critical review essay
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Chapter Six "They Can Be Hired in Masses; They Can Be Managed and Controlled like Unthinking Slaves"
The consignment of Indians and Mexicans to different "group positions" in the social structure of Anglo California vividly illustrates how the racialization process helped
structure the imposition of white supremacy in the state. Although each ethnic group was racialized differently, neither was ever seen as the equal of white Americans;
neither ever posed a serious threat to the superordinate racial status or privileged class position of white male immigrants. Indians became a marginal part of the new
society while Mexicans were subordinated at the lowest levels of the working class, where they did not pose a serious problem for European Americans. Moreover,
both groups remained tied to the precapitalist ranching or hunting and gathering economies of the Mexican period for decades after statehood and did not contend
with EuropeanAmerican men who were rapidly being integrated into the capitalist labor market.
White Californians, however, grew rapidly alarmed by the presence of other racialized, nonEuropean groups in the state: AfricanAmerican, Chinese, and Japanese
immigrants. As discussed earlier, the arrival of black slaves during the Gold Rush heightened anxiety among European Americans that slavery might compromise
California's prospect of becoming a haven for free white labor. When Chinese immigrants followed blacks into the mining region, whites drew close analogies between
black slaves and Chinese "coolies." This relationship was further reinforced by the unfortunate timing of the arrival of the Chinese; they came to California in the midst
of mounting sectional conflict over slavery. The replace
C o p y r i g h t 1 9 9 4 . U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s .
A l l r i g h t s r e s e r v e d . M a y n o t b e r e p r o d u c e d i n a n y f o r m w i t h o u t p e r m i s s i o n f r o m t h e
p u b l i s h e r , e x c e p t f a i r u s e s p e r m i t t e d u n d e r U . S . o r a p p l i c a b l e c o p y r i g h t l a w .
EBSCO Publishing : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 1/16/2020 3:11 AM via UNIV OF CALIFORNIA-SANTA CRUZ AN: 19138 ; Almaguer, Tomas.; Racial Fault Lines : The Historical Origins of White Supremacy in California Account: s8329998.main.ehost
Page 154
ment, to all intents and purposes, of the African slave trade by the traffic in Chinese "coolies" only reinforced the image of the Chinese as a threat to the status of free
white labor. 1
It is against the backdrop of this classbased controversy among white Americans over the presence of unfree labor in the state, and the displacement of antiblack
sentiment onto Asian workers, that the Chinese experience in nineteenthcentury California initially unfolds. These concerns, plus widespread anxiety over the Chinese
immigrant's ostensible "heathenism" and "savagery," rapidly ignited virulent antiChinese sentiment throughout California during the last half of the century.
This chapter examines the major features of this antiChinese sentiment, situating it specifically within the context of the emerging class antagonisms and conflicting
interests between white capitalists and white workers. Racialized hostility against the Chinese is best understood in light of the way classbased interests among
European Americans were defined in relation to this immigrant population. American capitalists sought to utilize Chinese labor whenever possible and profited
handsomely from doing so. White workers, on the other hand, railed against the Chinese because of the threat they ostensibly posed to their status as a "free" laboring
class. They believed that the Chinese were mere pawns of capitalist interests and other monopolistic forces that relied upon unfree labor. Consequently, white male
laborers believed that Chinese workers threatened both their precarious class position and the underlying racial entitlements that white supremacy held out to them and
to the white immigrants who followed them into the new class structure.
The Unwelcome Arrival of "John Chinaman"
The Chinese immigrants who first arrived in California during the 1850s came from the agricultural district of Kwangtung province in southeastern China. These
immigrants were largely an agricultural peasantry drawn to California by either the lure of the Gold Rush or by promises of lucrative employment opportunities made
by overseas shipping companies. Within China, overpopulation, floods and other natural catastrophes, and the social dislocation wrought by the Opium Wars and the
Taiping Rebellion also stimulated Chinese emigration.2 Although these immigrants initially were seen as "coolies," they were not actual victims of the coolie trade that
enslaved many Chinese nationals at the time.
The vast majority of Chinese who came to California arrived as indentured immigrants through the "creditticket system." They were a semifree
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population who secured passage to America by entering into contract labor arrangements whereby they were bound for a period of time to labor "bosses" in order to
repay their debt. 3 They were typically bonded for passage by Chinese merchants in California who then rented them out in gangs of fifty to one hundred men.
Alexander Saxton succinctly summarizes the major features of this debt bondage system:
In effect [the worker] was at the mercy of the American employer, and of the Chinese merchant associations, agents, or contractors, who had arranged his passage from Canton,
who hired him out, received his wages, provided his food and protection, and determined when, if ever, he would return home again. To complete this circle, an extralegal but firm
understanding between Chinese merchants associations and the Pacific ship operators hindered any Chinese from booking return passage until he had been cleared by the
merchant association. It was a tight system, not exactly the same as slavery, but not altogether different. 4
Although indentured Chinese workers were typically advanced approximately seventy dollars (fifty for passage and twenty for expenses), they were routinely required
to repay upward to two hundred dollars.
While most came to the United States as indentured servants, some Chinese immigrants managed to secure the necessary funds for the trip from informal rotating
credit associations in south China or from family resources.5 A few of the first Chinese immigrants were merchants and shopkeepers who later became part the
Chinese community's small middle class. This merchant class became a localized ruling elite within San Francisco's Chinatown between 1847 and 1858. According to
Stanford Lyman, "Because commercial success was so closely tied to social acceptance and moral probity in America, this elite enjoyed good relations with public
officials. Chinatown merchants controlled immigrant associations, dispensed jobs and opportunities, settled disputes, and acted as advocates for Chinese sojourners
before white society."6
Historian Sucheng Chan also notes that the largest merchants owned importexport businesses and often established political organizations on the basis of homeland
ties. According to Chan, "as almost all the imported goods were sold to Chinese—who favored food, clothing, and utensils from China—it was in the interests of these
merchants and directors of community associations to help their customers and clients maintain strong ties to China. After all, provisioning their fellow countrymen was
the chief source of the merchants' profit, and helping to retain an orientation to the homeland was the main basis of the association leaders' power."7
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Furthermore, Chan estimates that between 1870 and 1900 approximately 40 percent of the Chinese residing in San Francisco and Sacramento were entrepreneurs
and 5 to 12 percent professionals and artisans, while the workingclass population comprised less than 50 percent of the urban Chinese. In sharp contrast, 80 percent
of the Chinese rural population were farm laborers and service workers, 1 to 3 percent professionals and artisans, and only about 15 percent farmers, labor
contractors, and merchants—the "rural elite." 8
While only a few hundred Chinese immigrants arrived in California during the initial phase of the Gold Rush, by 1851 that number had swelled to 2,716 and by 1852
reached over 20,000. By 1870, approximately threequarters of the 63,000 Chinese in the United States resided in California, where they comprised 9 percent of the
total population.9 Most of these Chinese immigrants initially settled in rural areas as well as the northern mining region of the state. Only onequarter of the Chinese
population resided in San Francisco by 1870, with other urban centers such as Sacramento, Stockton, and Marysville also having significant Chinese populations. In
1900, however, 45 percent of all Chinese in the state resided in the San Francisco Bay area alone; over twothirds were already urban dwellers by this date.10
A crucial demographic feature of Chinese immigration was that it was overwhelmingly male from the outset. In 1860, for example, only 1,784 of the more than 34,000
Chinese residing in the United States were women—a ratio of one to eighteen. This ratio increased to a high of one to twentysix in 1890 before settling once again at
the 1860 figure in 1900. Even as late as that, there were only 4,522 Chinese women enumerated on the federal census of that year.11 This accounts for the common
reference to the early immigrant population as a "bachelor society."
According to historian Ronald Takaki, Chinese immigrants brought with them three main social organizations that structured their lives in California: the huiguan
(district associations), the tongs (secret societies), and the fongs (clans) which were comprised of close family and village members or larger village associations. The
latter two organizations were devoted primarily to the provision of illegal goods and services (such as the tong's opium trade, gambling, and prostitution) and to mutual
aid activities (such as the fong's maintenance of clubhouses and temples, its transmission of letters to China, and its shipping home of the remains of deceased
Chinese).12
Takaki maintains that the most important of these organizations was the huiguan or district associations from regions such as Toishan, Tan
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ping, or Namhoi in southern China. These associations received immigrants, provided initial housing, secured employment, and administered the "creditticket" system. 13 The main district associations in San Francisco during the 1850s were the Sze Yup, Ning Yeung, Sam Yup, Yeong Wo, Hop Wo, and Yan Wo. These
organizations came to be known as the Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association (CCBA) or, more popularly, as the Chinese Six Companies. The CCBA settled
interdistrict conflicts and provided important educational and health services to the community.14 They also played a major role as spokespersons for the Chinese
immigrant community. They often hired prominent white attorneys to represent their commercial trade as well as the general interests of the Chinese community.15
Lacking any meaningful recourse to state and local government, the Chinese Six Companies frequently functioned as a quasigovernment for the Chinese community.
Indeed as one scholar maintains, the Chinese community was "more like a colonial dependency than an immigrant settlement in an open society."16
Sucheng Chan maintains that three fundamental differences between the ChineseAmerican communities established in the U.S. and the original communities in China
profoundly shaped the Chinese immigrant experience in California.
First, Chinese immigrant communities, though semiautonomous enclaves, were profoundly shaped by forces emanating from the larger society around them. Not only did the
Chinese quickly adapt to the functioning of a capitalist economy, they persisted despite legal exclusion and antiChinese violence. Second, since few members of gentry families
emigrated . . . merchants who had a low status in China became the elite in ChineseAmerican communities by virtue of their ability to deal with whites and to provide for the needs
of other Chinese. Finally, as few women emigrated to the United States, Chinese America was virtually a womanless world, especially in rural areas. Consequently, Chinese
American communities were socially incomplete. 17
The "Damning Influence" of the "Heathen Chinee"
European Americans found much about Chinese immigrants distasteful—physical appearance, language, manner of dress, food, religion, and social customs. If being
Christian and civilized were the principal cultural criteria by which white Californians evaluated new groups they encountered in the state, then the Chinese fell short in
both areas: they were "heathen" as well as "uncivilized." Their clothing, for example, was radically at odds with EuropeanAmerican conceptions of proper attire. The
Chinese immigrants
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wore broad trousers, blue cotton blouselike shirts, widebrimmed straw hats, and closely cropped hair with a long black queue down their backs. 18
"The first impulse of an American, when he see for the first time a Chinese, is to laugh at him," wrote an American trader in 1830. "His dress, if judged by our
standards, is ridiculous. . . . His trousers are a couple of meal bags . . ., his shoes are huge machines, turned up at the toe, his cap is fantastic and his head is shaven
except on the crown, when there hangs down a tuft of hair as long as a spaniel's tail."19 The invidious comparison between the queue and a dog's tail symbolically
reflected the inferior status the Chinese held in this trader's mind. The Chinese, like Indians in the state, were routinely likened to animals and unequivocally deemed
"uncivilized."
Stuart Creighton Miller's exhaustive study of white Americans' perceptions of Chinese immigrants in the nineteenth century perceptively documents the demeaning
racialized representations that crystallized in the popular white imagination. According to Miller, the Chinese were viewed as "ridiculously clad, superstitious ridden,
dishonest, crafty, cruel, and marginal members of the human race who lacked the courage, intelligence, skill, and will to do anything about the oppressive despotism
under which they lived or the stagnating social conditions that surrounded them."20 Miller concludes that the Chinese were seen as a "peculiar" people having "bizarre
tastes and habits" that included making medicines from rhinoceros horns and soup from bird's nests, and for allegedly eating dogs, cats, and rats.21 ''Virtually every
aspect of Chinese life was used to illustrate and lampoon the Chinese propensity for doing everything backwards: wearing white for mourning, purchasing a coffin
while still alive, dressing women in pants and men in skirts, shaking hands with oneself in greeting a friend, writing up and down the page, eating sweets first and soup
last, etc."22
These early images of the Chinese found fertile soil in the United States, where they were further expanded upon by other racializing American commentators. Ronald
Takaki argues, for instance, that Bret Harte's popular poem the "Heathen Chinee" greatly influenced public perception of the Chinese in America as "miceeaters,"
"pagans," "dark," ''impish," "superstitious," "yellow," and as "heathens" with a "peculiar odor" that reeked of ginger and opium.23
As noted earlier, white Californians' derisive stereotypes of blacks apparently shaped their initial perceptions of Chinese immigrants as well. As competition between
white and Chinese laborers increased in later years, a number of the negative stereotypes associated with black slaves were displaced onto the Chinese. Both groups
were seen as being docile, humble, irresponsible, lying, thieving, and lazy.24
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Like blacks, the "China boys" were infantilized and summarily relegated to a subordinate status in relations to "white men." 25 While white immigrants arrogantly
viewed themselves as rational, virtuous, civilized, libidinally controlled, and Christian, the Chinese were perceived as irrational, morally inferior, savage, lustful, and
heathen. The most noxious representation of the Chinese portrayed them as a cross between a bloodsucking vampire, with slanted eyes and a pigtail, and a "nagur"
with dark skin and thick lips.26 One author has referred to this racial stigmatization as the "negroization" of the Chinese stereotype.27
Religious differences provided a major basis of the broad cultural chasm that socially differentiated the Chinese and white populations in the state. Most Chinese
immigrants practiced a folk religion that combined the beliefs of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism. They built altars to honor deities such as Kwang Kung, god of
literature and war; Bak Ti, god of the north; Hou Yin, the monkey god; and Kwan Yin, goddess of mercy.28 Nothing, of course, offended the Christian sensibilities of
European Americans more than having a heathen group of "pagan idolaters" in their midst. Horace Greeley, for example, in an 1854 editorial in the New York Tribune
lashed out against the religious practices of Chinese immigrants, arguing that only the "Christian races" or "white races" should be allowed to settle and "assimilate with
Americans."29
Reverend S. V. Blakeslee, editor of The Pacific, the oldest religious paper on the West Coast, echoed a similar view in his 1877 address before the General
Association of Congregational Churches of California. Reverend Blakeslee warned that the presence of the Chinese in California posed a greater threat to the state's
Christian population than blacks had to the South's:
Slavery compelled the heathen to give up idolatry, and they did it. The Chinese have no such compulsion and they do not do it. . . . Slavery compelled the adoption of Christian
forms of worship, resulting in universal Christianization. The Chinese have no such influence tending to their conversion, and rarely—one or two in a thousand—become
Christian. . . . Slavery took the heathens and by force made them Americans in feeling, tastes, habits, language, sympathy, religion and spirit; first fitting them for citizenship, and
then giving them the vote. The Chinese feel no such force, but remaining in character and life the same as they were in old China, unprepared for citizenship, and adverse in spirit
to our institutions. 30
White intolerance and racial animosity toward the Chinese were further exacerbated by inflammatory characterizations of social life in California's "Chinatowns."
Everywhere the Chinese lived, their detractors argued, one found crowded living conditions, gambling, opium smoking, prostitution,
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and a number of other despicable vices. Chinatown was "simply a miniature section of Canton transported bodily," proclaimed one antiChinese spokesperson. 31
Indeed, such perceptions later led to the enactment of San Francisco's infamous "Cubic Air" ordinance of 1870, which required lodging houses in Chinatown, the only
place where the ordinance was enforced, to provide "at least five hundred cubic feet" of clean air "for each adult person dwelling or sleeping therein." Violation of this
ordinance resulted in a fine of ten to five hundred dollars, imprisonment from five days to three months, or both.32
Gendered and Sexualized Representations of Chinese Immigrants
The perceived menace that the few Chinese immigrant women in the state posed to white men was yet another aspect of antiChinese sentiment at the time. Like
lowerclass Mexican women and Indian women in general, Chinese women were portrayed as hypersexual and readily available to white men. In his annual address to
Congress in 1874, for example, President Ulysses S. Grant openly addressed the issue:
The great proportion of the Chinese immigrants who come to our shores do not come voluntarily. . . . In a worse form does this apply to Chinese women. Hardly a perceptible
percentage of them perform any honorable labor, but they are brought for shameful purposes, to the disgrace of communities where they settled and to the great demoralization of
the youth of these localities. If this evil practice can be legislated against, it will be my pleasure as well as duty to enforce any regulation to secure so desirable an end. 33
Horace Greeley echoed a similar view in an 1854 New York Tribune editorial. The arrival of Chinese women in the United States had to be prohibited because they
were "uncivilized, unclean and filthy beyond all conception, without any of the higher domestic or social relations; lustful and sensual in their disposition; every female is
a prostitute of the barest order."34
Like Chinese women, Chinese men also were perceived as a threat to the moral wellbeing of the white population, and most especially to white women. As an
overwhelmingly male immigrant population, Chinese men were initially seen as menacing sexual "perverts" that preyed upon innocent white women. This view first
gained currency on the East Coast, where newspapers sensationalized accounts of Chinese men luring and debauching young white girls in opium dens and laundries.
An 1873 New York Times article, for instance, reported the presence of "a handsome but
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squalidly dressed young white girl" in an opium den in that city's Chinatown. When the Chinese owner of the den was asked about the girl, he was reported to have
"replied with a horrible leer, 'Oh, hard time in New York. Young girl hungry. Plenty come here. Chinaman always have something to eat, and he like young white girl,
He! He!.'" The Times later reported that Chinese men were so depraved that they often attended Christian Sunday schools only to solicit sexual favors from the white
female instructors. As proof they cited the case of one Sunday school teacher who apparently married one of her Chinese students. The girl's father publicly insisted
that she had been drugged into marrying the man. "No matter how good a Chinaman may be, ladies never leave their children with them, especially little girls," warned
another 1876 article in Scribner's. 35
Expressions of public concern for the virtue of white women were more than mere moral posturing, for they often led to direct violence against Chinese men. In one
incident in 1889 an angry mob of two thousand people demolished a Chinese laundry in Milwaukee after its two owners were accused of ravaging more than twenty
young white girls in the back room. In 1883 in Waynesboro, Georgia, townsmen chased the "rateaters" out of town and burned their business to the ground, fearing
that white girls would be "caught in the toils of Chinese duplicity."36
Fears and suspicions similar to these led to the enactment of an antimiscegenation statute in California in 1880 that prohibited the issuance of a marriage licence
between white persons and "a Negro, mulatto, or Mongolian."37 Consequently, there are only a few cases in California of Chinese men marrying white women in the
state. Those who did were most often drawn from the Chinese immigrant middle class: urban merchants, entrepreneurs, or agriculturalists in rural areas.38 As in the
case of Mexicans, class position apparently moderated the otherwise rabid antimiscegenation sentiment directed at the Chinese in the state.
There is evidence that some Americans were sympathetic toward the first Chinese immigrants, especially those of the merchant class, and perhaps—as long as their
numbers were small—even welcomed them. This reception quickly changed, however, as the Chinese increasingly ruffled the cultural sensibilities and sexual anxieties
of the white population.39 Most public expressions of antiChinese hostility centered on their cultural differences and on the fact that the Chinese were unambiguously
nonwhite. Pointed testimony to this effect is captured in the minority report to the 1877 Joint Special Committee of Congress on Chinese immigration. Therein, Senator
Oliver P. Morton of Indiana, chair of the committee, summarily acknowledges that "if the Chinese in California were white
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people, being all other respects what they are, I do not believe that the complaints and warfare made against them would have existed to any considerable extent.
Their difference in color, dress, manners, and religion have, in my judgment, more to do with this hostility than their alleged vices or any actual injury to the white
people of California." 40
The Subordinate Political Status of the Chinese in Anglo California
From the standpoint of popular opinion, the Chinese were clearly perceived as nonwhite, a fact that was reinforced by their close association in EuropeanAmerican
consciousness with blacks. The official political status of Chinese immigrants in California was formally adjudicated in 1854, when the case of People v. Hall legally
restricted the Chinese to the same secondclass status of blacks and Indians; they too were officially deemed nonwhite and, therefore, ineligible for citizenship rights.
This case turned on the question of whether or not three Chinese witnesses would be allowed to testify against three white men (one of whom was George W. Hall)
accused of murdering a Chinese man named Ling Sing. The California Supreme Court overturned Hall's murder conviction, ruling that the testimony of Chinese
witnesses was inadmissible because state law stipulated that "no black or mulatto person, or Indian, shall be permitted to give evidence in favor of, or against, any
white person."
Writing for the majority, Justice Charles J. Murray stated that "the words, Indian, Negro, Black and White," were generic racial terms that embraced all nonwhites and
as such prohibited Chinese immigrants "from being witnesses against whites." In support of the decision, Justice Murray argued that the legislative prohibition against
blacks and Indians entering testimony had "adopted the most comprehensive terms to embrace every known class or shade of color, as the apparent design was to
protect the white person from the influence of all testimony other than that of persons of the same caste. The use of these terms must, by every sound rule of
construction, exclude every one who is not of white blood."41 Thus, this case juridically decreed that the Chinese were unambiguously nonwhite and therefore not
entitled to testify against white citizens in the state.42
The court's decision was made on the basis of some curious anthropological reasoning. In his majority decision, Justice Murray argued that the Chinese should be
prohibited from entering testimony because they were
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ancestrally related to the California Indians. Murray made special note that "the name Indian, from the time of Columbus to the present day, has been used to
designate, not alone the North American, but the whole of the Mongolian race, and that the name, though first applied probably through mistake, was afterwards
continued as appropriate on account of the supposed common origin." 43 Moreover, "The similarity of the skull and pelvis, and the general configuration of the two
races; the remarkable resemblance in eyes, beard, hair, and other peculiarities, together, with the contiguity of the two Continents, might well have led to the belief that
this country was first peopled by the Asiatics, and that the difference between the different tribes and the parent stock was such as would necessarily arise from the
circumstances of climate, pursuits, and other physical causes."44
People v. Hall had farreaching implications. Murray's closing arguments show that the court was fully aware of its impact:
We have carefully considered all the consequences resulting from a different construction and are satisfied that, even in a doubtful case, we would be impelled to this decision on
grounds of public policy.
The same rule that would admit them to testify, would admit them to all the equal rights of citizenship, and we might soon see them at the polls, in the jury box, upon the bench and
in our legislative halls.
This is not a speculation which exists in the excited and overheated imagination of the patriot and statesman, but it is an actual and present danger . . . 45
The effects of the People v. Hall decision were catastrophic for the Chinese. After the case, they were subjected to numerous legislative initiatives that specifically
targeted them on a racial basis. In 1863 and 1864, for example, the California State Legislature included the Chinese in a law prohibiting the entry of "nonwhites" into
public schools. Reorganization of the state's educational laws in 1870, which formally institutionalized a policy of segregating white and nonwhite students into separate
schools, also mandated the segregation of the Chinese. This law remained in effect for the Chinese until 1929, when the revised School Code repealed the sections
that had racially segregated both Chinese and Japanese children.46 This was eight years after such segregation was rescinded for Indians and thirtyone years after
blacks were no longer required to attend segregated public schools.
It was not until 1872 that the 1854 People v. Hall case was rescinded with the passage of the Federal Civil Rights Act.47 In the period during which it was legally in
effect, Chinese immigrants were frequently targeted by discriminatory legislation and by unprincipled white men who commit
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ted crimes against them with impunity. Denied the basic right to have recourse to the state apparatus on their own behalf, Chinese immigrants in California were
relegated to a secondclass status.
The Class Basis of AntiChinese Sentiment in California
Despite the animosity and political marginalization that the Chinese experienced in California, they nonetheless made valiant efforts to survive and prosper in the face of
daunting odds. In so doing, they managed to secure a modest foothold in the selfemployment sector of the new economy, where their entry was greeted with
widespread hostility from whites of this class.
Although antiChinese sentiment was widespread in California, it was powerfully mediated by short and longterm class interests of the white population. Although
privately many capitalists held the Chinese in contempt, they were not oblivious to the advantages of their use as a tractable and cheap labor force. Such material
interests often outweighed or counterbalanced the private racism that these entrepreneurs harbored.
White workers who were drawn into competition with the Chinese, however, had little reason to mitigate their racial and cultural antipathies. Instead, they routinely
attempted to create, extend, or preserve their social position against the perceived threat that the Chinese posed to their superordinate status in the state. White
supremacist sentiments were readily inflamed and provided ample justification for driving the Chinese out of sectors of the economy where they competed with skilled
white workers. (The racial animosity exhibited by the white working class has been well documented by numerous scholars of the antiChinese movement and will be
discussed briefly below.) 48 Smallscale, independent businessmen (petit commodity producers) such as selfemployed laundrymen and independent miners were also
drawn into competition with the Chinese and responded similarly, seeking to drive the Chinese from areas of the economy in which they were making inroads and to
undermine the competitive threat they posed through the use of racially discriminatory legislation.49
During the initial period of their settlement in California, mining served as the principal sector of the economy in which the Chinese secured a livelihood. Initially arriving
in small numbers during the Gold Rush, by 1855 twothirds of the 24,000 Chinese in the United States, having fulfilled the terms of their indenture, worked placer
mining claims as independent prospectors or in small group partnerships.50 The Chinese population
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engaged in mining climbed rapidly to nearly 35,000 in 1860, when over 70 percent of all gainfully employed Chinese male adults were placer miners. 51
Opportunities in mining, however, were finite, and success or failure of the Chinese in this endeavor structured other employment opportunities. According to Sucheng
Chan, the presence or absence of mining in a particular area affected what other occupations the Chinese successfully entered. She has shown that there was an
inverse relationship between the percentage of the Chinese population in the mining industry and the percentage earning a more menial living. "When mining was
available, a few became laborers and providers of personal services, but as mining waned from the 1860s onward, an increasing number of Chinese became
laundrymen, laborers, servants, and cooks. When mining was not available, the first Chinese to enter those areas had to take menial jobs from the beginning."52
Consequently, as the Chinese turned away from mining, "the more enterprising ones became manufacturers or merchants in the urban areas and truck gardeners in the
rural and suburban areas, while the less fortunate everywhere became laborers, cooks, and servants."53
Opposition to Chinese immigrants in California, however, developed as soon as they came into direct economic competition with the white population. The first
expressions of such antiChinese sentiment came from independent white miners in the mining districts of northern California, who quickly concluded, despite evidence
to the contrary, that Chinese miners were primarily gang laborers unfairly competing with the white "producing class." EuropeanAmerican miners claimed that the
Chinese drained wealth from the country by sending part of their earnings to China, encouraged "monopolies" in the state, posed a serious moral threat to the entire
white population, and, finally, threatened the tranquility of the mining districts.54
This early opposition to the Chinese was spearheaded by selfemployed, independent white miners. It was largely through their efforts that many Chinese placer
miners eventually were driven from the mines.55 In addition to committing brutal acts of violence against the Chinese, these miners successfully lobbied for the passage
of "foreign miners" tax in 1852. This legislation required noncitizens to secure a license in order to mine in California. While these laws also affected "foreign miners"
from Mexico, Peru, Chile, Australia, and the Pacific Islands, the Chinese were the primary targets of this social closure.
In May 1852, the California State legislature enacted the first foreign miners' tax which required a monthly payment of three dollars from every foreign miner who did
not desire to become a citizen. (Since the Chinese
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were deemed nonwhite, they were ineligible for citizenship.) This blatant discrimination remained in effect until it was overturned by the federal Civil Rights Act of
1870. 56 While it was in effect, however, it garnered the state over $100,000 in annual fees and through the 1860s accounted for a large segment of the state's
revenues.57
Clearly delineated class lines emerged around the "Chinese question" in the mining district. Anglo slaveholders, monopolists, and "foreign task masters" (such as
Mexican patrons and rancheros who profited from the use of unfree labor in the mines) were drawn into competition with white independent miners in the region, who,
as we have seen, considered themselves the embodiment of Andrew Jackson's "producer class." The class nature of this racial antagonism is clearly captured in the
various resolutions put forth by the white miners who opposed both the Chinese and the white "monopolist" interests aligned with them. One such pronouncement
stated: ''It is the duty of miners to take the matter into their own hands [and] erect such barriers as shall be sufficient to check this Asiatic inundation. . . . The
Capitalists . . . who are encouraging or engaged in the importation of these burlesques on humanity would crown their ships with the long tailed, horned and cloven
hoofed inhabitants of the infernal regions [if they could make a profit on it]."58
Widespread hostility along with diminished opportunities in placer mining effectively drove many of these Chinese immigrants from the mining districts and into the new
capitalist labor market. The railroad industry, in desperate need of labor at the time, immediately benefitted from the sudden availability of "surplus" Chinese labor.
From 1866 to 1869 the Central Pacific Railroad became the employer of over ten thousand Chinese, who dug the Sierra tunnel and extended the railroad across the
deserts of Nevada and Utah.59
There were at least three advantages that largescale employers like the Central Pacific saw to using Chinese laborers. First, they were readily available. The
prohibition against slavery, the relatively small free Negro, Indian, and Mexican populations in the state, and the opportunities for selfemployment of white immigrants
made labor a scarce commodity in California. From the viewpoint of American capitalists, the Chinese were ideal in that they could be employed for a short period
and then conveniently sent back to China.
Second, the Chinese were also a source of cheap labor. Alexander Saxton has estimated that the Central Pacific Railroad hired unskilled Chinese laborers at
approximately twothirds the cost of unskilled white laborers. Although both white and Chinese workers received the same
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monthly wage of thirty dollars in 1865, the railroad had to provide room and board for its white employees, whereas Chinese laborers were housed and fed by their
contractors. 60
Third, American employers found the Chinese more reliable and tractable than other laborers. The contract labor system made them extremely exploitable and
compliant, and employers of Chinese labor in California readily attested to the system's advantages. In testimony before the Joint Senate Committee on Chinese
Immigration in 1876, for example, Charles Crocker of the Central Pacific Railroad acknowledged that he preferred Chinese labor to white because of their "greater
reliability." He also admired the Chinese laborers' "steadiness, and their aptitude and capacity for hard work." Moreover, Crocker argued:
I think that the presence of Chinese as laborers among us goes very far toward the material interest of the country. . . . I believe that the effects of Chinese labor upon the white
labor has an elevating instead of degrading tendency. . . . I believe, today, if the Chinese labor was driven out of this State . . . there are 75,000 white laborers who would have to
come down from the elevated classes of laborers they are now engaged in and take the place of these Chinamen, and therefore it would degrade white labor instead of elevating
it. 61
Farmers struggling to develop capitalist agriculture at the time also appreciated the role that a cheap and tractable labor force afforded them. William Hollister, the
aforementioned agriculturalist from Santa Barbara, stated in 1876 that there was "common sentiment and feeling in favor of the Chinamen" among agriculturalists in the
state. "They are our last resort," Hollister told the committee, "They are the only thing that the farmer can rely upon at all."
At a meeting of the California Fruit Growers' Association at the turn of the century, one farmer argued that Chinese labor was indispensable to California agriculture
because the Chinese were so "well adapted to that particular form of labor to which so many white men object. They are patient, plodding and uncomplaining in the
performance of the most menial service." Another member of the association added that one distinct advantage to the use of "the shortlegged, shortbacked Asiatic"
was his ability to tolerate even the most adverse working conditions. "He works in every sun and clime, and as far as the Chinese are concerned they faithfully perform
their contract and keep their promise, whether the eye of the employer is on them or not." According to this agriculturalist, the need for Chinese labor in California was
not merely ''a question of cheap labor, but of reliable labor."62
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The Class Nature of AntiChinese Sentiment in Rural California
After the decline in mining and the completion of the transcontinental railroad in 1869, Chinese laborers began to enter the nascent truck and fruit farm industry in
California as seasonal laborers. By 1870 they accounted for onetenth of all agricultural laborers, and by 1880 they had become the backbone of the industry, one
third of the total farmlabor force in California. They also were used throughout the state in land reclamation and irrigation projects. 63
By 1880, a few Chinese immigrants had successfully begun small farming ventures as owneroperators and tenants. Sucheng Chan's splendid study of the Chinese in
California agriculture comprehensively documents the extent to which the Chinese entered this sector of the new economy. In areas where white farmers had not
already preceded them, Chinese truck gardeners were able to capture the Chinese market as early as the 1860s and, in the northern mining region, even part of the
nonChinese market.64
Despite these modest advances and occasional success stories, only limited opportunities existed for Chinese farmers in the state's agricultural districts. In the
Sacramento—San Joaquin delta, for example, most Chinese farmers were cash tenants who grew potatoes in the backswamps. Only a few Chinese sharecropped. In
contrast, white farmers were overwhelmingly owneroperators who farmed grain, hay, vegetables, fruit, beans, and livestock. Chan has shown that most of the white
farmers originally from New England and the Middle Atlantic states were owneroperators who eventually dominated grain farming; other white owneroperators,
such as Northern European immigrants, grew grain but also engaged in diversified farming.65
Assessing the nature of the class forces that structured the lives of the Chinese in rural California, Chan stresses that they differed significantly from those in urban
centers such as San Francisco. In rural California, the Chinese ''ruling elite" were often agents for urbanbased firms who helped distribute imported goods to Chinese
clients. More importantly, they primarily served as intermediaries, or as Chan refers to them, as "compradors," who facilitated the interaction between Chinese and
white employers and Chinese laborers in farming and construction projects. They occupied a contradictory class location in that they were both benefactors and
exploiters of the Chinese workers bound to them through the contract labor system. "Since it was difficult for Chinese workers to survive without the knowledge and
contacts that the tenant farmers, rural merchants, and
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labor contractors possessed, the latter were in a position to exploit as well as aid the former. At the same time, since white landowners found their services so
convenient, these members of the rural Chinese elite were also in a position to strike relatively good bargains in land leasing and other business transactions." 66
In this context, it would be a mistake to see the Chinese intermediary class of tenant farmers, labor contractors, and merchants as merely exploiters of less fortunate
Chinese laborers. As a class of "middlemen," they also served as the first line of defense for their compatriots against the abuses of American employers. This was
particularly true in instances where bargaining favorably on behalf of the laborers, as labor contractors often did, also benefited these intermediaries monetarily. As
Chan has perceptively noted, in their leadership they tended to "facilitate rather than dominate agricultural production," and consequently they cannot assume the full
blame for the mistreatment that befell many Chinese laborers in that sector of the economy.67
In this regard, Chan argues that, although
there seemed to be no rigid class barriers among different groups in the Chinese population in rural California—movement in and out of various occupations being quite fluid—
such divisions become more apparent by the turn of the century as upward mobility became more difficult to achieve. On the other hand, it is important to realize that whatever
class divisions that might have existed were mitigated by mutual dependence, kinship and village ties, and ethnic solidarity in the face of hostility from society at large. 68
Given these differences in regional class actors, hostility toward the Chinese in rural California crystallized along different class lines than in urban centers such as San
Francisco where white, workingclass men swelled the ranks of antiChinese groups. According to Chan, hostility to the Chinese in rural California was "led either by
men espousing white supremacist values or by hoodlums out to enjoy themselves by tormenting 'Chinamen.'"69 Moreover, the main rural class—white farmers—with
the potential to rally forcefully against the Chinese saw them as tools of "land monopolists" and turned their hostility toward the latter rather than scapegoating the
Chinese. White farm workers, the other important class protagonist in rural California, were often characterized as tramps, drunkards, and shiftless individuals and thus
generally perceived by Californians as not particularly organizable.70
In the absence of concerted class opposition by the rural white population, antiChinese sentiment was spearheaded by white supremacist orga
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nizations such as the Order of Caucasians (also known as the Caucasian League), who agitated against the Chinese in Truckee, Red Bluff, and Marysville in 1876. 71
Opposition to the Chinese also occurred in Chico and in Sacramento, where in 1877 one group threatened local farmers with the following letter: "Notice is heare
given to all men who owns lands on the Sacramento River is heare ordered to dispense with Chinese labour or suffer sutch consiquinces as may follow within tenn
days. We have heaved and puked over Chinese imposition long a nuff. Goodby John Long Taile."72
In April 1882 another organization, carrying the name "American and European Labor Association," formed in Colusa County in reaction to Chinese workers
demanding wages equal to those paid white Americans. The new organization sought to replace these Chinese workers with young women imported from Europe and
the East Coast and also called upon the local white population to patronize only businesses that employed white labor.73 It was common practice at the time to pay
white farm laborers oneandahalf times the wages paid Chinese laborers.74
AntiChinese sentiment in rural California developed, as it did elsewhere in the state, against the backdrop of an emergent class conflict within the white population
between white capitalist interests and white immigrants, who were increasingly being proletarianized and placed into competition with nonwhite labor. One anti
Chinese proponent writing in the Pacific Rural Press in April 1886 vividly expressed the popular belief among white farmers that the Chinese were the hapless pawns
of capitalist and other monopolists attempting to degrade the status of white labor. He railed against both the Chinese and their employers in these terms:
A class supporting and degrading civilization in China has chained with the shackles of a relentless superstition and unresisting subservency an inbred race of miserable slaves,
who are satisfied with a miserable fare the merest pittance can procure. What more natural than that the services of such a race is desirable by men disposed to regard labor as a
mere article or commodity to be purchased low that the proceeds resulting, may, in competition with his fellows, bring him greater profit? . . .
The Chinese slave invasion of our State has been imposed upon us against our constant expostulation as a people. It has been encouraged only by scheming companies and
equally selfish individuals. . . . This slave system must not only stop its invasion, but it must leave our shores. 75
In short, the racialization of the Chinese in rural California often reflected the way class lines were being forged and contested among the white population in these
regions of the state. The antimonopolist senti
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ments of white small farmers provided an important basis of their bitter opposition to Chinese laborers and their opposition to the commercial interests utilizing them.
Racialized Class Relations in Urban Manufacturing
After 1867 the Chinese found work in a number of the newly opened manufacturing industries in the urban centers of northern California. San Francisco already had
about two hundred manufacturing firms employing approximately fifteen hundred workers in 1860. By 1870 the number of laborers employed in local industries in the
city had skyrocketed to over twelve thousand, making San Francisco the ninthleading manufacturing city in the United States. 76
Paul Ong's study of Chinese labor in early San Francisco provides us an extraordinary glimpse into the structure of the urban economy and the class relations that
bound the Chinese and white populations in that city. He has shown that relatively few Chinese were available for wage work during the 1860s. Most who initially
settled in San Francisco developed an ethnic economy that catered to their compatriots' demands for Chinese goods and services. Chinatown became the core of this
economy, serving as the major retailing, service, vice, and entertainment center for Chinese in the entire state. As late as 1860, only 10 to 15 percent of the Chinese in
San Francisco earned a living as laundrymen and laborers in the city's Anglodominated labor market. But this ethnic economy could not absorb the continuing influx
of immigrants, and so, according to Ong, "by 1870, over half, and perhaps as much as threequarters of the Chinese were a part of the larger urban economy. In the
labor market, they constituted up to onefifth of the potential wage workers."77
This proletarianization process reflected the racial division of labor that became an integral component of the white supremacist transformation of urban California. The
Chinese primarily labored in lowerpaying industries and firms, with those unable to secure jobs in manufacturing usually forced to take service jobs, such as domestic
and laundry work.78 According to Ong, there were several facets to the placement of Chinese laborers in this racially segmented labor market. First, the Chinese were
concentrated in lowwage industries such as those that produced cigars, woolen goods, and boots and shoes. Second, the Chinese often worked for lower wages
within certain industries. Shoe firms, for example, paid Chinese laborers an average annual wage of $311, while similar firms employing
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white laborers paid $901. Third, employers hiring a racially mixed labor force assigned the less desirable jobs to the Chinese while whites held the skilled and better
paying jobs. Whites also generally served as foremen in these plants even when the crew was overwhelmingly Chinese. 79
As a result of this racialized division of labor, Chinese became the principal work force in San Francisco's woolen mills, cigar factories, and boot, shoe, and textile
industries during the 1870s, accounting for 46 percent of the total labor force. As in other segments of the urban labor market in which they were employed, these
workers either were heavily concentrated as the principal work force in the lowwage industries or held the most menial jobs in racially mixed firms where they were
routinely paid less than white workers performing the same task.80
Other Chinese immigrants dominated the local fishing industry, which provided employment for 15 percent of the Chinese population at the time.81 In addition, many
Chinese secured employment as cooks, laundry workers, and personal servants.82 A significant number also became artisans working independently or with a small
number of partners and assistants as shoemakers, cigar makers, tailors, and seamstresses. It is difficult to determine, however, how many of these individuals were
independent producers and how many were actually wage laborers in these industries.83
The degree to which the Chinese successfully entered sectors of urban manufacturing varied according to the status of the firm and the way white employers defined
their class interests in relation to the Chinese. According to Ong, the "role of Chinese labor within an industry depended on the relative power of white capital and
white labor and the strength of these two groups was influenced by the degree of competition in the product market and the prevailing production process. It was only
in industries where competition was high and labor was in a weak bargaining position that the Chinese were used."84
White labor in the competitive sector of small manufacturing (of such things as cigars or shoes) was in a tenuous position visàvis white capital, having to contend both
with owners who had great incentives to use cheap labor and with a host of newly established businesses that made it difficult for workers to organize.85 Capitalists in
these competitive industries routinely sought the Chinese as a cheap labor force whenever it was profitable to do so without arousing the opposition of white laborers.
Capitalists in noncompetitive industries based on large factories, on the other hand, could not successfully employ Chinese because of the powerful position that skilled
white laborers held in the production process, and
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thus such sectors of the urban economy as the metal, machinery, and sugar industries did not hire large numbers of Chinese. Owners of these firms often catered to the
racial prejudices of the white craftsmen who participated actively in antiChinese organizations in San Francisco. 86 Only a few largescale enterprises such as the
cigar box, cordage, and woolengoods industries were able to hire Chinese workers, because the white laborers in these industries needed fewer skills and thus had
less direct control over the production process. Employers in these industries successfully manipulated the racial composition of their work force in order to dampen
efforts by labor to organize against them, creating a racially mixed labor force in which Chinese held the most menial jobs and the lowest of the semiskilled
occupations.87
The opposition of the white working class to the Chinese in urban manufacturing centered on a number of related factors. One was the threat that the Chinese
ostensibly posed as strikebreakers. During the period when the Chinese entered the urban manufacturing centers of California, they were successfully used as
strikebreakers on the East Coast. For example, in September 1870, seventyfive Chinese laborers were transported from San Francisco to North Adams,
Massachusetts, to break a strike by white workers in a local shoe factory. During this same period, Chinese laborers were also used as strikebreakers in Beaver Falls,
Pennsylvania, and Belleville, New Jersey.88 Their use as strikebreakers in California first occurred in 1869, when a large number of Chinese laborers were brought in
to break a strike in the San Francisco bootandshoe industry.89 These strikebreaking activities were bitterly resented by the white working class and fueled their
virulent opposition to the Chinese.
A second area of contention concerned wages. As we have seen, employers were able to hire the Chinese at wages lower than those paid white workers. The vast
majority of Chinese in California were single male laborers who had their basic necessities provided by labor contractors. Arriving in California with hopes of
improving their families' standard of living, white workingmen were unable and unwilling to live as cheaply as the Chinese workers. The 1878 report by the California
State Senate Committee on Chinese Immigration stated explicitly that white labor
cannot compete with Chinese labor, and are now suffering because of this inability. This inability does not arise out of any deficiency of skill or will, but out of a mode of life
heretofore considered essential to our American civilization.
Our laborers have families, a condition considered of vast importance to our
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civilization, while the Chinese have not, or if they have families they need but little to support them in their native land. . . . The cost of sustenance to the whites is fourfold greater
than that of the Chinese, and the wages of the whites must of necessity be greater than the wages required by the Chinese. The Chinese are, therefore, able to underbid the whites
in every kind of labor. They can be hired in masses; they can be managed and controlled like unthinking slaves. But our laborer has an individual life, cannot be controlled as a
slave by brutal masters, and this individuality has been required by the genius of our institutions, and upon these elements of character the State depends for defense and growth. 90
This passage suggests one final basis of workingclass antiChinese agitation: the ostensible threat that the Chinese posed to the overall status of free white labor in the
state. Because of their early use as strikebreakers and as cheap labor, the Chinese were viewed as having a degrading influence on the white population. As noted
earlier, this perception was also largely shaped by white labor's previous attitude toward blacks and the institution of slavery.
Some antiChinese even argued that the Chinese contract labor system in California was more degrading to the white Californians than was Southern slavery. When
comparisons were made, black slavery was typically seen as more desirable. The California State Senate Special Committee on Chinese Immigration in 1878, for
instance, argued that the use of Chinese contracted laborers in California lacked any semblance of the "beneficial influence" associated with chattel slavery. While "the
slaves of the south were, as a race, kind and faithful," the Chinese were characterized as being "cruel and treacherous." In weighing both systems, the report summarily
concluded that "all the advantage was with Southern slavery.''91
The Status of Chinese Women in Urban California
The final sector of the urban economy in which the Chinese successfully carved a niche and evoked the ire of European Americans was the vice industry. By 1860
over 10 percent of the Chinese employed in San Francisco were males working in gambling, the sale of opium, or prostitution. Another 23.4 percent of the city's
Chinese, all of whom were female, worked as prostitutes. "Thus, fully onethird of the gainfully employed Chinese in the city were engaged in providing recreational
vice—an unfortunate fact which gave rise to strong negative images of the Chinese."92
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Sociologist Lucie Cheng Hirata's important research on Chinese immigrant women in nineteenthcentury California provides us with the most detailed and sympathetic
analysis of their experience to date. Hirata situates Chinese female prostitution within the context of the patriarchal gender relations of Confucian China and the
"semifeudal" system that was carried over into the Chinese immigrant experience in California. As other scholars have also noted, the relegation of Chinese women into
prostitution was facilitated by their utterly subordinate status in patriarchal Chinese society. A Chinese woman was obligated to serve her father during childhood, her
husband during adulthood, and her sons during widowhood. Her marriage was arranged by parents and clan elders and the betrothed typically met for the first time on
their wedding day. The wife subsequently moved into her husband's family home, where she was, in turn, obliged to serve her motherinlaw. Not surprisingly, Chinese
women's labor was less valued than men's; her primary contribution was the bearing of children, especially male children. 93
In this context, female prostitution was an important and acceptable recourse to a family facing impoverishment.94 According to Hirata, prostitution relieved the family
of having to "provide for the girl's upkeep, and her sale or part of her earnings could help support the family."95 Consequently, "the family, not the girl, arranged for
sale. Girls often accepted their sale, however reluctantly, out of filial loyalty, and most of them were not in a position to oppose their families' decision. In addition, the
sheltered and secluded lives that women were forced to live made them particularly vulnerable to manipulation, and many were tricked or lured into prostitution."96
Some of the first Chinese women who came to California in the gold rush period were selfemployed, "freeagent" prostitutes who through various means had attained
some individual agency. (One such woman, one AhChoi, arrived in late 1848 or early 1849 and within two years had accumulated enough money in prostitution to
own a brothel. Most of her customers were reportedly nonChinese men).97 The majority of Chinese prostitutes, however, were pressed into service by the Chinese
secret societies, or tongs, that organized this lucrative operation in the state. HipYee Tong appears to have been the main importer of Chinese women for prostitution
during the last half of the nineteenth century. One source estimates that this tong alone imported six thousand Chinese women between 1852 and 1873 and netted an
estimated $200,000.98 Their operation afforded a lucrative profit for Chinese men who acted as procurers,
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importers, brothel owners, and highbinders, and also proved profitable for white policemen who accepted money for keeping them from being arrested and white
property owners in Chinatown who leased the buildings where these businesses operated. 99
The highly organized nature of this operation, plus the lack of alternative employment opportunities, facilitated the widespread relegation of most Chinese immigrant
women into prostitution. In 1852 there were only seven women out of a total of 11,794 Chinese immigrants in California. Two of these women were independent
prostitutes and two others were thought to be working for AhChoi in San Francisco.100 Hirata has documented that by 1860 there were 654 Chinese prostitutes
enumerated on the San Francisco census: this represented 85 percent of the total Chinese female population. The other women listed on the census were employed as
laundresses, gardeners, laborers, shopkeepers, fisherwomen, or clerks. Ten years later, the number of Chinese women in that city working as prostitutes had doubled,
to 1,426, but had dropped proportionally to 71 percent of the total employed female population. Finally, in 1880 the total number of Chinese prostitutes had declined
to only 435 and represented only 21 percent of Chinese women in the city. These figures indicate that the "heyday of Chinese prostitution in San Francisco was
around 1870, and its precipitous decline occurred just before 1880."101
Chinese female prostitutes were procured in three ways: deception and kidnapping, contractual agreements, and sale. The following account is a poignant example of
how Chinese women could be lured into prostitution through false promises:
I was nineteen when this man came to my mother and said that in America there was a great deal of gold. Even if I just peeled potatoes there, he told my mother I would earn seven
or eight dollars a day, and if I was willing to do any work at all I would earns lots of money . . . so my mother was glad to have me go with him as his wife. . . . When we first landed
in San Francisco, we lived in a hotel in Chinatown, a nice place, but one day, after I had been there for about two weeks, a woman came to see me. She was young, very pretty, and
all dressed in silk. She told me that I was not really Hucy Yow's wife, but that she had asked him to buy her a slave, that I belonged to her, and must go with her, but she would
treat me well, and I could buy back my freedom, if I was willing to please. . . . I did not believe her. . . . So when Hucy Yow came I asked him why that woman had come and what
she meant by all that lying. But he said that it was true; that he was not my husband, he did not care about me, and that this was something that happened all the time. Everybody
did this, he said, and why be so shocked that I was to be a prostitute instead of a married woman. 102
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In the case of contractual agreements, women typically were offered free passage to America and an advance of over $400 in return for a promise of four and a half
years of service. Each woman was required to work a minimum of 320 days a year and faced an extension of up to one additional year if she failed to meet this
obligation. 103
An example of the process whereby Chinese women were sold into prostitution is found in an 1870s account from San Francisco, which came to light when the slave
girl's owner was arrested for striking her.
I have been in this country about nine years. I was brought here from China by an old woman. . . . She bought me in China for something over $20. I stayed with her for about a
month. . . . I was bought by Dr. LiPoTai for something from $20 to $40. . . . I lived with the Doctor for a short time only, his wife saying I was of no account. LiPoTai owed a man
named Loo Fook some money, and I was given to Loo Fook in part payment of that debt. . . . I was afterward transferred to one Lee Choy, who said he intended to make a
courtesan of me. I was then between eleven and twelve years old. One night I went with Lee Choy, and we met a man who say I was young, and said I was good looking, and he
wanted to know if I was for sale. . . . I was finally sold to him for about $100. . . . I lived with him about three or four years, and he sold me to Lee Chein Kay for $160. I lived with him
both as servant and wife. . . . I have lived at different washhouses during the last four months, acting as servant for the men there. . . . I have received no pay for my labor in the
washhouses, and, worse than that, have been whipped a number of time . . . 104
Other Chinese women were also routinely abused and beaten; in addition, they were susceptible to syphilis and gonorrhea and always in danger of being killed by their
customers or owners. They often anesthetized themselves from their daily abuse and degradation by smoking opium; some committed suicide by taking an overdose of
drugs or drowning themselves.105 Adding insult to injury, the remains of these women were rarely sent back to China for burial (as was the common practice for
Chinese men who died in the United States). According to Hirata, "few cared about the remains of these women. The [San Francisco] Alta reported in 1870 that the
bodies of Chinese women were discarded and left in the streets of Chinatown."106
Those who survived these physical abuses were also subjected to legal harassment from white authorities. Despite the bribes and other extralegal measures used to
protect this operation, Chinese female prostitutes were specifically targeted with legislation designed to curtail public "vice." Between 1866 and 1905 at least eight
California laws were passed designed to restrict the importation of Chinese women for prostitution or to suppress
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the Chinese brothel business. ''Although white prostitution was equally if not more prevalent, these were additional and specific laws directed only against the Chinese.
Chinese prostitutes, if caught, were sentenced to a fine of $25 to $50 and a jail term of at least five days." 107 It appears that Chinese women in this industry were
perceived as constituting a more "damning influence" on white men than were white female prostitutes.
Such sentiment also led the California state legislature in March 1870 to enact an "antiprostitution" measure that required any Chinese or Japanese woman entering
the United States to present satisfactory evidence that she had "voluntarily" immigrated and was "a person of correct habits and good moral character." Proof to this
effect was necessary to obtain a permit authorizing immigration from the Commissioner of Immigration.108
One cannot avoid concluding that these women were taken advantage of by both Chinese and white men as well as by a few Chinese women who managed brothels
and served as intermediaries in the procurement process. Chinese male entrepreneurs, who may have been merchants or associated with various tongs, profited
handsomely from this lucrative operation. Most of the prostitutes procured through contracts, calling for an initial $530 capital outlay, earned an estimated $850 a
year, or $3,404 for the four years of servitude. (This is based on earning an average of 38 cents per customer and seven customers per day.) Since their upkeep was
less than $100 per year (which included two or three meals per day and a place to sleep), profits from this type of prostitution were very high.109
Those who came voluntarily or were lured into prostitution proved even more profitable. In a case discussed by Hirata, one female procurer obtained the consent of
the mother of one women to take her to America for a mere $98. Upon arrival, the woman was immediately sold for $1,950. After working two years for her new
owner and reportedly earning no less than $290 per month, she was resold for $2,100. The gross income that this brothel owner received from her labor during these
two years was in excess of $5,500. This does not include the profit from the sewing and other forms of work that this woman was assigned to do in the brothel during
the day.110
White WorkingClass Claims to Racial Entitlement
Although the plight of Chinese female prostitutes evoked a sympathetic response from some white women, only a few strata within the European
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American population looked favorably upon the presence of Chinese men in the state. 111 Sentiment favoring the use of Chinese male labor generally was limited to
such economic interests as largescale agriculturalists, railroad operators, manufacturers, and merchants interested in trade with the Far East. Continued Chinese
immigration was also supported by some Protestant clergymen who saw proselytizing possibilities.112
Opposition to the Chinese, in contrast, was widespread among other segments of the white population elsewhere in the class structure. Once the Chinese were driven
from the mines and resettled in urban manufacturing centers, it was the white working class which took up the antiChinese banner. The urban antiChinese movement
of the late 1860s was, from the very beginning, dominated by skilled crafts workers who rallied against both the Chinese and the capitalists who employed them.
This widespread antipathy of the white working class toward the Chinese in California during the last half of the nineteenth century served a number of purposes. First,
antiChinese sentiment among the white population brought together various white ethnic groups in a common cause, helping to bridge even the most diverse cultural,
religious, and linguistic differences among white immigrants. Secondly, this antipathy was used by politicians to mobilize support of these settlers for the Democratic
and, to a lesser extent, the Republican parties.113
Above all, the antiChinese sentiment of the period served as a major unifying force for the organization of white skilled labor in California. Rather than viewing the
Chinese as a particularly vulnerable and unorganized sector of the working class, craft union leaders used racial antipathy as a tool to further the organization of an
exclusively white skilled labor movement. It was precisely this sector of the white working class, which ironically had the least to fear in terms of direct economic
competition with the Chinese, that spearheaded the antiChinese movement in California. There is agreement among historians that the leaders of the white craft union
movement used the antiChinese agitation as a means of unifying and strengthening their political influence in the state. Such agitation also served as a means whereby
these leaders diverted the attention of unskilled workers and the unemployed from the privileged position that unionized, skilled occupations were developing at the
time.114
Largely through the efforts of leaders of the craft union movement and antiChinese agitators, a number of legislative bills were enacted benefiting this segment of the
white population. Most of these bills were designed to curtail the threat that the Chinese posed to the white working class and functioned as a form of social closure. In
1852, for example, white workers
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played a key role in the legislative defeat of a bill which would have sanctioned the importation of Chinese contracted laborers into the state. The socalled Tingley
"coolie bill" proposed that contracts made between Chinese laborers and Anglo employers in California, who paid their passage to the United States, be legally
binding and would have required Chinese contracted laborers to serve employers for a period of ten years or less at a fixed wage, further institutionalizing the
subordination of the Chinese population to capitalist interests. 115
In addition to this legislative victory, white labor was able to manipulate the state apparatus into a number of measures targeting Chinese labor. In 1860 the state
legislature passed a $4 monthly tax on Chinese fishermen. In April 1862, the legislature enacted the "Chinese Police Tax" whose stated purpose was to "Protect Free
White Labor against Competition with Chinese Coolie Labor and to Discourage the Immigration of Chinese into the State of California." In 1876 the San Francisco
Board of Supervisors passed an ordinance which levied a quarterly tax of $2 on horsedrawn laundry deliverymen (who were mostly white) and a $15 tax on those
who delivered their laundry without a vehicle (mostly Chinese). Finally, in 1879 a provision was included in the new California State Constitution which specifically
prohibited the employment of Chinese laborers on any public works projects.116
Perhaps the most important victory of the white working class in California and the West against Chinese labor was the passage of federal legislation that ultimately
prohibited their further immigration. The 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act barred the immigration of Chinese laborers into the United States for a tenyear period and
expressly excluded the Chinese from naturalization. In 1892 the Geary Act extended the Chinese Exclusion Act for another tenyear period, at the end of which the
1902 Immigration Act permanently prohibited further Chinese immigration. It was not until 1943 that the Chinese Exclusion Act was repealed by Congress.117
Conclusion
Who ultimately orchestrated and benefited from the calamity that befell Chinese immigrants in nineteenthcentury California? What was the relative role of white capital
and white labor in structuring the placement of the Chinese in the urban economy and promoting the racialization of the Chinese in California? Did capitalists divide the
working class along racial lines to maximize profits and thwart class opposition? Or did segments of
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the white working class define their class interests along narrow racial lines so as to exclude and vilify their Chinese counterparts?
In the final analysis, the answers to these questions lie partly in the tenuous balance of power between white capital and labor in the state—one which shifted with
fluctuations in the business cycle, growing competition, and the mechanization of industry. The ability of these class actors to realize their narrowly defined interests
helped structure the integration or exclusion of the Chinese in the urban labor market. Privileged white workers clearly turned their hostility toward the Chinese
underclass rather than joining with them in a common struggle against capitalism or its agents. As Paul Ong has perceptively concluded, "While capitalists such as those
in the woolen industry attempted to 'divide and conquer' workers, the economy provided few such opportunities. The most active agents in dividing labor were the
workers themselves . . . [who] often succeeded in protecting a desirable niche of the labor market from outsiders, creating monopolies which maintained high wages.
Racism, along with trade unions and nativism, became the bases for organizing such a group—in this case white labor." 118
At its most fundamental level, this process of exclusion represents the utilization of social closures by white workers who attempted to limit Chinese access to
privileged sectors of the new capitalist labor market. Their racial animosity toward the Chinese reflected both the general acceptance of white supremacist sentiments
among white Californians and also reflected the emerging class tensions within white society.
However, at the moment when capitalism created a common labor market and the basis for collective class organization, the white working class responded by
narrowly defining their interests solely as white workers—rather than in more inclusive class terms. Although Chinese and white workers may have shared some
underlying class interests, these interests never crystallized in common opposition to capitalist interests. Instead, white craftsmen and other skilled workers consistently
sought to maintain their privileged racial status over the Chinese and, in the process, reaffirmed the centrality of race as the primary organizing principle of nineteenth
century Anglo California. In sum, only a historical analysis of the Chinese immigrant experience that explores the complex way white supremacy racialized class as well
as gender relations illuminates the broad contours of their nineteenth century experience in the state.
The next chapter extends this analysis and examines how antiChinese sentiment was displaced onto the Japanese who immigrated into the state
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in the aftermath of the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882. It does so through an analysis of the JapaneseMexican Labor Association's successful agricultural strike in
Oxnard, California in 1903. The issues raised by this organization of Japanese and Mexican farm workers highlight the complex ways that racial status and class
position structured social relations between white Californians and racialized ethnic groups at the turn of the century.
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