Psych Literature Review

All Tips on Writing Literature Review

Oct 19, 2022

What is a literature review?

• The purpose of the literature review is to • Describe work done on a specific area of research

• Pretend your reader knows nothing about this topic. You are the expert. It is your job to inform the reader of relevant background information.

• Stick to your topic. If you’re writing about levels of (1)anxiety in (2)children who undergo (3)chemotherapy, make sure the articles you review address at least 2 of these variables.

• Anxiety & Children

• Anxiety & Chemotherapy

• Children & Chemotherapy

• EVALUATE the work, don’t just summarize it

How long is a literature review? How many sources do I need? • It depends on the scope of your research and depth you are trying to achieve.

• For the purposes of the literature review assignment: You need to review a minimum of 7 peer-reviewed empirical primary sources (articles) that pertain to your proposed study

• Just focus on pertinent information (your main critiques, problems with methodology, important background information, etc.)

• Be sure all of this is understandable to someone who has never read the articles you are explaining!!!

• 4-5 pages of double-spaced text (not including title page and reference)

• Remember that the work you do for the literature review will affect how prepared you are when you begin writing your introduction to your final paper!

• Be sure to use APA style.

What is a primary source? Can I use other sources?

• In psychology, a primary source refers to a peer-reviewed article written about an empirical study conducted by the authors and not just written about by the authors

• In contrast, a secondary source may include a review paper, a scholarly book chapter, or a compilation of other peer-reviewed literature. These sources are acceptable and can be very helpful in getting an overview of the research but will not count towards your minimum of 7 primary sources.

• Non-peer-reviewed website, magazine and newspaper articles are not acceptable! (Though you are welcome to read them for fun.)

• Exception: sometimes, it is useful to use these resources in your very first paragraph to help illustrate the importance of a topic. They still do not count towards your 7 sources, though.

• Hypothetical example: “A recent government report (NHTSA, 2016) reveals that distraction from cell phones is a factor in 47% of fatal car crashes. Thus, it is important to study the relationship between texting and driving performance. This paper will…”

How to select primary sources?

• Start with a keyword search on Google Scholar. For example we would search (1) children, (2) anxiety, (3) chemotherapy

• Alternative: key article search.

How to select primary sources?

• Start broadly…choose several (10+) articles that seem to match your criteria based solely on the title.

• Read the abstracts to decide which ones are actually relevant. Titles can be deceiving.

• Eliminate the ones that are only marginally related.

EX: Treatment study of adults with anxiety disorder.

= Too Broad

EX: A study on anxiety in a sample of adults treated with chemotherapy

= Fine, but need to note that it’s on adults

Problems with Selecting Primary Sources

• What if I can’t find primary sources that address my most important variables?

• Your topic may be too narrow. For example, studying cancer among children with schizophrenia? These children may represent 1/1,000,000 of the population.

• Your topic may be too unusual. Self-awareness and hypnosis in underwater basket-weavers.

• Your topic may be too new! That’s not a bad thing. You’ll have to expand your search to include somewhat related articles that at the very least help you build your theory. You might THINK you have a new idea, but do you? Research.

• Therefore, unless you have a brilliant, revolutionary new study, YOU MAY NEED TO EITHER BROADEN YOUR TOPIC OR CHANGE YOUR STRATEGY FOR FINDING ARTICLES.

• It is unlikely that your topic is too narrow. It is more likely that your topic is broad, and you just need to keep looking for sources.

So your topic is new and narrow?

• What can I write about?

• Question: What is the pH level of water found on Mars?

• Articles about: • The presence of water on Mars • The factors in that influence the pH level of water (anywhere) • Environmental conditions on Mars

• YOUR TOPIC QUESTION MIGHT NOT HAVE BEEN STUDIED BEFORE SO…

• You have to find related articles and tie them together

• For each one, consider: • What is the logic behind your choice of articles? • How do they relate to your topic? • What gaps are left open (either in the original study’s intended scope, or in your

additional scope)?

Problems with Selecting Primary Sources • What if I’m finding too many articles?

• Your topic may be too broad. A search for studies of anxiety in children would likely bring up thousands of hits.

• You may be using too few keywords in your search. Make sure you are using all of your variables (anxiety, chemotherapy) and population (children) in your keyword searches.

• Therefore, unless you are willing to search through thousands of titles, either narrow down your specific aims, or adjust your search strategies.

• YOU ARE MORE LIKELY TO HAVE A STUDY THAT IS TOO BROAD THAN TOO NARROW.

Reading and Organizing your Literature

• Once you’ve narrowed down your search and selected 4+ empirical primary articles…read them!

• Take notes, highlight, write in the margins, etc.

• Summarize (very important!):

Literature review table Authors (year) Specific Aim Hypothesis Methods Results Limitations

Fernandez (2011)

To investigate…

That all participants with…

10m/10f students underwent…

Results suggested a, b, & c.

The study lacked…

Fernandez (2006)

… … … … …

Smith (2010) … … … … …

What NOT to do as you write!

• DO NOT: Refer to articles by the article title

• DO NOT: Refer to articles by some sort of ordering, such as, “The first paper says… The second paper says…”

• DO NOT: Assert claims or facts (beyond the very basic—e.g., the sun rises in the east) without cited sources.

Make sure you…

• Organize the presentation of articles

• Focus on the results of each study and what they mean (your interpretation, authors interpretation)

• Concisely point out specific flaws or gaps in the research that are directly relevant to your research proposal

• GOOD: Smith and Jones (2019) reported a strong correlation between individual scores in attention and working memory tasks, but only in the visual modality. Thus, it is critical to evaluate the generality of this correlation by also measuring attention and working memory in the auditory domain.

• BAD: Smith and Jones (2019) paid their participants in dollars, making their results difficult to compare to participants compensated via SONA credit. [Do you really think that the relationship between attention and working memory is mediated by how research participants were paid? If yes, is it a bigger concern than the fact that they used vision and you will use hearing?]

• BAD: Smith and Jones (2019) also reported math test performance, and this is not relevant to the present research. [OK, so don’t waste time/space on it.]

What to look for as you read

• Evidence/results in support of your ideas

• Results that contradict your ideas

• Inconsistencies in the literature

• Helpful statistics

• Gaps in literature

• Faulty methodology

• Everything we’ve been talking about thus far!

Writing Tips

• First editing pass: Spell check (red)! Grammar check (green and just as important)!

• But realize spell check misses a lot, and grammar check has many false positives.

• Second editing pass: Re-read your writing an hour or a day or a few days later. Does it make sense? Would it make sense to your (parent/grandparent/roommate)?

• Consider using the Writing Center!

More Tips

• Do not quote articles unless absolutely necessary! Instead, paraphrase them. Either way, make sure to cite everything!

• When in doubt, cite!

• I can tell when you cut and paste because the writing is so different from the rest of the paper.

• Remember, if you take someone’s words and just rearrange them or substitute in synonyms, that is still plagiarism!

Lit review assignment outline 1. APA-style title page 2. General introduction to your topic (~1/2 page)

a. What is the general topic? b. Why is this topic interesting or important? c. Transition to how it has been/is studied in the past

3. Review at least seven peer-reviewed studies. See lab manual (pp 66-69) for suggested structure options. This section should be at least 2 – 2 ½ pages.

4. Tying it all together - Here, you need to consider all the studies you review. (~1/2 page)

a. At the end of the day, what do we already know? What do we still not know?

b. Collectively, what are the gaps/inconsistencies in this body of research based on this literature review?

c. Why are these inconsistencies important? d. How will your study fill these gaps? e. Indicate briefly your major idea or hypothesis

5. APA-style references section

Structure of the Introduction: The Beginning

• Begin with an overview • Attract the reader’s attention with an attention

grabbing opening • Statistics • A pressing social problem or current event • Importance to a body of theory

• As you’re introducing the reader to your topic, start speaking in broad terms and become more precise as your introduction develops

• Funnel approach

Structure of the Introduction: Defining Your Topic

• The problem or question being researched • Discuss why this is important • Define difficult terms

Structure of the Introduction: Topic Background

• Presentation of past research – Helps explain why and how you are studying this topic – Helps your reader understand how you formed your hypotheses – Tells you reader what you expect to find – Indicates if you are adding to versus contradicting previous

findings • You only want to include and discuss relevant

studies – Theories, findings, methodologies, limitations, etc. – Remember to credit your sources appropriately

What is a Literature Review?

• A literature review is a qualitative analysis of research done in a certain area. This is quite extensive. – Read every study that you can find about a certain topic,

then summarize and integrate the research. – This will help you identify gaps in previous research.

• Helpful: Find a lot of sources about the topic you’re interested in, then review and summarize them. – This doesn’t mean you have to find only empirical

studies on your topic (your idea could be too novel), but you do have to provide sufficient support for your hypothesis.

– And remember, you do need a minimum number of 7 empirical primary sources for your lit review

Literature Review

• Don’t just have 10 paragraphs that summarize each article – that would be 10 short paper summaries, not a single topic-centered lit review

• Instead you may have – 4-6 related studies that you want to elaborate on – 1-3 paragraphs present theoretical papers or logical arguments that

support those findings or support your hypothesis – An introductory paragraph – A closing paragraph

• Make sure you include transitions between each study summary (and each other paragraph, too). – Closing sentences and topic sentences

• Organize the literature review portion of your introduction in a fashion that is logical to the reader and relates to your topic. – Not by the order in which you read the papers – Not necessarily chronologically

Empirical Studies • Most journal articles are empirical studies (Primary Sources)

– Exception: most articles found in Psychological Review or Annual Review of [field] or Nature Reviews Neuroscience or Trends in the Cognitive Sciences or Current Opinion in [field] or other journals with the word “Review” or “Opinion” or “Trends” in the title

– Exception: many otherwise empirical journals also publish one or two reviews per issue

• Empirical studies are studies that: – Document an experiment or nonexperimental research – Use data to test a hypothesis – Can be experimental or correlational – If reported by the people who performed the study, this is a primary

source – If subject to peer review (typically indicated by journal), this is peer-

reviewed – You are seeking studies that are (1) empirical, (2) peer-reviewed, (3)

primary sources published in (4) scholarly journals

Summarizing Relevant Studies

• The bulk of your introduction should summarize previous empirical research – Don’t be too detailed, just give the basic ideas – But tell me enough so that I know that you’ve actually

read the article, not just the abstract.

Reviewing Articles • When discussing a previous empirical study be sure to

include: – What was the main hypothesis? [~1 sentence] – What theory or rationale led to this hypothesis? [~1 sentence] – What type of design was used? [~1 sentence] – What was the procedure? (briefly mention sample &

measures) [~1 sentence, or incorporated with design] – What were the results? [1-2 sentences] – What do the authors say that these results mean? [1-2

sentences] – What are the limitations of this study? [1-5 sentences] – How does this study fit with the other studies you are

reviewing? [1-3 sentences] – How does this study fit with your proposed research? [1-2

sentences]

Literature Review and Integration

• Your literature review background section should be broken into two basic conceptual subsections: – Review – Integration

Integration

• Look at all the summaries of studies you have written. – What can we learn from all these studies? Generally state what

can be concluded. • E.g. “Overall, these studies suggest that teenagers who exercise are less

likely to show signs of anxiety. However, it is not certain whether the lack of anxiety is due to exercise, or if having less anxiety causes one to exercise more.”

– Are the results consistent? Or contradictory? • If contradictory, why? Is it that different methods result in different

results? Different types of samples? Different operational definitions?

– What questions are left unanswered by your review of the studies? What are their limitations?

• “It is not yet certain to what extent the gender differences in relational satisfaction are affected by relational identity.”

Integration

• The integration section MUST: – Be organized around your topic – Summarize what is known and not known about your

topic – Identify areas of controversy in the literature – Formulate questions that need further research

• This will lead directly to your proposed study

Lit review assignment outline 1. APA-style title page 2. General introduction to your topic (~1/2 page)

a. What is the general topic? b. Why is this topic interesting or important? c. Transition to how it has been/is studied in the past

3. Review at least seven peer-reviewed studies. See lab manual (pp 66-69) for suggested structure options. This section should be at least 2 – 2 ½ pages.

4. Tying it all together - Here, you need to consider all the studies you review. (~1/2 page)

a. At the end of the day, what do we already know? What do we still not know?

b. Collectively, what are the gaps/inconsistencies in this body of research based on this literature review?

c. Why are these inconsistencies important? d. How will your study fill these gaps? e. Indicate briefly your major idea or hypothesis

5. APA-style references section

REVIEW

Lit review assignment outline 1. APA-style title page 2. General introduction to your topic (~1/2 page)

a. What is the general topic? b. Why is this topic interesting or important? c. Transition to how it has been/is studied in the past

3. Review at least seven peer-reviewed studies. See lab manual (pp 66-69) for suggested structure options. This section should be at least 2 – 2 ½ pages.

4. Tying it all together - Here, you need to consider all the studies you review. (~1/2 page)

a. At the end of the day, what do we already know? What do we still not know?

b. Collectively, what are the gaps/inconsistencies in this body of research based on this literature review?

c. Why are these inconsistencies important? d. How will your study fill these gaps? e. Indicate briefly your major idea or hypothesis

5. APA-style references section

INTEGRATION

Introduction Outline Introduction:

Grab the reader’s attention

Define the topic & state why it is important to study

Relevant Background (this is your literature review)

Review the literature (empirical studies)

Integrate your review of relevant literature into your proposed idea

Discuss your proposed topic in detail

Define variables

State and support your specific hypothesis

Method:

Introduction Outline Introduction:

Grab the reader’s attention

Define the topic & state why it is important to study

Relevant Background (this is your literature review)

Review the literature (empirical studies)

Integrate your review of relevant literature into your proposed idea

Discuss your proposed topic in detail

Define variables

State and support your specific hypothesis

Method:

This red-outlined portion is what’s in the literature review due soon.

Introduction Outline Introduction:

Grab the reader’s attention

Define the topic & state why it is important to study

Relevant Background (this is your literature review)

Review the literature (empirical studies)

Integrate your review of relevant literature into your proposed idea

Discuss your proposed topic in detail

Define variables

State and support your specific hypothesis

Method: This red-outlined portion is what you’ll eventually add to turn your Lit Review into a full Introduction... But feel free to also include some or all of this in your Lit Review.

Example

• Topic: – Health Education and Eating Disorders

• Research Question for Proposal: – Does educating children on health risks associated

with eating disorders decrease the likelihood that they will develop anorexia or obesity?

• Hypothesis: – Increased education on health risks will decrease the

likelihood that adolescents will develop eating disorders.

Introduction

• Grab reader’s attention: statistics in teens over time • Why is this important: An epidemic, health risks • Relevant background/Literature Review:

– Obesity- what it is, physical & mental issues associated that other researchers have found…

– Anorexia- what it is, physical & mental issues associated that other researchers have found…

– Factors that contribute to eating disorders - family structure, SES, genetics…

– Current treatment options available- therapy… – Integrate research into current topic- what is known about

factors that contribute, & how to treat….but what about prevention?

Don’t forget to cite!!!

Introduction

• Grab reader’s attention: statistics in teens over time • Why is this important: An epidemic, health risks • Relevant background/Literature Review:

– Obesity- what it is, physical & mental issues associated that other researchers have found…

– Anorexia- what it is, physical & mental issues associated that other researchers have found…

– Factors that contribute to eating disorders - family structure, SES, genetics…

– Current treatment options available- therapy… – Integrate research into current topic- what is known about

factors that contribute, & how to treat….but what about prevention? How does this lead to your present hypothesis?

Don’t forget to

cite everything

!

This red-outlined portion is what’s in the literature review due soon.

Introduction, continued

• Current/present study: – Instead of just treating a disorder, the objective of the present

study focused on how to prevent eating disorders. – Prevention plan = Education/Awareness

• Educating students about the health risks of eating disorders – Within a middle school, some students were educated about

this and some were not (IV with 2 levels) • At the end of high school the number of students with eating

disorders were counted (DV) • Hypothesis & support for the predicted results:

– It was predicted that there would be fewer students clinically diagnosed with ED among the sample that was educated on the health risks.

This red-outlined portion can wait… but if you can get a head start on it by including it in your Lit Review, go for it!

Tips for writing a literature review Writing the literature review If the papers you are reviewing can be organized by topic…

• For instance, if you are researching selective visual attention during auditory distraction in children, you might not be able to find individual studies dealing with all three aspects of your project.

• review some papers on selective visual attention in children, and some other papers on selective visual attention during auditory distraction (in adults).

In this case, you might organize your literature review around these two topics.

• Discuss what is known about this topic. For each relevant fact, cite at least one source using a proper APA in-text citation.

• After you explain the current knowledge, investigate how confident we can be in it. This can take the form of identifying problems or limitations in single studies, or it can entail identifying differences between studies in how they operationalize a key variable.

• As you discuss each study, also note its approach (for example, was it experimental or correlational? Was it longitudinal or cross-sectional?)

• If you are critiquing the study’s methods, explain them sufficiently so that a reader will be able to understand the problem—do not assume that your reader has read the studies you are reviewing.

• You also need to relate each fact you discuss to your own topic. Explain why someone who is reading your paper to learn about your topic should care about what these previous studies found! More specifically, how do these reviewed facts support or conflict with your hypothesis?

Do this for each topic

Tips for writing a literature review Writing the literature review If the papers you are reviewing all deal with a single topic…

• Identify the study using a proper citation. Work this in naturally (like you see in the papers you are reporting on)—do not ever write something like “The first study is by Smith and Jones (2018).”

• Why did the authors do this study? • What approach did the authors use? (For

example, was it experimental or correlational? Was it longitudinal or cross-sectional?) Give additional detail on their method, if relevant to understanding their conclusions and limitations.

• What were the authors expecting to find and

why?

• What did the authors actually find?

• What is important about these findings in the

context of your study? In other words, how is

it related to your topic?

• How is this study related to the other studies

you are reviewing?

• What are the limitations of this study,

particularly as they relate to its ability to

support or reject your hypotheses?

• Transition to next study

Tips for writing a literature review Writing the literature review

Integration: Tying it all together - Here, you need to consider all the studies you reviewed.

• At the end of the day, what do we already know? What do we still not know? • Collectively, what are the gaps/inconsistencies in this body of research based

on this literature review? • Why are these inconsistencies important? • How will your study fill these gaps? • Indicate briefly your major idea or hypothesis

Tips for writing a literature review References

Cisco, J. (2014). Teaching the literature review: A practical approach for college instructors. Teaching and Learning Inquiry, 2(2), 41–57. https://doi.org/10.20343/teachlearninqu.2.2.41

University of Guelph. (2021, September 8). Write a literature review: Seven steps to writing a literature review. McLaughlin Library. Retrieved October 13, 2021, from https://guides.lib.uoguelph.ca/c.php?g=130964&p=5000948.

Writing in APA Format: 7th ed. Publication Manual

Introduction to Methods Lab

Slides adapted from Joe Pirozzolo, Don Foss, et al.

What is APA?

• American Psychological Association

• Most common for social sciences—business, economics, psychology, sociology, nursing, etc

• A cross-referencing system that protects writers from plagiarism

What does APA regulate?

⚫Writing style ⚫Overall structure of

article ⚫In-text citations ⚫References (a list of all

the sources used in the paper)

Writing Style

• APA emphasizes clear communication, organization, and smooth and precise style – Continuity in presentation of ideas

– Smoothness of expression

– Precision and clarity

Precision and Clarity

• Overarching theme: you will be held responsible for exactly what you write. No one cares about what you meant to write—only what you ACTUALLY wrote!

• Use universally-understood language. • Avoid colloquial expressions:

“I will come up with a research…”

“Many times…” “Whether or not…” “The researchers tested over…”

• The more extreme being…. “Y’all” “Gonna” “Wanna” “U”

Precision and Clarity

• Avoid ambiguous language: – “quite a large part” – “most people” – “many” – “some people say”

• Avoid clichés: – “at the end of the day…”

– “what doesn’t kill you makes you stronger.”

• Your written presentation should be professional; it should not sound the way you speak.

• Keep in mind that many writers and many readers are not working in their first language, so clarity and precision are key!

Precision and Clarity

Attribution ⚫Use the third person point of view:

⚫“The study results indicate…”

⚫Do not use the first person! ⚫“I studied…”

⚫Anthropomorphism – do not attribute human characteristics to animals or inanimate sources

⚫do not write “The study found…” ⚫Instead use verbs like: show or indicate

Word Choice

• Word choice influences how the reader interprets your paper – Use “participants” instead of “subjects” for humans (APA: both

technically OK) – Do not use words such as “prove” or “proof” because we

cannot prove a hypothesis or theory • Use “contribute” or “support” instead

• Avoid poetic language – Minimize figurative language (e.g. metaphors) – Do not use rhyming schemes or alliteration

• Use simple, descriptive language

Abbreviations

• If you are going to be using a term, name, or expression more than three times or if the abbreviation is popular (FDA; NIH; fMRI), then you should abbreviate it.

• The first time use the full expression followed by the abbreviation in parenthesis. From then on you should use the abbreviation.

• Example: Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is often considered a genetic disorder. Previous investigations found that OCD occurs more in females than in males.

Numbers

Numbers as Numerals

• Numbers above 10 • Numbers immediately preceding a

unit of measurement (5-mg dosage)

• Numbers that represent mathematical functions (multiplied by 5)

• Numbers that represent time, ages, score, or points on a scale.

• Numbers that reference a table or a figure (e.g., “see Table 1”)

Numbers as Words

• Numbers zero-nine • A number that begins a

sentence, title, or heading • Common fractions (one

fifth) • Universally accepted usage

(the Ten Commandments)

General rule of thumb: use numerals to express numbers 10 and above and words to express numbers below 10

Grammar

• Use complete sentences – No fragments – Complex sentences are OK… but be CLEAR! (and simpler

sentences are preferred!)

• No contractions: – Incorrect: “The results didn’t show an increase…..” – Correct: “The results did not show an increase…..”

• Verbs – Use past tense (showed) or present perfect tense (has

shown) for the Introduction, the description of the procedure, and the description of the results

– Use present tense (show) for the discussion and conclusion

Reducing Bias in Language

⚫Avoid sexism and other biased language: e.g., do not use he to refer to both sexes

⚫Avoid gendered pronouns ⚫Avoid “he” and “she” if participants were not just one

gender ⚫Rephrase the sentence to use “they” or “their” – yes,

these can be singular pronouns

⚫You can describe participants using the wording in your research

⚫E.g. “Results showed differences between those with high self-esteem compared to those with low self-esteem….”

⚫E.g. “Patients diagnosed with cancer…”

General Format

• Double-spaced, 12 pt Times New Roman font

• Standard-sized paper (8.5 x 11)

• 1 inch margins on all sides

• Page number on every page

ReferencesReferences

Main BodyMain Body

Abstract Abstract

General Format ⚫An APA-style research paper

should include four major sections ⚫Title ⚫Abstract ⚫Main Body ⚫References

⚫Each of these sections begins on a new page

⚫Tables and figures follow the References section, or may be presented in-line

⚫The main body includes: ⚫Introduction ⚫Method ⚫Results ⚫Discussion

Title pageTitle page

*later we will discuss how each of the sub- sections should be

written

Title Page

Title Page

Title. Bold, centered, 3-4 lines from top of page. Must reflect content.

Concise (1-2 lines max). Followed by a blank line.

Title. Bold, centered, 3-4 lines from top of page. Must reflect content.

Concise (1-2 lines max). Followed by a blank line.

Title Page

Title. Bold, centered, 3-4 lines from top of page. Must reflect content.

Concise (1-2 lines max). Followed by a blank line.

Title. Bold, centered, 3-4 lines from top of page. Must reflect content.

Concise (1-2 lines max). Followed by a blank line.

Byline – your name and affiliation. For student papers, also includes

course number/title, instructor, and due date. Each element of byline

appears on its own line.

Byline – your name and affiliation. For student papers, also includes

course number/title, instructor, and due date. Each element of byline

appears on its own line.

Title Page Page number. Top right, header of

every page.

Page number. Top right, header of every page.

Title. Bold, centered, 3-4 lines from top of page. Must reflect content.

Concise (1-2 lines max). Followed by a blank line.

Title. Bold, centered, 3-4 lines from top of page. Must reflect content.

Concise (1-2 lines max). Followed by a blank line.

Byline – your name and affiliation. For student papers, also includes

course number/title, instructor, and due date. Each element of byline

appears on its own line.

Byline – your name and affiliation. For student papers, also includes

course number/title, instructor, and due date. Each element of byline

appears on its own line.

Title Page Running head – a short title that

appears in all caps on every page. Left-justified in the header. Omit from student papers.

Running head – a short title that appears in all caps on every page.

Left-justified in the header. Omit from student papers.

Page number. Top right, header of every page.

Page number. Top right, header of every page.

Title. Bold, centered, 3-4 lines from top of page. Must reflect content.

Concise (1-2 lines max). Followed by a blank line.

Title. Bold, centered, 3-4 lines from top of page. Must reflect content.

Concise (1-2 lines max). Followed by a blank line.

Byline – your name and affiliation. For student papers, also includes

course number/title, instructor, and due date. Each element of byline

appears on its own line.

Byline – your name and affiliation. For student papers, also includes

course number/title, instructor, and due date. Each element of byline

appears on its own line.

PHOTO MANIPULATION AND BODY IMAGE

Title Page Running head – a short title that

appears in all caps on every page. Left-justified in the header. Omit from student papers.

Running head – a short title that appears in all caps on every page.

Left-justified in the header. Omit from student papers.

Page number. Top right, header of every page.

Page number. Top right, header of every page.

Title. Bold, centered, 3-4 lines from top of page. Must reflect content.

Concise (1-2 lines max). Followed by a blank line.

Title. Bold, centered, 3-4 lines from top of page. Must reflect content.

Concise (1-2 lines max). Followed by a blank line.

Byline – your name and affiliation. For student papers, also includes

course number/title, instructor, and due date. Each element of byline

appears on its own line.

Byline – your name and affiliation. For student papers, also includes

course number/title, instructor, and due date. Each element of byline

appears on its own line.

Author note – additional information on affiliations, contact information, acknowledgement of financial

support and other assistance, etc. Omit from student papers.

Author note – additional information on affiliations, contact information, acknowledgement of financial

support and other assistance, etc. Omit from student papers.

PHOTO MANIPULATION AND BODY IMAGE

Author note: The author thanks Jane Smith for technical assistance. This research was supported by a National Institute for Research grant NR-Q15-732811 to KN.

Main Body

• For the heading of this section you don’t write “Introduction” or “Main Body” – Instead you will write the full title of the paper (centered, bold). – The Introduction does not get any other heading to start it off. – You may use subheadings within the Introduction, however.

• Indent each paragraph • Do not use any page breaks or extra blank lines

Speaking of headings…

Level Format

1 Centered, Bold, Title Case Heading Text begins as a new paragraph.

2 Flush Left, Bold, Title Case Heading

Text begins as a new paragraph.

3 Flush Left, Bold Italic, Title Case Heading

Text begins as a new paragraph.

4 Indented, Bold, Title Case Heading, Ending With a Period. Text begins on the same line and continues as a regular paragraph.

5 Indented, Bold Italic, Title Case Heading, Ending With a Period. Text begins on the same line and continues as a regular paragraph.

apastyle.apa.org

Speaking of headings…

Level Format

1 Centered, Bold, Title Case Heading Text begins as a new paragraph.

2 Flush Left, Bold, Title Case Heading

Text begins as a new paragraph.

3 Flush Left, Bold Italic, Title Case Heading

Text begins as a new paragraph.

4 Indented, Bold, Title Case Heading, Ending With a Period. Text begins on the same line and continues as a regular paragraph.

5 Indented, Bold Italic, Title Case Heading, Ending With a Period. Text begins on the same line and continues as a regular paragraph.

Title case – when each word of a phrase is

capitalized (except minor connecting words like “in”

or “the” or “of”).

Title case – when each word of a phrase is

capitalized (except minor connecting words like “in”

or “the” or “of”).

apastyle.apa.org

References

References “References”. Bold, centered, top of

page. (Only on first page of References section.)

“References”. Bold, centered, top of page. (Only on first page of

References section.)

References “References”. Bold, centered, top of

page. (Only on first page of References section.)

“References”. Bold, centered, top of page. (Only on first page of

References section.)

The references themselves. Alphabetize by first author’s last

name. Do not number references!

The references themselves. Alphabetize by first author’s last

name. Do not number references!

References “References”. Bold, centered, top of

page. (Only on first page of References section.)

“References”. Bold, centered, top of page. (Only on first page of

References section.)

The references themselves. Alphabetize by first author’s last

name. Do not number references!

The references themselves. Alphabetize by first author’s last

name. Do not number references!

Each reference uses a hanging indent (first line is flush left, other

lines are indented).

Each reference uses a hanging indent (first line is flush left, other

lines are indented).

References “References”. Bold, centered, top of

page. (Only on first page of References section.)

“References”. Bold, centered, top of page. (Only on first page of

References section.)

The references themselves. Alphabetize by first author’s last

name. Do not number references!

The references themselves. Alphabetize by first author’s last

name. Do not number references!

Each reference uses a hanging indent (first line is flush left, other

lines are indented).

Each reference uses a hanging indent (first line is flush left, other

lines are indented).

Still double spaced. No extra blank lines between references.

Still double spaced. No extra blank lines between references.

References “References”. Bold, centered, top of

page. (Only on first page of References section.)

“References”. Bold, centered, top of page. (Only on first page of

References section.)

The references themselves. Alphabetize by first author’s last

name. Do not number references!

The references themselves. Alphabetize by first author’s last

name. Do not number references!

Each reference uses a hanging indent (first line is flush left, other

lines are indented).

Each reference uses a hanging indent (first line is flush left, other

lines are indented).

Still double spaced. No extra blank lines between references.

Still double spaced. No extra blank lines between references.

Can continue for as many pages as needed!

Can continue for as many pages as needed!

References Page number. Top right, header of

every page. So, still here in the References!

Page number. Top right, header of every page. So, still here in the

References!

“References”. Bold, centered, top of page. (Only on first page of

References section.)

“References”. Bold, centered, top of page. (Only on first page of

References section.)

The references themselves. Alphabetize by first author’s last

name. Do not number references!

The references themselves. Alphabetize by first author’s last

name. Do not number references!

Each reference uses a hanging indent (first line is flush left, other

lines are indented).

Each reference uses a hanging indent (first line is flush left, other

lines are indented).

Still double spaced. No extra blank lines between references.

Still double spaced. No extra blank lines between references.

Can continue for as many pages as needed!

Can continue for as many pages as needed!

References: The Basics

• Different kinds of titles are written differently – “Sentence case”: Capitalize only the first letter of the first word of

an article title and subtitle, the first word after a colon or a dash in the title, and proper nouns.

– “Title case”: Capitalize All Major Words of the Text.

• When to use each type of case: – Book titles: Should be in Italicized Font with Title Case (Capitalized

Words) – Article titles: Have no italics, but use sentence case. – Journal titles: Capitalize and Italicize All Major Words in the Title

of a Journal (just like a book)

• Handling volume numbers: – In italics – this is effectively part of the title of the journal

Reference Examples: Articles

Author, A.A., Author, B.B., & Author, C.C. (year). Title of the article. Title of the Journal, v(i), pp-pp. https://insert.doi/here

Malcolm, G. L. & Shomstein, S. (2015). Object-based attention in real-world scenes. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 144(2), 257-263. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000060

Reference Examples: Articles

Author, A.A., Author, B.B., & Author, C.C. (year). Title of the article. Title of the Journal, v(i), pp-pp. https://insert.doi/here

Malcolm, G. L. & Shomstein, S. (2015). Object-based attention in real-world scenes. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 144(2), 257-263. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000060

Volume. Italicize this!

Volume. Italicize this!

Issue. Do not italicize this.

Issue. Do not italicize this.

Reference Examples: Books

Author, A.A. & Author, B.B. (year). Title of the work. Publisher. https://if.available/doi

Triandis, H. C. & Smith, G.F. (1995). Individualism and collectivism. Westview Press.

• Identify a type source: Is it a book? A journal article? A webpage? – IMPORTANT NOTE: When you download a PDF of a journal article, cite

as a journal article, NOT as a webpage

• Find a sample of citing this type of source in the textbook, a published article, or the APA manual. (Be sure sample uses current APA Style – 7th edition!) – Look at Lab Manual for guidance (extensive guidance: pp. 26 – 32) – Can also look at Purdue OWL website – Can also look at UH PSYC 2301 Library Research Guide

• “Mirror” the sample. • Make sure that the entries are listed in alphabetical order and the

subsequent lines are indented.

APA is a complex system of citation, which is difficult to keep in mind. When compiling the reference list, the

strategy below might be useful:

In-text citations: Two choices

• Whenever you refer to ideas or findings that are originally from another researcher, you MUST cite your source.

• Include the author’s name and the date of publication • For quotations and close paraphrases, provide a page

number as well 🡨 refrain from using quotes too much • Two types of citations:

• Narrative citation: Lonsbary (2002) found that conversation increases empathy.

• Parenthetical citation: Engaging in conversation increases empathy (Lonsbary, 2002).

In-text citations: Signal words

• Acquiring a rich repertoire of signal words and phrases is the key to success in representing others’ ideas in academic writing.

• Signal phrases are key to introducing quotations: – According to Smith (2010), “……” (p.2).

– Smith (2010) argues that “……” (p.2).

• Such signal words are also useful for introducing other references to published work

• Use such signal verbs as: – acknowledge, contend, maintain, respond, report, argue,

conclude, etc..

In-text Citations: Two or more works

• When the parenthetical citation includes two or more works, order the works alphabetically by the first author’s name, add the year of publication, then separate by a semi-colon. – OCD is typically treated with anti-anxiety medication

(Kachru, 2005; Smith, 2008).

– Despite the controversy, many physicians continue to prescribe Drug A (Capuozzo & Wickham, 2011; Sady, 2010).

In-text Citations: A work with two authors

• When citing a work with two authors, use “and” in between authors’ name in the signal phrase, but use “&” between their names in parenthesis. – According to feminist researchers Raitt and Tate (1997), “It

is no longer true to claim that women's responses to the war have been ignored” (p. 2).

– Some feminists researchers question that “women's responses to the war have been ignored” (Raitt & Tate, 1997, p. 2).

In-text Citations: 3 or more authors

• When citing a work with three or more authors, identify the first author’s name followed by “et al.” – Smith et al. (2006) maintained that….

– ….. (Smith et al., 2006)

– notice that there is not a comma between the author’s name and “et al.”

– “et al.”; short for et alia; means “and others” in Latin

APA uses a complex system of citations, and it can be challenging to

follow all the “rules.” Here’s some advice for putting together your

reference list.

APA advice

• First step: Identify what type of source you are looking at • Is it a book? A journal article?

• Find an example of the type of citation you need and mirror it

• For example, look at the APA manual (or the websites listed later in this presentation)

• Quick checklist: • Are my references in alphabetical order? • Did I use a hanging indention? • Double spaced, Consistent font?

Resources to help you with apa

• Websites

• http://owl.english.purdue.edu (Purdue Online Writing Lab)

• http://www.apastyle.org (APA)

• UH Writing Center

• Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 7th edition

• Make sure everything is in the 7th edition format