-making body, and is NOT binding on other parties. AWAYS be cautious whether you are dealing with an ACT of Congress or with a RESOLUTION) WAS FIRST PUT FORWARD LAYING OUT THE usc (u.s. Congress) position in response to McKinley war message and prior to formulating the declaration of war. I include this in this slide because it sheds so much light on the nation’s thinking as reflected in the peoples’ representative body (is this still the case in our time? What do you think?). The Teller Amendment insured that U.S. sugar interests would not be injured by a free Cuba.
THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR, 1898 (CONTINUED) President Signs Declaration of War – 25 April 1898
Bailey, 1980, 467
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Page 23: This is a political cartoon of the day in England. Europeans felt that U.S. war on Cuba (a Spanish possession) was in violation of America’s own Monroe Doctrine. What do you think, was it?
AMERICA AS A GREAT POWER, 1898-1900
ENGLAND CHEERS US DECLARATION OF WAR (THIS GETS SPAIN)
OTHER MONARCHIES IN EUROPE DON’T AGREE
T. R. (ASST. SEC. NAV.) ORDERS ADM. DEWEY’S FLEET TO MANILA
DEWEY SURPRISES, DESTROYS, A SOMULENT SPANISH “FLEET” (AUG. 1898)
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Page 24: War is always fun; for the first few months or so, then the real situation begins to sink in: KIA/WIA/MIA/POWs, $$$, pain, rationing, forced migration, torture, rape, pillage, murder of non-combatants, destruction of cities and infrastructure, tragedy, sadness, regret, psychological injury and trauma, and on and on.
England glories that its competitor/enemy (Spain) was in the drink in war with the U.S.
IMPORTANTLY: Theodore Roosevelt was the UNDER SECRETARY of the U.S. Navy and, without the knowledge of his boss, SecNav John D. Long, ordered the U.S. Navy Asiatic (Pacific) Fleet, commanded by Admiral George Dewey, to prepare for an attack on the Spanish fleet in vicinity of Spanish Philippines. Dewy was dispatched on order of the president, sailed into Manila bay on a Sunday morning (always a good time for a sneak attack on your prey, while the sailors are sleeping off a Saturday night hangover or at religious services) and in an instant the admiral becomes a nation/world-wide hero (many children of that time carried the name Dewey; streets, schools, ball parks, toys, all named Dewey). (See map on next slide).
AMERICA AS A GREAT POWER, 1898-1900 (CONTINUED
Bailey, 1980, 469
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Page 25: You should know that one Emilio Aguinaldo a Philippine revolutionary against the Spanish colonization, sailed with Dewey into Manila Bay. Shortly after Dewey's stunning victory, Aguinaldo declared the Philippines to be an independent nation. America, the first revolutionary independent nation in world history, some 100 years prior, managed to blithely ignore the Philippinos’ declaration of independence and then proceed to make war (after Spanish capitulation) against the Philippine independence fighters. Isn’t history FASCINATING? But, we’re at war here, so what’s next?
AMERICA AS A GREAT POWER, 1898-1900 (CONTINUED)
T. R. LEADS “ROUGH RIDERS” ON FOOT UP WRONG HILL
SPANISH FLEET IS WIPED OUT IN SANTIAGO HARBOR, CUBA
SPAIN SIGNS A PROTOCOL TO END HOSTILITIES (12 AUG., 1898)
1. SPAIN WILL RELINQUISH CUBA
2. CEDE PUERTO RICO, GUAM TO THE US
3. PERMITS US TO HOLD MANILA, PENDING FINAL TREATY
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Page 26: Lieutenant Colonel Theodore Roosevelt, 1st U.S. Volunteer Cav Regiment, rode into war in Cuba. No question that he engaged in, sometimes, heated combat with Spanish regulars and locals, however his “ink” was far more plentiful than his deeds. In one maneuver, he led the charge (which included the 9th and the 10th Regular U.S. Army Regiments of African-American famed “Buffalo Soldiers) on the wrong objective. That can happen in war, soldiers lives were lost, but the battles were won; that’s what counts. His whole deployment was 137 days (that’s MY kind of war; where do I sign up?). TR was awarded the Congressional Medal of Honor. The U.S.N. performed magnificently and decisively defeated the older, more experienced, Spanish fleet.
Spain cries “uncle” (I give up).
AMERICA AS A GREAT POWER, 1898-1900 (CONTINUED)
THERE IS A BITTER CONTROVERSY IN THE US CONGRESS:
ANTI-IMPERIALISTS: COLONIALIZATION IS AGAINST CONSTITUTION
EXPANSIONISTS: ECONOMIC & STRATEGIC ADVANTAGES
“TAKE UP THE WHITE MAN’S BURDEN-
YE DARE NOT STOOP TO LESS-
NOR CALL TOO LOUD ON FREEDOM
TO CLOKE YOUR WEARINESS”
~~RUDYARD KIPLING
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Page 27: NOW, America has an earth-shattering decision to make: grant independence to the Philippine people? Or, take over the Philippines for America’s sake?
The nation, as represented in its Congress (it is OUR Congress you know. But you may not be happy with them at present: “Jan 9, 2014 - ... more than half the members of the House and Senate are now millionaires, ....” https://www.google.com/?gws_rd=ssl#q=how+many+people+in+the+u.s.+congress+today+are+millionaires%3F. Can a millionaire really understand the challenges in the life of the average American?).
Those of you who took my in-class INTR 3900 Contemporary India last year remember our readings from the famed British poet and writer Rudyard Kipling.
Next slide
AMERICA AS A GREAT POWER, 1898-1900 (CONTINUED)
CONGRESS EVENTUALLY PASSES THE TREATY, 6 FEB., 1899
EMILIO AGUINALDO, WHO ASSISTED THE US, REVOLTS (4 FEB., 1899)
US SENDS 70,000 TROOPS (4X CUBAN DEPLOYMENT)
THREE YEARS OF “JUNGLE-GUERRILLA WARFARE” –(INSURRECTION)
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Page 28: In the treaty settlement with Spain, which relinquished its sovereignty (what are the three elements of sovereignty?) over Cuba.
The Philippines, Puerto Rico, and (today’s) Guam (then called the Ladrones =“bandits” islands) were all ceded (surrendered, from Latin cedere, to yield, used in international diplomacy in regard to territory given up by its possessor) to the U.S.
No sooner was war with Spain over with then America entered into a war to quash Philippine independence. At the end of that war 4,165 Americans died (some 75% from disease), 3,000 WIA, 12-20,000 Philippine Independence fighters killed, and between 200,000 and 1.5 million non-combatant Philippinos were killed, either by attack, forced migration, disease, exposure, or neglect.
AMERICA AS A GREAT POWER, 1898-1900 (CONTINUED)
1900 – McKINLEY IS REELECTED PRESIDENT, T. R. IS HIS VICE
THE US IS NOW SEEN AS A WORLD POWER WHICH DECISIVELY BEAT A MAJOR EUROPEAN POWER IN BATTLES ABROAD AND NOW HAS POSSESSIONS OVERSEAS
THE FORMER COLONY NOW HAS COLONIES
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Page 29: The end results of this period of U.S. diplomatic history are shown on this slide.
We now enter the new century as a recognized world power.
The coming century will be a trail burner; it will become known as “the American Century” (do you think that the present 21st Century will become known as “the Century of China”?)
Next slide.
Open covenants of peace, openly arrived at, after which there shall be no private international understandings of any kind, but diplomacy shall proceed always frankly and in the public view. --Woodrow Wilson, Address to Congress, 8 January, 1918 (Point 1 of the 14 points) ~End ~
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Page 30: This is President Woodrow Wision’s great vision towrd the end of the next war coming up; the worst war in world history up to that time (8-10 million men killed on the battlefield in just 4 years=2 to 2.5 million killed/year; THAT’s war!!).
